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Technical Instruction. 



SPECIAL REPORT 



OF THE 



Commissioner OF Educatioi^. 



HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, Janaaiy 19th, 1870. 



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Scientific and Industrial Education : an Account of Systems, 
Institutions, and Courses of Instruction in the Principles of Sci- 
ence ai>[)lied to the Arts of Peace and War in different Countries. 

SPECIAL REPORT OF THE CO.MMIS'^IOXER OF EDUCATIOIV, 1869. 

OONTEInTS. 

Page. 

Introduction, 17—32 

Progressive De%'eloj)ment of Scliools and Practicii! Courses of Instruction in Science, 17 

1. Government Institutions for Military and other Public Services, 19 

2. Royiil and Privileged Academies of Science and Art, 21 

3. Ueiilistic, Scientific, and Technical Museums, Schools, Classes, Laboratories, and 

Workshops devoted to National Industrie*;, 23 

PART I. Systems and Institutions of Special and Technical Instruction, ..33—800 

L AUSTRIA. 

Intkoduction, 33 

Population and National Industries, 33 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 34 

System and Institutions of Special Instruction, 35 

Progressive Development of the System, 35 

1. Industrial Element in Common Schools, 35 

2. Sunday Improvement-Schools, 35 

3. Burgher Schools, 3(5 

4. Real Schools, 30 

.5. Polytechnic Schools, 37 

G. Sijecial Academies and Institutions, 38 

Technical and Special Schools, 39 

1. Elementary Improvement and Supplementary Schools, 39 

(1.) Apprentice and Workmen's School at Vienna, 39 

•^ (2.) Manufacturers' and Trade School at Prague, 41 

(3.) Mechanics' and Weaving School at Brunn 42 

2. Higlier Mechanic and Trade Schools, 43 

(1.) Municipal Practical School in Vienna, 43 

(2.) Provincial Practical School at Prague, 44 

(3.) Imperial Practical School in Vienna, 45 

3. Polytechnic Institutions, 46 

(10 Polytechnic Institute at Prague, 47 

General Programme of Instruction, fommcn to all pupils, 47 

Division A. — Bridges and Roads, 48 

Division B. — Architecture and Civil Constructions 48 

Division C. — Construction of Machines,. 49 

Division D. — Technological Chemistry, 49 

(2). Polytechnic Institute at Vienna, ."iO 

Historical Development, , 50 

Organization and Condition in 1836, 51 

New Organization and Condition in 1868, 53 

Subjects, and Extent of Examination for Admission in 1867, .53 

Subjects taught and their Distribution into Courses, 57 

Preparatory Division, 57 

Division I — Bridges and Roads, 58 

Division II — Architecture and Construction, 58 

Division HI — Mechanicians 59 

Division IV — Chemistry and its Application to the Arts, .59 

4. Comparative View of Austrian and other Polytechnic Schools 61 

(1.) Date — Location — Divisions or Schools — Professors — Pupils, 61 

(2.) General Organization as to Subjects and Courses, 62 

(3.) Preparatory Instruction 03 

(4.) Mechanics — Theory and Practice ofJVTachine-building — Workshops, 65 

(5.) Building and Architecture — Models and Modeling 08 

(6.) Construction of Roads and Bridges 09 

(7.) Chemistry and Chemical Technology 70 

(8.) Board of Direction— Faculty— Director, 70 

(9.) Classification of Pupils — Admission — Tuititm — Discipline, "73 

5. Special Schools and Instruction in Agriculture and Rural Affairs, 75 

(I.) Superior Schools at Krumman, Graetz, and Altenburg, 75 

(2.) Intermediate Schools at Frossau, 75 

(3.) Lower School, 75 

(4.) Special Departments — Raising Bees, 75 

6. Schools of Forestry, 70 

(1.) Superior Forest Academies, 70 

Imperial Forest Academy at Mariabrunn, 70 

(2.) Intermediate Schools at Wiesevvasser, Aussen and Kreutz, 70 

(3.) Lower Forest Schools at Pibram 70 



8 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 

Page. 

7. Schools of Commerce, 77 

(1.) Academy of Commerce nt Vienna, 77 

(2.) Academy of Commerce at Prague, 78 

(3.) Academy of Commerce at Pesth, 78 

8. Schools of Mines and Miners at Schemnitz and Leoben, 79 

9. Schools of Navigation, '. 78 

10. Schools of Art, Drawing, and Music, 79 

11. Special Professional Schools for Women, 80 

n. BADEN. 

Introduction, . 81 

Population — National Industries, 81 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, » .82 

System and Institutions of Special Instruction, 83 

1. Polytechnic School at Carlsruhe, 83 

(1.) General Scientific Studies, 84 

(2.) Civil Engineers 84 

(3.) Builders 85 

(4.) Foresters, 87 

(5.) Analytic Chemists, .' 88 

(6.) Machinists, 88 

(7.) Merchants, 89 

(8.) Post and other Public Officers, 89 

Management, Building, Laboratories, &c., 90 

2. Trade Schools, 91 

(1.) Trade School for Apprentices in Baden, 91 

(2.) School for Watch and Clockmaking at Furt wangen, 92 

(3.) Worksho])s for Practical Improvement at Furtwangen, 93 

(4.) School of Straw-plaiting, 95 

3. Schools of Agriculture and Rural Economy, 95 

(1.) Agricultural School at Hochburg, 95 

(2.) Agriculture in Common Schools, 95 

4. Military Schools, 95 

School of Cadets, 96 

5. Normal School for Teachers of Gymnastics, 95 

m. BAVARIA. 

Introduction 97 

Population and National Industries, 97 

General System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 97 

System and Institutions of Technical Education 101 

Historical Development of the System, 101 

Existing Organization, 103 

1. Trade-schools — Mechanical, Commercial, Agricultural,.. ■ 105 

2. Real-Gymnasium in Provincial Towns, 106 

3. Central Polytechnic School, 107 

General Scientific Course of two years, 107 

Special Divisions or Scliools, 108 

(1.) Architecture and Building, 108 

(2.) Mechanical Engineering, ". 109 

(3.) Technical Chemistry, 109 

(4.) Commerce, 110 

Institutions and Classes of Special Instruction, Ill 

1. Sunday and Holiday Improvement Schools, ;. Ill 

1. Sunday Technical School at Nuremberg, 112 

2. Sunday and Holiday Scliools in Munich, 112 

a. Central Holiday School for boys, 112 

b. Journeymen's School 113 

c. Handicrafts School, 113 

3. Female Holiday Schools 113 

a. Central Holiday School, 114 

*. Parish Holiday Schools, 114 

2. Higher Trade Schools,' <f. 114 

3. District Trade School at Nuremberg, 114 

1. Regular Course of three years,. ..■ 114 

2. Sunday School for Artisans 115 

3. Elementary Drawing School, - 115 

4. Higher Trade School at Passau 115 

a. Commercial Division of Trade School, 115 

b. Higher Improvement School, 116 

c. Weaving School, 116 

5. Higher Trade School at Miindeberg, 116 

1. Weaving School 116 

2. Sunday Technical School 116 

6. Wood-carving School at Berchtesgaden, 116 

7. Royal School of Machinery at Augsburg, 117 

Workshop for Model-making, 117 

8. Polytechnic School at Munich, 118 



SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 9 

Page. 

9. Schools of the Fine Arts, and of Drawing « 119 

J. Roynl Academy of Fine Arts in Munich, '. 119 

School of Instruction in Art, ". 120 

Government Appropriations to Art, I'iU 

Union of Art luid Trades, 120 

2. Roynl School of the Arts applied to Industrial Productions at Nuremberg, 121 

3. Special School of Industrial Drawing at Nuremberg, 121 

4. Official Programme for Instruction in Drawing in Technical Schools 122 

1. Trade Schools ". 122 

2. Agricultural Schools, 12:^ 

3. Real Schools 123 

5. Instruction in Drawing in Common Schools, 123 

10. Special Instruction in Music 124 

1. Musical Requirements of Primary School, 124 

2. Programme of Instruction in Teachers' Seminaries, 125 

3. Royal School of Music in Wurzburg, 126 

4. Royal Conservatory of Music, 126 

11. Schools and Instruction in Agriculture and Rural Affairs, 127 

1. Central High School of Agriculture at VVeihenstephan, 127 

2. Agricultural School at Lichtenhof, 132 

3. School of Practical Farming at Scldeissheim 133 

4. School of Forestry ' ^ 135 

12. Special Instruction for Women, 136 

IV. BRUNSWICK. 

Introduction, 137 

Population and National Industries, 137 

General System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 137 

Systkm and Institutions of Special Instruction 137 

1. Polytechnic School at Brunswick, 137 

Special Schools, 137 

(1.) Construction of Machines, 138 

(2.) Civil Engineering, Construction, and ATchitecture, 139 

(3.) Mines and Mining, 141 

.r (4.) Technical Chemistry. 142 

(5.) Pharmaceutical Chemistry, 142 

(6.) Forest Economy, 143 

(7.) Agriculture, 144 

(8.) Railways and Roads 145 

(9.) Government Surveys, 145 

2. Builders' School at Holzminden, 147 

V. FREE CITIES OF GERMANY. 

L HAMBURG, 149 

Introduction, 149 

Population, ; 149 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction 149 

System and Institutions of Special Instruction, 150 

1. Trade School, 150 

2. Winter School for Building Trades, 150 

3. Plan for a System of Technical li.struction, 151 

4. Navigation Schools, 156 

5. Music in Public Schools, 156 

n. FRANKFORT 157 

Introduction, 157 

Population, 157 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction 157 

Institutions of Special Instruction 158 

1. Trade School, 158 

2. School of Commerce, 1 50 

m. LUBECK JOG 

Introduction, 160 

Population 160 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, ICO 

Institutions of Special Instruction, 160 

Trade School at Lubeck 160 

IV. BREMEN, 161 

Introduction, 161 

Population 161 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 161 

Institutions of Special Instruction, 162 

VI. HANOVER. 

Introduction, 163 

Population 163 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 163 

System and Institutions of Special Instruction, 164 

1. Improvement Schools for Apprentices, ,....' 164 



IQ SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 

Pagk. 

Artisan School at Hanover, j ]64 

Workmen's Society Classes, 164 

Commercinl School, 184 

Building Trucles Schools at Nienberg, 164 

2. Polytechnic School at Hanover, 165 

Programme for Preparatory School, 166 

Programme for Polytechnic School 166 

1. Chemists, 166 

2. Agriculturists, 166 

3. Surveyors 166 

4. Mechanicians, , . 107 

5. Architects, 167 

6. Civil Engineers, 167 

Distribution of Students, 168 

Vn. HESSE-CASSEL. 

Introduction 169 

Population 169 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 169 

Institutions of Special Instruction, 169 

Vni. HESSE-DARMSTADT. 

Introduction 170, 

Population, 170 

System and Statistics of Public Tnsfructiiin , 170 

Institutions of Special Instruction, 170 

IX. MECKLENBERG. 

Introduction, • 171 

Population, J71 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 171 

Institutions of Special Instruction, 171 

X. NASSAU. 

Introduction, ! 172 

Population, 172 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 172 

Institutions of Special Instruction 172 

1. Industrial Schools of the Gewerbe-Verein, 173 

System of Apprenticeship 173 

2. Agricultural Institute at Geisberg 175 

XI. OLDENBURG. 

Introduction, 176 

Population, 176 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 170 

Institutions of Special Instruction, 176 

Xir. PRUSSIA. 

Introduction, 177 

Population, 177 

System and Statistics of Puhiic Instrnrtion 179 

System and Institutions of Special Instruction, .'. . 181 

Sunday and Further Improvement Schools 181 

Real and Bursrher Schools, 181 

Special Technical Schools, 182 

Trade Schools, 1H3 

1. General Scientific Instruction, 184 

2. Special Schools, 185 

Institutions of Technical fn^tri/ction, 187 

1. Sunday trade School nt Konigsberir. 187 

2. Workingmen's Union Schools nt Berlin .. 187 

3. Provincial Trade School nt Dantzic, 189 

4. Royal Real School at Berlin, 191 

5. City Trade School at Berlin, 192 

6. Royal Trade Academy at Berlin, 192 

Organization and Condij;ion in 18^7 192 

Reorganizntion nnd Condition in 1867 197 

(1.) General Technological Department, 198 

(2.) Special Tcchni^logical Section, 198 

a. M'-chanicians 198 

b. Chemists and Smelters, 199 

c. Ship-builders 199 

7. School of Industrial Drawing, 200 

8. Royal Arndemy of Architecture, 201 

9. Building School nt Berlin 202 

JO. Superior Weaving School at Elberfeki, 203 



SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS. n 

Pack. 

11. Instruction in Agriculture and Rural Economy, 2U.'> 

System— Cliissificaf ion of Schools— Collections of Tools, ice, i-'Oo 

1. Intermediate Agricultural School at Aunaberg, 205 

2. Superior Institutes of Agriculture , '20(5 

(1.) Agricultural Academy at Moglin, established by Thner 2<J»» 

(2.j Royal Agricultural Academy at Poppelsdorf, 207 

Object, and Course of Instruction, 207 

I. Studies connected with Funning 2L8 

A. Soils — Manures — Drainage — Implements — Crops 20S 

B. Breeding of Animals, 2( 8 

C. Theory of Farming — Systems — Accoimts, 210 

D. History and Literature of Agriculture 2J0 

II, Forest Economy — Culture — Protection — Game 211 

HL Natural Philosophy and History, 2 1 

Chemistry — Physics — Mineralogy and Geology 2i3 

Botany— Physiologv and LMseases of Plants 2i2 

Zoiilogy, . . ." ". 213 

VL Mathematics 213 

Practical Geometr}- — Surveying — Mechanics 213 

V. Political Ecimomy 213 

VI. Jurisjjrudence relating to Land, .^ 213 

VII. Veterinary Science, 214 

Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic Animals, 214 

Disorders and their Treatment, 214 

Shoeing and Tending, 214 

Vm. Architecture 214 

Materials and Art of Construction for Farming Purposes 214 

IX. Technology, ' .* 214 

Materials for fuel, light, brewing, 214 

Visit to School by Secretary of ^Massachusetts Board of Agriculture,. ........... 215 

3. Royal Academy of Agriculture at Eldena, 216 

4. Agricultural Academy at Proskau 217 

5. Superior Institute of Agriculture at Regenwalde, 217 

6. School of Horticulture nt Potsdam, 217 

7. Superior S|)eLi il School of Forestry at Neustadt and Eberswiild, 217 

•^ 8. Veterinary School at Berlin 218 

12. Schools of Commerce and Navigation, 219 

1. Superior School of Commerce nt Berlin 219 

2. Commercial and Industrial School for AVomen at Berlin, 219 

3. Schools of Navigation, 220 

13. School of Mines and Mining 221 

1. Mining Academy at Berlin 221 

2. School of Practical Mining at Bochum, 221 

14. Instruction in Drawing, 223 

1. Ministerial Programme of Instruction in Drawing, 223 

For Gymnasiums 223 

For Trade Schools 224 

Schmidt's, and Dubuis's method, 226 

2. Plans and Suggestions for Drawing in Common Schools, 227 

15. Hints and Methods for Teaching Music in Common Schools, 249 

16. New Chemical Laboratories for Instruction and Original Research, 279 

1. Bonn 279 

2. Berlin, 283 

17. Aquarium at Berlin, 286 

XIII. SAXONY. 

Introduction, 287 

Population, and National Industries 287 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 287 

Institutions of Special Instruction, 289 

1. Real Schools, , 289 

2. Commercial Schools, 291 

1. Public Commercial Schools at Leipsic, Chemnitz, and Dresden, 291 

2. Commercial Schools for Apprentices and Clerks, 292 

3. Commercial School for Young Women, 293 

3. Polytechnic School at Dresden, 294 

Organization of Studies, 295 

A. Mechanical Engineering . . 296 

B. Civil Engineering T 29G 

C. Chemistry— General and Technical, 297 

D. Training of Teachers of Scientific and Technical Schoo's, 297 

Stenogratihy — Stone-cuttins, 297 

E. Modeling and Ornamental Drawing School 218 

4. Higher Industrial School nt Chemnitz 299 

A. Mechanical Engineering and Construction 299 

B. Chemical Technoloffv ; ?00 

C. Agriculture and Rural Affairs, 300 

Royal Workmasters' School 302 

Architectural School for Masons and Carpenters .303 

5. Higher Weaving School at Chemnitz, ?.Vo 



12 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 

Page. 

6. Academy of Forestry at Tharand, 307 

Historical Development, 308 

Course of Studies in Agriculture, 310 

Course of Studies in Forestry, 311 

Government grant in aid of Agriculture, 307 

7. Agricultural Academy in Plagwitz, 313 

Course of Studies, 313 

8. Mining Academy at Freiburg, 318 

Historical Development, 314 

Plan of Studies, 316 

State Examination for Miners, Machinists, and Metallurgists, 317 

9. School of Practical Miners at Freiburg, 318 

School of Coal Miners at Zwickau, 319 

10. Stenographic Institution at Dresden, 319 

11. Normal School for Teachers of Gymnastics, 321 

12. Supplementary Schools for Apprentices and Adults,. 323 

(1.) Sunday Schools— General and Special, 323 

(2.) Evening Schools 32.5 

(3.) Commercial Schools in twelve large towns, 325 

(4.) Ornamental Drawing School at Chemnitz and Seiffen. 325 

(5.) Industrial School at Dresden 325 

(6.) Workingmen's Association Schocls, 325 

(7.) Mining Schools at Freiburg, Zwickau, and Altenburg, 325 

(8.) Nautical Schools for Pilots, &c 325 

(9.) Music Schools in connection with factories of musical instruments, 325 

(10.) Weaving Schools, 325 

(11.) Fringe-making School at Annaberg 326 

(12.) The* Mode, or the Dress-cutting .Academy, 326 

(13.) Spinning Schools in Lusatia, 326 

(14.) Straw- working Schools 326 

(15.) Lace-making and Embroidery Schools, 320 

13. Instruction in the Arts of Painting, Sculpture, and Engraving 326 

(1.) Royal Academy of the Fine Arts in Dresden, 327 

Academy of Arts, 327 

Architectural Academy, 329 

(2.) Academy of Arts in Leipsic, 331 

14. Instruction in Music, 332 

(1.) Conservatory of Music in Leipsic, -. ^ 332 

(2.) Conservatory of Music in Dresden, 333 

XIV. SAXE-ALTENBURG. 

Introduction, 3.33 

Population, 333 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 3.33 

Institutions of Special Instruction, 333 

XV. SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. 

Introduction, 334 

Population 334 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction 334 

Institutions of Special Instruction • 334 

XVI. SAXE-MEININGEN. 

Introduction 335 

Populntion '. . 3.35 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 335 

Institutions of Special Instruction, 335 

XVII. SAXE-WEIMAR. 

Introduction, 336 

Population .336 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 33(> 

Institutions of Special Instruction, 336 

XVIII. WURTEMBERG. 

Introduction, .337 

Population and National Industries 337 

System and Statistics of General Public Instruction, .338 

System and Statistics or Sveci.\l Instruction, 339 

1. System and Institutions of Agricidtural Education, 345 

2. Public Instruction in Drawing, 347 

Systematic Technical Education, By J. Scott Russeil, 357 

J. The Polytechnic University, 358 

, 2. College for the Building Trades 358 

3. Agriculture and Forestry Establishments, .3.59 

Technical Instruction in detail : 300 

1. Technical University in Stiittgard 300 

2. College for the Building Trades, 3G2 



SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS. jg 

Page. 

3. High Trade School :«)-i 

Organization nnd Studies, 3<)4 

I. Technical University, .■iG4 

A. Miithematiciirand Mercantile Division, ;i(>5 

B. Technical Division :)()G 

(1.) Mathematics and Mechanics, 3(i(> 

(2 ) Natural History 'MH\ 

(3.) Technology, 3fi7 

(4.) Machinery; 3(i7 

(5.) Engineering, ... SfiP 

(6.) Architecture 3(18 

Drawing and Modeling ._ 368 

Plan of Study in detail, and practice in each school, . . .' 3G9 

A. Agricultural School, 3(iy 

B. Engineers' School 3l]<) 

C. Machinery School, 3C<J 

D. Chemical School, 309 

n. College for the Building Trades :{C9 

Plan of Instruction by classes HTO 

Geometrical Class, 37 1 

HI. College of Agricnlture and Forestry, 37-3 

1. Institution in Hoheuheim, 372 

A. Agriculture and Forestry Acudemy, :»72 

B. Farming School, 373 

C. Gardening School 373 

D. Special Agricultural Courses, 373" 

(1.) Meadow lands,. . , 373 

(2.) Sheep-management, 373 

(3.) Fruit-trees 373 

(4.) Agricultural Instruction for Teaciiers ui' Public Schools .373 

E. Advice on Agricultural Matters 373 

2. Schools of Practical Farming 373 

(1.) Ellwangen ; (2.) Ochsenhausen ; (3.) Kirchberg 373 

3. Farming Schools and Classes, and Agricultural Meetings, 373 

IV. Veterinary College, , 374 

V. School of Art-workmen, 374 

Vir Science Schools, 375 

A. Gymnasium and Lyceum, 37.5 

B. Real Schools, j 37.5 

VII. Elementary Public Schools, 37li 

VIII. Industrial Schools 37(i 

Practical Restlts of the System of Technical Education, 377 

International Lessons on Technical Education, 383 

XLX. FRA^XE. 

Introduction, 401 

Population and National Industries, 401 

General System of Public Instruction 402 

System and Institutions of Special Instruction, 403 

I. Special State Schools for the Public Service 403 

1. Polytechnic School of France 403 

2. Government Schools of Application, 421 

3. Corps and School of Civil Engineers, 422 

4. Schools of Mines and Miners, .'. 424 

II. Government Institutions in aid of Arts and Trades, 427 

1. Conservatory of Arts and Trades 439 

2. Government Schools of Arts and Trades 44.5 

1. School at Paris, 456 

2. Schools at Chalons, Angers, and A\x 4()l 

HI. Special Corporate, Communal, and Departmental Schools, 4(13 

1. Central School of Arts and Manufactures, at Paris, 463 

2. St. Nicholas Institute, at Paris 475 

3. Communal and Departmental Schools, 483 

1. La Martiniere Technical School at Lyons, 483 

2. Schools for Watchmaking, 491 

3. School of Lace-making 493 

4. School of Ribbon-designing and Weaving, 493 

5. Technical instruction at Creuzot, 494 

6. School of Weaving at Mulhouse, 496 

rV. Instruction in the Fine Arts, Drawing, and Music, 497 

1. Government Schools of the Fine Arts, 497 

(1.) School at Paris, 498 

(2.) School at Lvons, ; 500 

(3.) School at Dijon 504 

2. Instruction in Architecture and Building . . 505 

(1.; Architectural Section in School of Fine Arts, 505 

(2.) Central School of Architecture at Paris 506 

3. Instruction in Drawing applied to the Industrial Arts, 508 

(1.) Governmental School of Drawing and Ornamentation at Paris, 508 



14 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 

Page. 

^2.) School of Drawing for Women at Paris, 508 

(3.) Central Union, Museum, and College of Industrial Art, 509 

{4.) Municipal Schools of Drawing, 510 

(5.) Drawing in Public Schools, 511 

(1.) Primary Schools ; {'2.) Normal Schools.. 511 

(3.) Lyceums ; (4.) Secondary Special Schools, 512 

Rei)ort of M. Ravaisson on Drawing in Public Schools, 513 

4. Instruction in Music, 52i) 

Government Conservatory of Music and Declamation, 529 

Music in Lyceums and Secondary Special Schools, 531 

Popular Music in Public Schools of Paris •. . 532 

V. Special Schools of Commerce, • 533 

1. Sui)erior School of Commerce at Paris, 533 

2. Commercial School of Paris Chamber of Commerce, 539 

3. Co.nmercial Course in Jlunicipal Schools, 540 

Specimen of Lessons in Legislation Usuelle, 541 

VI. Special Schools and Encouragement of Agriculture 545 

Historical Development of Ai^ricultural Schools, 545 

1. General Survey of tJie System and Institutions in 1848 and I86ti, 545 

2. Agricultural School at Grignon 559 

3. AgricuUural School of Grand Jouan, 569 

4. School of Forestry at Nancy, 57 1 

5. Rural Economy in Primary Schools, 572 

G. Agriculture in Secondary Special Schools 573 

VII. Special Schools for the Mercantile and Military Marine, 577 

1. National School for Orphans of Seamen. 578 

2. Scholarships for Sailors, 579 

3. Naval Apprentice Schools, 581 

4. School for Boatswains and Uiider-Officers 581 

5. School for Naval Engineers and Stokers, .- 585 

6. Naval Drawing School, o&O 

7. Schools of Navigation and Hydrography, 587 

8. Naval School at Brest, " 590 

9. School of Naval Architecture, 592 

10. School of Marine Art.Uery, 594 

1 1. Board of Hydrography, 594 

VIII. Laboratories of Original Research, and Practical School, 595 

XX. BELGIUM. 

iNTROnUCTION, 607 

Population and National Industries, 607 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, • 608 

SvsThJM AND Institutions of Special Instruction, 609 

J. System of Technical Training, 609 

"(I.) Museum of Industry, 609 

(2.) Workshops for Apprentices, 610 

(3.) Industrial Schools 611 

2. Institutions of Special Technical Instruction, 613 

Lower Technical Schools, 614 

(1.) Industrial School at Ghent, 614 

Scientific Instruction 614 

Practical Instruction, • 614 

Distribution of Students by studies and trades, 615 

(2.) School of Mechanical Art, Woolen Manufacture, and Design, at Verviers, 613 

(3.) School of Applied Mechanics, Steam-engine, and Industrial Drawing, at Tournai, 614 

Higher Technical Instruction, , 619 

(1.) Superior School of Arts and Manufactures at Ghent, 624 

(2.) Superior School of Mines at Liege, 617 

(4.) School for Stone-cutting at Soignies, ': 617 

(5.) School for Mechanical and Building Constructions at Courtrai, 617 

(6.) School for Foremen of Manufacturing Establishments at Liege, 618 

(7.) School for Adult Workmen at Huy, 618 

(1.) University School of Arts and Mines at Liege, 619 

Preparatory School, 619 

School of Mining, 619 

School of Man ufactures, ' 620 

School of Mechanics 620 

Machine and Workshops, 620 

(2.) University School orEngineering, Maniifactures and Architecture, at Ghent, 621 

Preparatory School, 621 

School for Engineers, 621 

(3.) School of Mines at Uainault 622 

3. Schools of Commerce and Navigation, 623 

(1.) Superior School of Commerce at Antwerp, 623 

(2.) Schools of Navigation at Antwerp and Ostend, 627 

4. Agricultural Institutions and Instruction, 629 

(1.) Superior Council of Agriculture, 629 

(2.) Provincial Commissions of Agriculture, 629 

(3.) Agricultural Associations and Societies, 630 



SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS. I5 

Page. 

[4.) Educational Institutions, ii'M 

1. Stale Agricultural School at Gembloux ''•?- 

2. State Frtictical Horticultural School at Vilvorde, IjiJ.'J 

3. Slate Veteruiary School at Cureghem, (V-i-i 

4. Forestry School at Bouillon, i-.M 

5. Institutions inid Instruction in the Fine Arts, Drawing, and Music, <)'1~ 

(1.) Academies and Schools of the Fine Arts, C37 

1. Historical Development 037 

2. Present Organization, C4.') 

Official Clussification C)A') 

Supervision — Direction, '1") 

Admission — Revenues — Expenditures, < 4') 

Equipment and Museum <jt" Models < -IT 

Sul)jects and Methods of Instructio CAS 

Teachers — Pupils — Prizes, ( 5l) 

Government Aid to Art and Science in 1807, ()."):{ 

(2.) Methods of Instruction in Drawing O.'iH 

1. Elementary Instruction , (iii!) 

2. Higher Instruction, OTO 

(3.) Public Instruction in Music, G8J 

1. Conservatoire of Music in Brussels 08 J 

2. Conservatoire of Music in Liege, OHJ 

3. Conservatoire of Music in Ghent, (89 

4. Comi)etition for Prizes for Musical Composition, ( 8i) 

5. Schools and Societies of Music 08i) 

6. Music in Public Schools O'JO 

XXI. HOLLAND. 

Introdttction, c > 691 

Population, 091 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 091 

System of Special Instruction, 093 

1. Evening Burgher Schools , ()93 

Higher Burgher Schools, 093 

2. Agricyiltural Schools 094 

3. Polytechnic Schools,. 094 

Institutions of Technical Instruction, 094 

1. Higher Burgher Schools ut Maastrict, 094 

2. Agricultural School at Groningen 09,5 

3. Polytechnic School at Delft, (597 

4. School of Navigation, 098 

XXIL DENMARK. 

Introduction, C99 

Po!>nlation and National Industries, 099 

System of Public Instruction, ; 099 

Institttions and Classes of Special Instruction, 701 

1. Royal Agricultural and Veterinary School, 701 

2. Sunday Improvement Schools, 703 

3. Technical Institute at Copenhagen, 703 

XXIII. NORWAY. 

RonrcTioN 70.^ 

Pojiulation, 70.j 

Svstem and Statistics of Public Instruction TO.^S 

SvsTE.M and Schools of Special Instruction 707 

1. Royal School of Arts and Design, 707 

2. Provincial Drawing Schools, 708 

3. Technical School at Horten, 709 

4. Schixd of Mines at Kongsberg , 710 

Plan for a System of Technical Instruction, 7J0 

1. Sunday and Evening Schools, 710 

2. Technical Elementary Schools, 710 

3. Polytechnic Institute at Christiania 710 

XXIV. SWEDEN. 

Introduction, 711 

Population, •. 711 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 711 

System and Institutions of Special Instruction, 712 

1. Sunday and Evening School at Eskilstuna, 713 

2. Elementary Technical School at Norkoping, 713 

3. Industrial Schools at Stockholm and Gothenburg, 714 

4. Mining Schools at Filipstad and Fahlun 71.5 

5. Polytechnic School at Stockholm 715 

0. Chalmers' Higher Technical School at Gothenburg 716 

7. School of Naval Architecture at Carlscrona, 716 

8. Evening Schools of Art, 716 



IQ SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND SI'ECIAL SCHOOLS. 

XXV. RUSSIA. 

Page. 
Introduction, 717 

Population and National Industries, , 717 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, , '. 717 

Special Schools for the Public Service, and the Arts, 719 

1. Polytecimic School at St. Petersburg, 721 

(1.) Mechanical Section, 721 

(2.) (Chemical Section, 721 

2. Polytechnic School at Riga, 723 

(i.) Preparatory Course 724 

(2.) Course for Manufacturers, • 724 

(3.) Course for Merchants 725 

(4.) Course for Agriculturists, 724 

(.T ) Course common to Machinists, Architects, and Engineers, 725 

(0.) Special Course for Constructors of Machinery, 72G 

(7.) Course for Architects, 72G 

(8.) Special Course for Engineers, 72() 

(9.) Special Course for Surveyors, 727 

3. Schools of Mining and Miners, 727 

(1.) Higher Institution for Mining Engineers, 727 

(2.) Lower Schools of Mining, 727 

4. Commercial Academy at Moscow, 728 

5. Schools of Agriculture and Forestry, .• 728 

(1 .) Higher Agricultural Academy at Gorygoretsk, 728 

(2.) Forest Academies, 728 

G. Schools of Law, Surveying, and Topography, 728 

( J .) Imperial Law School for Government Clerks, 728 

(2.) Constantino School of Surveying, 728 

7. Schools for the Civil and Diplomatic Service, 729 

(1). School of Oriental Languages, 729 

(2.) Schools for Civil Administration 729 

8. Report of Jury of Paris International Exposition in 1867, 730 

9. Museums available and useful in Technical Instruction, 733 

XXVI. SWITZERIiAND. 

Introduction, 735 

Population, , 735 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 735 

Schools and Classes of Special Instruction, 737 

1. Technical Institute at Lausanne, ; 737 

2. Industrial School for Girls at Neuchatel, 742 

3. Industrial School for Boys at Lausanne, 742 

4. Federal Polytechnic School at Zurich, ; ; 743 

(1). Historical Development, 743 

Re|)ort of Committee of Federal Council, 1852, 743 

Law creating the Federal Polytechnic School, 744 

Regulations of Federal Council in 1869, 748 

(2.) Programme of Studies for 1856-7, , 749 

1. Architecture, 749 

2. Civil Engineering, 750 

3. Industrial Mechanics,. • 751 

4. Industrial Chemistry, 751 

5. Forestry and Rural Affairs, 752 

G. Philosophical and Political Science, 752 

(a.) Natural Sciences, i 752 

(b.) Mathematical Science, 7.52 

(c.) Literary, Moral, und Political Science 753 

(d.) Fine Arts, .752 

■ Apparotus — Laboratories — Cabinets — Methods, 754 

(3.) Programme of Studies for 18G7-8, 756 

Appendix, . . , 761 

XXVII. ITALY. 

Introduction 791 

Population 791 

System and Statistics of Public histrnction 792 

System and Institutions of Special Instruction, 793 

XXVIIL SPAIN. 

Introduction, .' 797 

Population, ; 797 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 797 

Institutions of Special Instruction, 798 

XXIX. PORTUGAL. 

Introduction, 799 

Population 799 

System and Statistics of Public Instruction, 799 

Institutions of Special Instruction, 800 

INDEX TO VOTJJME I = 801 



Natioxal Education: — An Account of Public Schools and other I nslitutious of Gen- 
eral Education in different Countries. Part I. The German Stales. 

SPECIAL REPORT OP THE U. S. COMMISSIONER OP EDUCATI0N-I869. 



CONTENTS. 



I. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. 



Introduction. 

Page. 

1. Political Development of the German States,. . Jl 

2. Educational System nnd Nomenclature, ....... 13 

ANHALT. 

Area — Population, 17 

Public Instruction, 17 

I. Anhalt-Dessau-Cothen 17 

Common Schools— Teachers' Seminary, 17 

(Jvmnasiums — Girls' High School,. 19 

Trades Schools, 19 

II. Anhalt-Bernburg, 20 

Common Schools — Teachers' Seminary, 20 

Gymnasiums — Girls' High School, 20 

AUSTRIA. 

Area — Population — Religion — Nationalities, 23 

Public Instruction in German Provinces,. . 26 

I. Elementary Schools 26 

1. Historical Development, 1621-1863, 26 

Schools of the Jesuits — Christian Brothers, 26 

Piarists — Empress Maria Theresa, 26 

Felbiger — Rabstein — Count Firmian, 27 

Board of Education — Kiiulernmnn — Felbiger,.. . 29 

Joseph II— Von Swieten— J. A. Gail 30 

Leopold II — Von Martini — Board for Regulation, 32 

Francis I — Count Rottenham, 32 

Constitution of German Common Schools in 180.5, 33 

Spendou — Ferdinand I, 34 

Francis Joseph I — Baron von Feuchtersleben, ... 36 

Concordat with the Pope, of 1855 39 

Baron von Helfert and Board of Education, 40 

2. Present System and Condition, 40 

(J) Classes or grades of Schools, 40 

(2) Denominational Character, 42 

(3) Nationality of School Interest, 42 

(4) Compulsory Attendance, 42 

(5) Support of Schools, 43 

(6) Superintendence, 44 

(7) Buildings.School-room, Residence of Teacher, 46 

(8) Teuchers-Gradation-Principuland AssistiJiits, 47 
(0) Qualification and Selection of Teachers, 47 

(iO) Salaries of'Teachers, minimum, 48 

( 1 1) Tenure of Office and Removal of Teachers,. . 50 

(i.) Pensions— Widows and Orphans of Teachers, 51 

(13) School classes, and assignment of Teachers, 51 

(14) Teachers' Conferences, 51 

( 15) Terms and Hours of Instruction, 52 

(16) Distribution of Studies, .52 

(17) Text-books and Apparatus, 52 

(18) Language of Instruction, 53 

(19) Penmanship — Arithmetic — Music — Drawing, 54 

(20) Object-teaching — Natural Objects, .54 

(21) Needlework— Orchard and Garden Culture, . . 54 

(22) Discipline — Incentives — Puni^Iiiiionts 55 

(23) Tuition Fees — Amount and how collected,.. 55 

(24) Regularity of School Attendnnce, 55 

(2.5) Examinations — Promotions of Teachers, 55 

(26) Private Schools, day and boarding, 50 



Page. 

(27) Adult Instruction, ■. . . 56 

(28) Burgher-school — h ighcsl grade of Ele. Schools, 57 

(29) Seminaries for Elementary Male Teachers,. . 58 

(30) Normal Departments for Female Teachers,.. 59 

(31) Government Publishing House, 60 

3. Statistics of Elementary Schools in 186J, 61 

Defects of the System as shown by Statistics,. . . 62 

4. Legislation of 1867-8, 66 

II. Secondary Schools, 67 

1. History of the Gymnasium, 1577-Jbul, 67 

Aquaviva and the Ratio Studiorum, 67 

Jacobus Strabo and Petrus Codiciilus, 67 

Gymnasiums of the Jesuits — Piarists, 68 

Joseph I — Maria Tiieresa — Gerhnrd von Swieten, 69 

State Board of Education — ?i!'rtini — Marx, 70 

Joseph II — Hess — Teachers' Association 71 

Leopold II-Board of Educational f?efi:irm in 1795, 73 

Gymnasial Code of 1808, 74 

Plan of Rporganization of Gymn.-isiums, 1849,... 79 
Vernacular and Classical languages, 81 

2. Present Organization, 82 

(1) Complete and Incomplete — l^.inguage, 82 

(2) Supervision — Central find Provincial, 82 

(3) Grades and Duties of Teachers 83 

(4) Appointment, Salaries, and Pensions 84 

(5) Branches and Plan of Inslruclion, 85 

Latin — Greek — German language 86 

Geogra^ihy and Historj' — iNlathemutics, 88 

Natural History— Plivsirs— Philosophy, 89 

Religion — Music — Drawing — Stenography,.. 90 

(6) Text-books — Apparatus — Libraries, 90 

(7) Terms — Vacations— Admission — Tuition, . . 90 

(8) Discipline — Incentives — Punishments, 91 

(9) Examinations — Pronmtions, 91 

(10) Maturity or Leaving Examination, 92 

(11) Private Schools, and Private Students, 93 

(12) Training a,nd Examination of Teachers 93 

(13) Funds and Expense of Gymnasial Instruction, 94 

3. Statistics and Results of Secondary Schools, ... 95 
HI. Real-Schools, 98 

1. Historical Development, 1745-1861 98 

2. Present Organization atid Condition, 101 

(1) Classification — Complete and lower, 101 

(2) Language of the Majority of Pupils used,.. 10.1 

(3) Teachers— grades, appointments, privileges,.. J02 

(4) Studies— Obligatory and optional, 103 

(5) Practical Course of one year, , 103 

(6) Funds and Expenses, . . .' 105 

(7) Sunday and Evening Schools, 105 

3. Statistics and Results J 05 

IV. Public Instruction in Hungary and 
other non-German States, 107 

1. Hungary, 107 

2. Transylvania 112 

3. Croatia, 118 . 

V. Legislation of 1867-8, 120 

BADEX. 

Area — Population — History, 121 

Public Instruction, 122 

Historical Development, 122 



2 



PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY. 



Page. 

I. Common or Elementary Schools, 122 

Obligatory School-attendance of Children, 122 

Duty of Parishes and Communes, 123 

Supervision and Inspection, 125 

Statistics and llesnUs, 127 

Summary of Laws and Regulations, 127 

School Authorities— School Attendance, 128 

Studies and Internal Organization, 128 

Plan of Instruction — Division of Time, 12i) 

Evening, Sunday, and Factory Schools, I'M 

Teachers — their Training, Conferences, Salaries, 133 

Legislation and Statistics of IBOU, 135 

II. Secondary Schools, l-'Jo 

Classification— Classical, and Burgher, 135 

Management — High School Council, 136 

Lyceum — Gymnasium — Preparatory, 137 

Admission— Obligatory Studies 138 

Distribution of Studies by Hours, 139 

ReUgion — Devotional E.Kercises, 140 

Latin — Greek — French -German, 141 

History — Geography — Mathematics, 143 

Philosophy — Singing — Drawing, 145 

Books of Reference 145 

Rank of Pupils — Classification 14(5 

Discipline — Incentives — Penalties, 146 

Terms — Vacations — Daily routine, 147 

Titles— Professors — Special teachers, 148 

Philological Seminaries for Teachers of Gymnasia, 148 

III. Real Schools 149 

Higher Bumher-schools 149 

Gewerbeschulen, 151 

IV. Higher Institutions for Girls, 152 

Conventual — Municipal — Private, 152 

V. Orphan AND other Special Institutions, 153 
Astor Home for Neglected Children, 154 

BAVARIA. 

Area — Population — Religion — Government, 157 

Public Instruction 158 

I. Primary OK ('i)MMON Schools, 158 

1. Reorganizntion since 1802, 158 

2. Present Organization 160 

School Attendance — Parents and Communes,... 161 
School-hours — Resilience and salary of Teachers, 161 

Inspection — Lo al, Provincial, and State, 163 

Four Circle Inspections— City School Inspection, 163 
Rehitions of the Clergy to the Public Sclioi Is 165 

3. Number of Schools, Pupils, Teachers, 166 

Daily routine — Results as to Illiteracy, 167 

4. Internal Organization 168 

Tnjle Classification, and Subdivisions, 168 

Studies, and their Distribution, 168 

(1) Religion— Catechism, 169 

(2) Biblical H istory 169 

(3) Memorizing — Texts— Hymns, 169 

(4) Reading, ". 169 

(r-t) Penmanship I<i9 

(6) Dictation Exercises, 169 

(7) Business Forms, 169 

(8) Arithmetic, 169 

(9) Geography and History, 170 

( 10) Singing 170 

(11) Drawing, besides Special Drawing Schools,.. 170 

Industrial Classes, 170 

Methods of Instruction 171 

Devotional E.xercise — Conduct in th^ Streets,. . . 171 

Discipline — Incentives — Penalties, 171 

Sunday-schools— Separation of Sexes, 172 

5. Teachers — their Training, 172 

Legal Designation — Provisions for Training, 172 

Preliminarv, Seminary, and Pal-graduate Course, 173 

Teachers' Seminnry— School of Practice 173 

Teachers' Conferences, Assuciati(in<:, Periodical^, 174 

Appointment. Suspension, and Dismissal, 174 

Salaries, I'ensions, Widows' and Orphans' Funds, 175 

Emeriti Teachers 176 

Female Teachers. 176 



Page. 

II. Secondary Schools 17G 

1. High Schools for Girls, 176 

Stetten Institution — Maximilian Foundation,. . . Vi6 

English Ladies' School — Conventual Schools,. . . 177 

Course (»f Instruction — Tenchers — Methods, 178 

2. Gymnasia and Classical Schco'.s, 179 

Earlv Character — Later Aims 179 

Plan'of Organization in 1804 and 18U8, 179 

Modification in 1810, 1830, 1841, 180 

Private teaching, 181 

Number— Conlessioiuil Character — lnc(jme, 182 

Preparatory Schcols — Iso'ated Latin Schocds,.., 184 

Admission — Age — Attainments 185 

Studies, and Distribution by hours in the week,. 185 

Obligatory and Optional Stud es, 185 

Religious Instruction — Devotional Exercises, 186 

Latm— Books— Composition .^ JP7 

Greek — Hebrew — French — Gerinan .' l('(i 

History — Geogra[)hy — Natural History 189 

Mathematics— Physics— Natural Philosophy, 189 

Gymnastics — Private Studies — Librarj', IW 

Class-teaching— Incentives— Behavior and Habits, 191 

School-year — Public Examinations, J9J 

Teachers, Seminaries Jbr, in the L^iiversities,. . . 192 

Appointment — Salaries — Increase 193 

Pensions — Widows' and Or])hans' Fund 193 

3. Real Schools, 193 

Earliest in 1808— Parallel Courses 193 

Institutions of Technical Instruction in J829,... 194 

(1) Agricultural Gymnasiums 195 

(2) Polytechnic School, li»5 

(3) Final course in carpentry, mining, forestry, &C.195 

(4) Higher education in Agriculture , 195 

(5) Fine Arts and Civil Architecture-, 195 

Distribution of Studies in Mechanical School,. . 196 

Distribution of Studies in Agricultural School,. . 196 

Teachers for Technological Schools, 197 

Training and Appointment,. 198 

Supervision — Attendance — Ex|)eiises, 199 

Text-books — School-year— Examination— Prizes, 201 

IV. Special In.«titutioxs, 204 

Cradle and Infant Scl ool 204 

Rescue Institutions, 205 

BRUNSW^ICK. 

Area— Population, 207 

History of Schools and School Legislation, 207 

System of Public Instruction, 209 

I. Primary School?, 209 

School Age — Duty of Parishes, imd pf Parents,.. . 2;/'J 

Superintendence, local and general 211 

Internal Arrangement of the Schools, 211 

City and Villaije School.s— Studies and Classes,... 212 

Teachers — tli< ir Professional Training 213 

Ml nthlv Record — Teachers' Conference's, 2i:? 

General Teachers' Association, 21; 

i Exiimination^-Appoi itment-Promotion-Pensions. 211 

j Teachers' Mutual Life Insurance Coiii|):itiy Hi- 

Widows' and Orphans' Fund, _ •'> 

Private Schools, -J .1 

II. Orphan and Rescue Houses 
ITT. Secondary Schools 

liilian College — Caroline College, 



Gyninasinl System— Superintendence — Pupils, 
Course of Instruction 



210 
216 

':] ; 

2J (' 
217 



HANOVER. 
Area— Populition— Religion— Government, 

I. Primary Schools, 

1. School Legislation 

German Writing and Cvpliering Snhoo's 

Ordinance of 1650— 1684— 1736— 1752— 1845,. . 

First Seminary for Teachers in 1751, 

Normal Schools in 18.57, 

2. Present School L:uv., 

Duty of Parents and Guardians of Children 

Duty of Parishes to establish and support School, 



219 
221 
221 
221 
222 
223 
22.> 
227 



PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY. 



3 



Page. 
Local anil General Supervision, 228 

3. School Statistics of 1855 228 

Scliools— Pupils— Teachers— Salaries, 229 

4. Timer Organization, 229 

Gradation — Sexes— Subjects — Daily Routine,... 229 
Monthly Record Book — Fines exacted of Parents, 230 

5. Teachers — Candidates and their Training, .... 2iJ0 
Examination—Location— Suspension— Assistants, 231 

Teachers' Associations — Reading Clubs 232 

Pensions — Widow and Orplian Funds, 232 

G. Higher Female Schools, 232 

7. Special Schools 233 

Blind — Deaf-mutes — Imbeciles — Orphans, &c.,.. 233 

If. SECONDARY Schools, 234 

1. Historical Development from 783 to 1858 234 

SciioJBP Grecae et Latinac, 786— Schola; Majores, 234 

Latin Schools of 1528, 1546, 1586 236 

Seminary for Gymnasial Teaciiers in 1737, 238 

Labors of Ernest i and Gesner, 238 

Study of Latin and Greek, 239 

Influence of University and Teachers' Seminary, 240 
Memorable words of Heyne 241 

2. Existing Organization 241 

(1) Final examination of Gymnasial Students,.. 242 

(2) Sujjreme Board of Instruction, 244 

3. Preparation of Teachers — Normal Seminary,.. 245 
Mathematical and Physical Seminary, 246 

4. Local School Authorities, 246 

Governmental and Municipal Board— Board of 

Instruction, 246 

Director— Ordinary or Class-teacher — Associate,. 246 

5. Endowment, and annual State stipend 247 

in. Statistics, 247 

Gymnasiums — Pro-gymnasiums— Lyceums, 247 

Latin Sclfool, 247 

Real Schools -Higher Burgher Schools,. 248 

Real classes in Gymnasiums, 248 

Teachers and Students— Income and Expenses,. . 248 

IV. Inner Organization, 249 

Course of Instruction — Condition of Admission,.. 249 
Devotional Exercises — Ueligious Instruction, .... 250 
Latin— Greek — Hebrew— French — English — Ger- 
man, 252 

History — Geography — Natural History, 2.52 

Mathematics — Natural Philosophy, ' 2.55 

I\Iusic — Drawing — Gymnastics, . ". 256 

Lessons in Gymnasium, and Real Clas.s, 257 

Progymnasiu'm and Real School 257 

Study out of School-hours — Libraries of Reference, 257 

2. Discipline — Incentives and Penalties, 258 

Personal Influence of Teacher — Ordinary Routine, 258 

3. Vacations — Final and Class Examinations and 

Exhibitions, 259 

V. Teachers, 259 

Grades and Titles, 2.59 

Examinations — Trial Exercises, 259 

State Relations — Salaries— Pensions, 260 

Widows and Orphans' Funds, 261 

Result of the Reorganization in 1830, 261 

HESSE-CASSEL. 

Area— Population — Government, 263 

General View of Education and Schools, 264 

I. Elementary Schools, 265 

1. Organization — Secular — Ecclesiastical, 265 

2. School Authorities, 266 

Local School Committee, 266 

City Districts, 266 

District School Councilor, 266 

Provincial School Referee, 267 

Minister of the Interior, 267 

3. School Attendance 267 

Parentul Obligation to send Children to School, 267 

4. Internal Organization and Instruction 268 

No General Regulation as to Hours, Lessons, &c., 268 



Page. 
School Diaries and Records, by Teachers and In- 

8j)ectors, 269 

Inspection and Examination, 269 

Punishments — Trespasses out of School, 270 

Industrial Instruction in Evening Classes, 270 

5. Teachers, 270 

Seminaries for Teachers — Final Organization,. . 271 

Practical Training in Gardening, &c., ,. . . . 271 

Location — Salary — Sources of income, 272 

Educational Course, and Selection, 272 

II Secondary Schools non-Classical.... 272 

1. Real Schools 272 

Imperfect Development — Influence of Guilds,. . . 273 

Real Classes in Gymnasium 273 

Real School at Cassel with Eight Classes 273 

2. Higher Female Schools, 274 

3. Private Schools, 274 

III. Gymnasiums, 274 

Relations to the State— Number— Tuition, 275 

Admission — Pupils — Studies— Recitations, 275 

Discipline — Examination — Teachers 276 

IV. Special Institutions, 277 

Orphan Homes, 277 

Rescue Institutions, 277 

Deaf-mute Asylum, 277 

HESSE-DARMSTADT. 

Area — Population — Government, 279 

Public Instruction, 280 

I. Primary or Common Schools, 281 

1. Historical Development 281 

Church Order of 1526, 281 

Ordinance of I^andgrave George II, in 1634 281 

School Law of 1832, 281 

2. Existing System, 281 

Duty of Parents— Obligatory Attendance, 282 

Duty of Parishes and Towns — Expenses, 283 

Supervision — Local — General, , 283 

Loral or Parish Board, 283 

District Commissioner, 283 

Higher Directory of Education, 284 

3. Schools— Scholars— Teachers, 284 

4. Internal Condition, 285 

Classification — Age — Sex — Attainments, 285 

Lessons per week — Religious Instruction, 285 

Public Examinations — Discipline, 285 

5. Teachers, and their Training — Seminaries, 286 

Model School — Conferences, 287 

Permanent Settlement — Dismissal — Salaries, 287 

Pensions — Widow and Orphan Funds, 288 

5. Results, 288 

TI. Classical and Higher Schools, 289 

1. Historical Develo|)ment-Conressional character, 289 

2. Students — Teachers — Expense, 290 

3. Internal Condition, 290 

Classes — Subjects, and their Distribution, 290 

Religious Instruction — Devotional Exercises,. . . 291 

Latin— Greek— Hebrew— French— English 291 

German Language — History — Geography 292 

Mathematics— Natural Sciences — Music, 292 

G vmnastics — Swimming, 292 

Class Teachers— Private Pupils 292 

Discipline, in and out of School-hours, 293 

Gymnasial Attendance and the Civil Service, . . . 293 

4. Teachers " 2<)4 

Conditions — Examination — Trial Year, 294 

III. The Real and Trade Schools, 295 

Modifications of the Gymnasial Course, 295 

Mcnhanic School in 1822— Real Schools in 18.34,. 295 

Higher Trades School, at Darmstadt, 296 

Subjects, and their Distribution 296 

Religious Instruction — Latin — German, 296 

Modification of Subjects and Methods to Life,... . 297 
Results of the System, 298 



PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY. 



Page. 

IV. High Schools for Girls, 298 

Origin and Extension of this class of Schools,. . . . 298 

Intellectual versus Domestic Culture, 298 

V. Special Institutions , 299 

Orphan Asylmns — Distribution in Families, 299 

Rescue Institutions, '. . 299 

Schools for Deaf-mutes, and the Blind, 299 

Infant Asylums and Schools, 300 

LIECHTENSTEIN. 

Area — Population — History — Government, 301 

Public Instruction, 301 

I. Elementary Schools, 302 

Schools— Pupils— Teachers— Studies, 302 

LIPPE-DETMOLD. 

Area — Population — Religion — Government, 303 

Public Instruction, 303 

I. Primary Schools, 303 

School Age — Obligation of Parents and Parishes, 304 

Local JNIanngement — State Supervision, 304 

Classification — Studies — Religion, 304 

Common Science — Drawing, Knitting, &c., 304 

Shepherds' Schools, 305 

Infant Gardens — Spinning Schools, 305 

Teachers and their Training — Seminary, 305 

Location — Salary — Pension — Widow and Orphan, 305 

II. Secondary Schools 305 

Rector-schools — Number and Grade, .. . 305 

G vmnasiums at Detmold and Lemgo, 306 

Higher Female School at Detmold, 306 

LIPPE-SCH AUMB URG. 

Popular Ignorance prior to the Reformation, 307 

Schools under Ernest, 307 

, 307 

307 



Obligation of School-attendanoe, 319 

Duty of Clergymen and Magistrates, 320 

Studies — School-rooms — Public Examination,.., 320 

Teachers — Seminary at Mirow, .* 322 

Silk, Garden and Meadow Culture 322 

II. Secondary Schools 321 

Gymnasiums and Labor Schools, 321 

Burgher and City High School 321 

High Schools for Girls, 321 



NASSAU. 



Area — Population, 
Public Instruction, 



323 
323 



I. Primary Schools, — 

II. Secondary Schools, 



LUXEMBURG AND LIMBURG. 

.Area — Population — History, 308 

Public Instruction, 308 

MECKLENBURG SCHWERIN. 



History — Area — Population, 
Public Instruction, 



309 

310 

I. Primary Schools 310 

Defective Condition of Schools as they were,. .'. . 310 

Reorganization in 1756-1785, 310 

Don-mnial, Manorial, and Landschuft Schools,. . . 311 

Inspection and Management, 311 

Duty of Parents and Parishes — School attendance, 312 
Teachers — Seminary — Examination, .' 312 

II. Higher Elementary Schools 313 

III. Special Elementary Schools, 314 

Trades Schools 314 

Teachers' Seminary, 314 

Niivigation Schools 314 

Institution for Deaf-mutes, 314 

IV. Secondary Schools, 315 

Origin of Gymnasiums in 1541 315 

Studies, and their Distribution by Hours^ 315 

Higher City Schools, .- 316 

Teachers — Salaries — Maturity Examination, 317 

Real Schools— Studies, .' 318 

MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ. 
Area — Population, 309 



Public. Inslf uction, 318 

I. Primary School 318 

Revised Lnw of 16.50, 1711, 177:1, 1801, 1816, 1826, 319 
Teachers' Seminary in 1801 — Pensions, 319 



I. Elementary Schools, 324 

School Age — Dutv of Parents — Daily Routine,... 324 

Duty of Purishes/as to House, «24 

i Course of Instruction, 324 

Teachers — Training— CJonfessional Character,... 325 

Supervisioi; — Local and District, 325 

Support of Schools, 325 

II. Secondary Schools, 325 

Pedagogium, 326 

Gymnasium, 326 

OLDENBURG. 

Area — Population, 327 

Public Instruction, 327 

I. Elementary Schools, 327 

1. Priuiary Schools, 327 

State Control 327 

Age, and Extent of School-attendance, 327 

Obligation of Parents, 327 

Gradation of Schools, ^28 

Studies in a School of one class, 328 

Studies in School of two classes, upper and lower, 328 

Teachers and their Salaries and Privileges,.. .... 329 

2. Middle School— Studies and Teachers, 329 

3. Higher Burgher Schools — Studies and Teachers, 329 

4. Private Schools 329 

5. Infant Schools and Orphan Houses, 330 

III. Secondary Schools, 330 

Gymnasiums and Pro-gymnasiums, 330 

Professional and Special Schools, 331 

1. Agricultural School at Manenburg, 331 

2. Trade School at Oldenburg 331 

3. Navigation School at Eisfleth, , 331 

4. Teachers' Seminary at Oldenburg,.. 331 

5. Normal School i'or Catholic Teachers at Vechta, 332 

PRUSSIA. 

History — Area — Population, 333 

Public Instruction, : 334 

I. Primary or Elementary Schools 335 

Historical Development, 335 

^1. .Inte-regol Period, 335 

Mark of Brandenburg— Law of 1540, 1573, -335 

Electorate of Brandenburjr — Ordinance of 157.3,.. 336 

Duchy of Prussia, 1568,1.598 .336 

Pome'rania, Writing and Girls' Schools, 1563, 336 

Contuberninm in Wesel in 1687 336 

Duchy of Magdeburg, Edict of Augustus in 1652, 337 

B. Kivgdom of Prussia, 337 

Frederic I, 1701-1713 337 

Aid toTeiichers and Stricter Visitation of Schools, 337 

Frederic William T, 1713-1740 338 

Franke — Ratich — Comenius — Teaching, 338 

Restrictions on Class of Candidates in 1732, 1738, 338 
Normal School in Stettin in 173.5 — in Kloster- 

bergen, 1736 339 

Royal Ordinance of 1713 and 171.5 339 

i Teacherssent to Lithuania in 11 If^ 339 

1 Grantof Land, free of rents and taxes, for Schools, 340 

j Principin Resulativn of 1737— Mnns Pietatis, 340 

I DutyofParishes— Obligatory School-attendance... 340 
j Instructions for Pomerania— Berlin Circular of 1738, 341 



PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY. 



Page. 

Frederic 11—1740-1786, 342 

Lutheran Iligli Consistory, 342 

Heguliitions of 1740— Hecker and Real Schools,.. .342 

Normal School for the Kiirmark in Berlin 342 

Ordinance of Schweidnitz, 343 

General School Regulations of Sept. 23, 17G3 343 

Opposition — Modifications — Additional Aid, 344 

Catholic Schools in Silesia, difficulties with, 34G 

School Reform in Silesia — Von Felbiger— Sagan, 3415 
Decree of Nov. 12, 1764, as to Normal Schools. &c., 347 
Candidates for the INIinistry and Normal School... 347 

Normal School iit Bresiau in 1765, 347 

Catholic Sciiool Organization, Nov. 3, 1765, 348 

Schools of the Jesuits— Dissolution of the Order,.. 349 
Von Rochow — Better Schools and School-books,. 350 

Fri;deric William II, 178G-1796, 350 

Superior School-board — Reasons for, 351 

Instructions to be modified according to occupa- 
tion, 351 

Instructions in Economics and Hygiene .351 

Schools declared State Institutions in 1794 352 

Condition of Village and Country Schools in 1796, 352 
Addition to Teachers' Income by Silk Culture,.. . 353 

C. Frederic William HI, 1797-1840 3.^3 

Wollner's Inslruct/Jons, and the King's Order, 1797, 353 

Defects in Villiige Schools and Education, 354 

Von Massow and Instructions of the King, 1798,. 3.55 

Plan for a General Improvement of Schools 355 

Preliminary Examination of their Conditiun, IfcOl, 3.56 
Mission to Olivier, in Dessau, and to Pestulozzi,.. 356 
A|)plication of the Results of these Inquiries, .... 356 

Religious Instruction in the Schools, 356 

Sunday-schooh for Journeymen and Apprentices, 357 

Middle-schools first mentioned in 1799 358 

Normal School for Female Teachers, by Gedike,.. 359 

Institute for Governesses established in 1804, 359 

Industrial Schools proposed and established, 359 

Discussion on Improved Methods, 359 

Demonstration of Pestalozzian methods byPlamann,360 
Fichte proclaimed their superiority, 360 

D. Period of Trav.^ition — Queen Louisa, 360 

Period of National Reverses in 1806-1807, 360 

Educational Policy of the King and Q,ueen, 360 

Memorable Words' of the King, and Minister Stein, 361 

Transference of the Supervision of Schools, 361 

Third Section for School and Eccles. Affairs,.... 361 
William von Humboldt, Nicolovius, and Silvern, 361 
General Historical Summary, 362 

Schools and Education — the foundation of Prus- 
sian Government, 362 

Abolition of Serfdom — Education of the Subject, 362 

Municipal Training of the Citizen, 363 

Progressive Elements from Abroad — Zeller, 363 

Letter of Altenstein to Pestalozzi, 363 

Prussian Pestalozzian School — Characteristics,.. 364 
Geography and history of Fatherland — Music,.. 364 
Drawing— Physical Training — Native Language, 364 

Corps of professionally trained Teachers, 365 

Reorganization of Normal Schools, 365 

Modern School Organization developed in 1820,.. 366 

Teachers' Association, 366 

Official Reaction against Pestalozzianism, 367 

Educational Development in the New Provinces,. 368 

I. Province of Saxony, 368 

Area — Population — Educational Antecedents, 368 

Franke— Zerrenner— Dinter— Harnisch, 370 

II. Stralsund and Pomerania, 371 

Town Schools — Free Schools in 1525, 372 

School Organization by Bugenhagen in 1535,... 372 

School in Barth in 1325, 1584, 1743, 373 

Town School at Bergen, 373 

Private Schools 374 

Teachers and Teaching 374 

Changes wrought by the Prussian System, 376 

Country Schools — former and present condition,. 378 

Obligatory School-attendance— Results , . 381 

Deficient Education and Poor Pay of Teachers,. 382 



I Page. 

III. Province of the Rhine, 384 

Previous Condition of Schools, 384 

I Difficulties of the Problem 384 

Gradual Assimilation to the General System,.. 386 

I Normal Schools established, 387 

1 IV. Province of Westphalia, ?i87 

I Detached portions of several diverse Governments, 387 
Portions belonging to Prussia — Wilberg — Hecker,. 388 

Episco|)Qte of Paderborn — Improvements, .388 

I Education of C iris— Female Teaciiers 388 

j Miinster — Regulation of Von Furstenburg, 1776, . 388 
Normal School in 1790— Labors of Overberg,. . .. .388 

I Paderborn— Prince-bishop Ferdinand H, 38S 

I Catechism — School-houses — FemaleTeachers, . . . ,388 

Decree in 1788— Francis Egon in 1789 .389 

Dnchv of Westphalia— Abp. Maximilian, 1656... 389 

I Clemens Augustus. 1721-61 — ItineratingTeachers, 389 

Feil)i£er's School Reform and Catholic Schools,. . .389 

Free Instruction for Teachers at Bonn in 1787,... 389 

Local Committee independent of Bonn, .389 

Priests were to be found qualified to keep School, 389 
First Industrial School at Honkhausen in 1769,.. 389 

Archbishopric of Cologne — Hesse Darmstadt 390 

School-attendance made obligatory on Parents,. . . 390 

Education and Support of Teachers — Girls, 390 

Action of Prussian Government — Vincke-Natorp, 390 

V. Province of Posen, 390 

Aren— Pon.ilntion— Period of Prussia, 1773, 1793, 390 
DistrictofBromberg— Political changes, 1807, 18J5, 390 
Destitution of Schools — Condkion of the Peasantry, 391 

Private Teachers for the Nobles, ". 391 

Condition of Schools and the Popnlntion in 1773, 392 

Cnlvinists (Lutheran) — Landed Proprietors, 392 

Schools independent of the Church in 1773 392 

Beneficent plans of Frederic II— Canals— Colonists, 392 

Cabinet Order of 1774— School-houses, .393 

New Schools in 1778 — Confiscated property, 393 

Revenues from the sale of Tobacco 393 

Action of Ecclesinstical Bodies and Nobles, 394 

School atTrzemeszno, by Abbot von Kosmowski, 394 

Franciscan School at Pakose in 1787 394 

Action of Saxon Government from 1697 to 1763,. 394 

Regulation of 1808-Polish language 395 

Action of the treaty of Vienna in 18J5, 395 

Grand Duchy of Posen out of Prussian dominions, 395 
Condition of Schools in 1815 in Bromberg district, 395 

Labors of Reichhelm, Runge, and Frank 396 

Normal School nt Bromberg in 1817 — at Kosmin, 397 

Public Schools in Bromberg, 397 

Earliest Public Elementary School in 1807, 397 

Condition of Public Schools in 1864 397 

Population, as to Language nnd Religion, 399 

Public Schools for both Confessions, 400 

CircularNoteofMinisterofPub. Instruction, 1822, 400 

Cabinet Order of the King in 1829, 401 

Hostility of different Nationalities and Confessions, 4(ll 

Separate Schools, 402 

L^se of Polish language confined to Polish children, 402 
Order of the King, and Instructions of the Minister, 403 
Instruction in botii Languages to certain extent,.. 403 
Schools, and modifications, for Hebrew children,. 404 

Mixed Constitution of the Local Committee, 404 

Evangelic Preachers, and Catholic Priests 405 

Evangelical Superintendents, nnd Catholic Deans, 405 

Condition of Catholic Elementary Schools 405 

Results in difference of Denominational Interest... 406 

Number of enrolled Recruits not educated, 406 

Difficulties with Proprietors of large landed estates, 406 

Conflict of Saxon and Prussian regulations, 407 

Special aid to Impoverished Communities, 407 

Income for the Teachers' Salary, 408 

Building and repair of School-houses, 408 

Special aid to Normal Schools — Rectors' Classes,. 409 

Increase of the Scanty Salaries of Teachers 409 

Fund for the ^V^idows and Orphans of Teachers, 410 

Superannuated and Emcritcd Teachers 410 

Educational Statistics of the Bromberg district,. . 411 

II. General History from 1817, 411 

Ministry of Baron von Altenstein, 411 



PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN GERMANY. 



Page. 

Consolidation of the System — Improved Institu- 
tions nnd Methods, 412 

Cenerul Revision of Law drafted, but not ordained, 412 
Hegel — Plumann — Education and the Church,. . . 413 
Becivedorf— Annals of Prussian Public Schools,^. . 413 
Dreist—Kortiini— Development of the System,.... 414 

Ministry of Eichhorn, 414 

Eilers at the head of Elementary Bureau 414 

Policv of Restriction on Primary Education, 414 

Decree of the Ministry of Nov. 5, 1842 415 

Gardening — Vegetables, Fruits, and Flowers, 415 

Dissolution of Normal School at Breslau, 415 

Compulsory Resignation of Diestervveg, 415 

Recent Jldministration, 416 

Frederick Stiehl — his Special Aims, 416 

Prussian Regulations of 1st, 2d and .3d of Oct., 1854, 416 

Debate in the House of Representatives,. . 416 

Petition of the Dortmund Circle 416 

Report of Committee on Education, 417 

Petitions and Debate in 1859 417 

Regulations by Committee and the Government,.. 417 

CircularNote of Minister von Holhveg, 417 

Instruction — Religion— Overtasking the Memory.. 418 

Bible History .418 

Knowledge indispensable to Practical Life 418 

Instruction in Arithmetic and Geometry. 419 

Natural Philosophy, Botany, and Zoology, 419 

German Language — Chemistry — Drawing, 4J9 

Geography and History, especially of Prussia, 419 

Debate in the House in I860, 429 

Resolutions of the Committee, 42») 

Provincial Authorities requested to report, 421 

Memorial of the Minister on the Reports, 421 

Pamphlet by F. Stiehl, on the Regulations, 422 

Gymnastics, and Pliysical Training, 422 

Drawing — 422 

Education of Girls— Needlework, &c., 422 

Realization of Prussian National School in 1866,. 423 

Catholic Public Schools, 423 

Statistics of Prussian Public Schools,.. 424 

Number of Primary Public Schools in 1819, 424 

Town Schools and Village Schools, 424 

Teachers of Primary Schools in 1819, 424 

Salaries in Town Schools, 424 

Salaries in Village Schools 424 

Public Schools defined, 425 

Charge of Instruction in Religion, 425 

Classes, and Separate Teachers, 425 

Public Elementary Schools in 1860-61, 425 

Evangelic— Catholic— Hebrew — Total, 425 

Towns— Villages— Total, 425 

Schools and Classes — Total, 425 

Teachers, male and female — Total, 425 

Private Schools — Schools and Classes— Pupils, 426 

Children — Enumerated, and in School, 427 

Salaries of Teachers — Amount — Average, 428 

Special Statistics of Berlin Teachers 429 

Repairs and Construction of Buildings, 431 

Funds for Widows and Orphans of Teachers,. , . . 431 

Pension Funds, 432 

Statistics of Elementary Schools in 1866, 433 

II. System of Secondary Schools, 435 

1. Historual Development of School Ad- 
ministration, 435 

Ji. Supreme Administration, 435 

Decree of Elector Joachim II, in 1552 435 

Visiting Regulations of 1.573, 1662, 1687, 435 

Spirit of Frederic II, ' 436 

Decree of Frederic William I, in 1713, 1718 436 

Department of Church and School Affairs, 1722,. 436 
Education transferred to State and Law Dep., 1771, 437 

SupreiTie School Board created in 1787, 437 

Von Zedlitz, 437 

Religious Edict ofWollner 438 

Message from Frederic William HI to Wollner,.. 439 
Third Section for Worship and Public Instruction, 440 
William von Humboldt, chief, Dec. 17, 1808, ... 440 

Nicolovius and Ecclesiastical AflTairs, 440 

Silvern and School Affairs, , 440 



Page. 

Von Schuckmann's Administration, 18 — , 441 

Ministry of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, 441 

Baron von Altenstein, 441 

Hegel and his Philosophy, 441 

Mandate of Minister of the Interior and Police,... 442 

Testimony of Cousin and Thiersch, 444 

Dr. J. A. F. Eichborn, 1831 to 1850 444 

Contest between the Classical and the Scientific,. 445 

Hegelian Philusopbv, 445 

Von Raumer, 1850 "to Nov. 8, 1858, 446 

Von Bethman-Hollweg, iKoB to March 10, ]862,. 447 

Von Miihler, 1862 447 

Su])erintendent of Catholic School Affairs, 447 

B. Provincial Admini-'tration, 447 

Departments of Territorial Admiriistraticm, 17J3,. 448 

Consistories of the Provinces, 4-18 

Higher Consistory of Berlin, 1750 448 

Provincial Deputation of Worship, 1808, &c 448 

Scientific Deputations for Public Instruction. 181I), 448 

Duties of Chief President of the Eij;ht Provinces,. 448 

Literary Commissions for Examination in 1817,.. 448 

School-collegiums in 1826, 1845, 1848, 448 

General Superintendents of the Consistories,.. .. 449 

Provincial Development of Higher Education, ... 449 

I. Province of Prussia 449 

Schooisofthe Reli-rious Orders in 1351-J381,.. . . 449 

Latin Schools, 1510-1568, 449 

Schools ol" the. lesu its converted intoGvmtiasiums, 449 

Obstacles in the Polish districts, .' 449 

II. Province of Posen, 449 

Increase of Higher Schools since 1815, 449 

German and Polish language, 450 

III. Province of Silesia, 451 

High School at Goldberg, under Trotzenriorf, 45] 

Schools of the Jesuits converted into Gymnasiums, 451 

Religious Education, .' 448 

University of Breslau. 451 

Studies in Catholic Schools 4.52 

Confessional Character of Existing Institutions,.. 452 

IV. Province of Pomerania, 452 

University of Greifswald in 1456, 452 

Latin Schools after Bugenhagen's Regulations,... 452 

Polytechnic feature in new Secondary Schools,.. 453 

V. Province of Saxony ; 4.53 

Early School Foundations — Schulpforta — Halle,. 4.54 

VI. Province of Westphalia,. 4.54 

Oldest School Foundations in the Kingdom, 454 

Latest Evangelical, at Giitersloh, 1851', 4.54 

Labors of F. Kohlrausch, 1818-1830,. , 455 

VII. Province of Rhine andHohenzoll'rn, 455 

Early Schools of the Jesuits, ^ 455 

Alternate Sway of French and German Ideas, 450 

Number of Gymnasiums in 1814, 455 

Classical and Modern studies, 456 

Training and Schools for Teachers 456 

Gymnasium at Cologne, 457 

Real Schools and Higher Burgher Schools, 459 

Founding of the University at Bonn, 459 

Proclamation of Frederic William III, 459 

VIII. Province of Brandenburgh, 459 

Frankfort on the Oder, 1505— Gray Convent, 1574, 460 

Joachimsthal Gymnasium, 460 

Higher Institutions at Berlin, 460 

C. Local Jldministration and Right of Patronage, 460 

Institutions of Royal Foundation, 460 

Institutions under City School-deputation, 460 

Influence of the Berlin School regulations, 460 

Right of Patronage belongs to the Magistrate, 460 

Special City School Commission, 461 

Cabinet Order of 1862, as to Directors and Teachers, 461 

Z). State Regulation of Higher Institutions,... 462 

Declarations of the Common Law, 1794, 462 

Public Character — Right of all to admission, 462 

Liberty of Conscience — School-attendance, 462 

Teachers Officers of State— Right of Fathers,. . . . 462 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Since the cession of the Lombardo-Venetian provinces to Italy, 
the Austrian monarchy has an area of 227,234 square miles, and a 
population in 1864 of 34,432,890, distributed throughout — 

I. The Empire of Austria^ comprising the provinces of Lower 
Austria, Upper Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Illyria, 
Tyrol and Vorarlberg, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Galicia, Buko- 
wina, Dalmatia ; and 

II. The Kingdom of Hungary, comprising the provinces of Hun- 
gary, Croatia, Slavonia, Transylvania, and the Military Frontier. 
Each of the two great divisions has its own ministry, parliament, 
and entirely separate administration, and every province has its own 
provincial diet. 

Austria [Empire] has, on an area of 124,116 square miles, a pop- 
ulation of 20,602,736, and the Kingdom of Hungary, on an area of 
103,118, a population of 13,830,154. The national industries are 
as varied as the climate and soil, and have called into existence a 
large number of special schools. 

The total expenditure in 1864 was 508,781,793 florins, of which 
sum 2,951,523 florins were expended for public instruction of all 
kinds, viz., 139,828 fl. in Hungary, and 2,580,670 fl. in Austria. 
The institutions of public instruction, both in Austria proper and in 
Hungary, are under a separate and special minister, except such as 
are specially connected with the administration of other depart- 
ments, such as those of war, finance, &c. 

The system of public instruction is comprehensive,* and in every 
department at the present time there is progress. The recent school 
code (1869) will compare favorably with the most advanced legis- 
lation of any country in respect to elementary instruction. 

The following statistics are gathered from the latest oflScial doc- 
uments. 

*For a historical development of public instruction in Austria, see American Journnl of Edu- 
cation, vol. xvi [). 1—32, 609; xvii. p. 129. Special Report on JsTational Education : Part L 
Germany — Austria. 

3 



34 



PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 



1. KLKMENTARY SCHOOLS IN 1864. 





SCHOOU. 




TEACHERS. 






PCPIM. 






Male. 


Female. 


Total. 


Boys. 




Total. • 


Austria, . 


14,587 
14,642 

29.229 


24,079 
31,078 

55,157 


621 

2,446 

3,067 


24,700 
33,524 


877,181 
610,984 

1,488,165 


1,656,939 
1,089,478 










58,224 


2,746.417 





Connected with these schools, and taught by the same teachers, are 1,472 Female Industrial schools ; 382 
Apprentice schools; 15,752 Sunday Repetition schools ; 2,777 schools for instruction in fruit culture 352 for 
bee culture 169 for silkworm culture. 

2. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 







GYMNASU 


• 


KEAL-GYMNASIA. 


REA1.-SCHOOM. 


TOTAL SECOXDARV SCHOOLS. 




Num- 
ber. 


Scholars. 


Teach- 
ers. 


Num- 
ber. 

6 

] 

7 


Scholars. 


Teach- 
ers. 


Num- 
ber. 

IT 
23 

71 


Scholars, 


Teach. 

ers. 


Number. 


Scholars. 


Teachers. 


Austria, 

Hungary, 


97 
132 

229 


32 076 
26,722 

58,798 


1,532 
1,335 

2,867 


1,081 
57 


64 
9 

73 


10,547 
4,094 


597 
315 

912 


1.51 
156 

307 


43,704 
30,873 


2,193 
1,659 


Empire, 


1,138 


14,641 


74,577 


3,852 



3. SUPERIOR SCHOOLS. 

In Austria there are 7 universities, viz., 5 with four faculies [theology, law, medicine, philosophj-] each: 
Vienna, Gratz, Prague, Cracow, and Pesth ; and 2 universities with three faculties [theology, law, philos' 
ophyj each, viz., Innspruck and Lemberg — with a total of 9,198 students and 650 professors. 

4. SPECIAL AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS. 





AUSTRIA. 


HUNGARY. 




Number. 


Teachers. 


Students. 


Number. 


Teachers. 


Students. 


Theological Seminaries— Roman Catholic, 


43 

1 
1 
4 
1 
4 
14 

13 

2 
3 

1 
1 
4 
2 
2 
1 

I 

4 
3 

2 
3 
8 
2 
8 
8 
3 
1 

19 
84 
14 
5 
80 
1 


212 

3 
9 

18 

6 

41 

26 

90 

5 

10 

1 

4 
30 
18 

7 
18 
11 
74 
98 
60 

6 
112 
72 
30 
74 
56 

9 
22 
30 
184 
70 
41 
300 

8 


1,653 

23 
23 
176 

60 
517 

768 

580 

69 

56 

45 

69 

134 

151 

77 

112 

78 

969 

1,672 

909 

32 

619 

702 

358 

891 

1,046 

731 

218 

1,480 

3,649 

711 

207 

2,209 

8 


25 

1 
5 

4 
5 

2 
2 
1 
3 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 

2 
4 

35 
11 


127 
2 

27 

14 
40 

28 
2 
9 

18. 

5 

7 

13 

28 

19 

30 
37 

~ 

200 
720 


873 
17 


" '• Greek Catholic, 

" " Armenian, 


225 


" " Greek Oriental, 

" " Protestant, 


211 
133 
236 




212 


Agricultural Academies, 


150 


" Schools, 


162 






Schools of V ine-culture, 


23 


Schools of Silkworm culture, 






213 


Forestry Sciiools, 









Mining Schools, 


63 






Nautical Schools 


50 


Polytechnic Institutes, 

Polytechnic Institutes with commercial course,.. 
Ci)mmercial Academies, 


270 

240 


Veterinary Schools, 


__ 


Military Academies 




Special Military Schools, 





Cadet Schools . 


338 


School Companies 




Schools for Soldiers' Children 


697 


Schools of Gymnastics 




Academies of the Fine Arts, 





Drawing Schools, 





Music Schools 





Institutes for Deaf and Dumb 





Institutes for Blind, 





Teachers' Seminaries 


957 


Academies of Oriental Languages, 




La w Schools 


1,303 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 35 

SYSTEM AND INSTITUTIONS OF SPECIAL INSTRUCTION. 

The system of special technical instruction in Austria includes in 
its early stages, or at least recognizes, the future occupation of the 
pupils, in the primary schools of every grade, and in one of the 
grades of schools usually classed as secondary. 

INDUSTRIAL INSTRUCTION IN COMMON SCHOOLS. 

The first notice of the industrial element in Austrian schools, we 
find in the normal, or model school of Kindermaini, at Kaplitz in 
Bohemia. In 1773, he taught and demonstrated to his pupil-teacliers, 
and the country school-masters, how to occupy a portion of their own 
time and that of their older pupils, in and out of school hours, in such 
in-door industries as knitting, sewing, wool carding, and spinning, and 
out-door work as kitchen gardening, culture of trees, and raising silk- 
worms. '' The advantages of these occupations are great and impor- 
tant. They protect against vice and crime, and promote the welfare 
of human society." Under his lead, in the first year of this century, 
2,644 public schools were in operation in Bohemia, 54 of which were 
burgher-schools, in which the aim was " to give the future citizen an 
instruction adapted to his special occupation." 

Instruction in needle-work and like feminine employments, is now 
usual in the female schools, and the girls* classes in mixed schools, and 
receives special attention in the industrial schools of the religious cor- 
porations and ladies' societies. Instruction in the care of mulberry 
trees, grape vines, bees, and orchards is given in the normal schools, 
and by their pupils to the older boys in a large number of districts. 

SUNDAY AND OTHER IMPROVEMENT SCHOOLS. 

In close connection with the common school, and through the same 
agencies, the "further instruction" of boys after leaving school and en- 
tering into apprenticeship, is carried on with the assistance and special 
inspection of Chambers of Commerce, and local associations of trades- 
men. The instruction is given on Sunday and holidays (except the 
high feasts), and in the morning and evening of other days. It is 
not confined to a review of the rudimentary studies, but is extended 
to higher arithmetical calculations, book-keeping, bank dealings, busi- 
ness correspondence and forms, natural history, and particularly to 
drawing. A re-cord of attendance is kept, and delinquent parents 
and employers are fined, and proprietors of large establishments are 
subject to arrest and imprisonment for persistent neglect in respect to 
their apprentices and other juvenile operatives. 



35 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA 

BURGHER SCHOOLS. 

The burgher school, which belongs to the primary system, origi- 
nally intended to prepare pupils for the occupation of tradesmen and 
mechanics by a better general education, has become a subordinate 
real school, the students generally entering the higher real school after 
finishing the course. 

There are thirty hours of instruction per week, embracing re- 
ligion, composition, German, arithmetic, geography, natural philos- 
ophy, chemistry, geometry, architecture, geometrical and architect- 
ural drawing, and a little historical detail. French, Italian, English, 
music, and gymnastics, are optional. The tuition fees are small, 
and are remitted if the pupil is poor and has conducted himself well. 

In 1865, there were 117, of which but seven gave a three years' 
course, the rest only two years ; instruction being given by the director 
and catechist of the primary high school, with 3Q5 additional teachers. 
The instruction in arithmetic, German composition, geography, natural 
philosophy, chemistry and drawing, is given in the h gher classes in 
special reference to a commercial and mechanical career. 

* 

EEAL SCHOOLS. 

The object of the real school is to give to its pupils a general edu- 
cation, the dead languages being excepted, and "to fit them to enter 
the technical schools, or to pursue industrial careers." 

They have been gradually developing since 1751, but do not ap- 
pear as distinct organizations before 1851. In 1863, there were 
forty of them in the Austrian empire, of which there are sixteen 
" lower real schools," with a course of only three years, and twenty- 
four " complete real schools," which carry their students through six 
years, thus adding three years to the course at the lower real school. 
There is, in three of the lower schools, an additional class, in which 
instruction is given in technology, commodities raw and manufactured, 
commercial transactions, and particularly in drawing. 

The lower real schools turn out pupils well prepared, theoretically, 
to become master workmen and overseers ; those called complete, 
prepare students who finish the course, to enter the technical schools. 

The course of study varies somewhat in different places. The 
obligatory studies are, German (or the language of the province), 
one modern language — French, Italian, or English, geography, his- 
tory, arithmetic, geometry, physics, chemistry, commercial law, nat- 
ural history, drawing, modeling (in the highest class), ornamental 
penmanship, architecture, and mechanics. Latin has been added in 
some of the lowest classes. The modem languages, singing, gym- 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 07 

nasties, and stenography are optional. Of the above studies, element- 
ary mathematics, machinery, and the modern tongues are taught only 
in tlie higher classes, in which calligraphy is no longer obligatory. 

The complete schools have twelve professors, the lower schools 
seven. Those applying for these positions must pass an examination 
as to their scientific attainments, and undergo a year's probation in a 
public real school, before receiving the appointment. At the head 
of the corps of teachers is a director, who, with the council of teachers, 
governs the school, subject to the supervision of the general coun- 
cilor of schools. 

The fees paid by pupils vary from eight to twenty florins annually, 
besides a fee of about two florins at admission. All the fees may be 
remitted to poor pupils conducting themselves well. 

The yearly expenses of a lower school amount to from 8,000 to 
11,000 florins ; of a higher school, to from 15,000 to 20,000. They 
are either imperial royal, in which case the general government sup- 
ports them, or communal, supported by the towns. Besides these, 
two are endowed, and one is private, assimilated. 

SPECIAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. 

Technical instruction in Austria is of very long standing, and 
at the beginning of this century three important technical schools 
were in operation, and others were instituted long before the neigh- 
boring German States had moved in this direction. 

In 1717, a professorship for military and civil engineering was 
established at Prague, which gradually extended itself into a school 
of engineering, and became in 1806 the first independent polytechnic 
school in Austria. It has undergone many changes, and in 1865 ^vas 
organized on the plan of special schools, unitmg on a general prepar- 
atory course. 

In 1745, the Empress Maria Theresa organized in Vienna the first 
university lectures on experimental physics, and in 1757, on mechan- 
ics, and in 1763, permitted instruction in book-keeping to be given at 
the Piarist schools, and at the same time established several schools 
for apprentices. In 1770, a Real and Mercantile Academy was es- 
tablished in Vienna, which became in 1816 the polytechnic institute. 

In the year 1763, the first lectures were held on mining nt Schem- 
nitz, and in 1770, the school in Prague being given up, the Mining 
Academy was founded there. Its fame was soon so great that 
Fourcroy, in his brilliant speech made in the French National As- 
sembly, 1794, as an incentive to the erection of the polytechnic school 
in Paris, referred to this school as a well known model for imitation. 



Professors. 


Students. 


54 


1963 


- 25 


617 


13 


196 


- 11 


229 


14 


171 


- 24 


201 


16 


154 



33 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 

In 1811, the Johanneum in Gratz was founded by the Archduke 
John, as a museum and institution for natural sciences, and was 
afterwards changed, little by little, into a polytechnic institute. 

In 1843, the Real and Mercantile School in Lemberg was changed, 
by the addition of several courses, into a technical institute, and in 
1846, a technical school was founded at Cracow, and in 1849, an- 
other at Briinn. 

In 1856, the Industrial School at Pesth was removed to Ofen, and 
received there the organization of a Polytechnic Institute, so that in 
1859 there were seven technical institutions of the first class, with 
157 professors, and 3,531 students, distributed as follows : 

Location. 
Vienna Polytechnic Institute, 

Prague ' " " - 

Briinn " " - - 

Lemberg " " - 

Cracow " " - - 

Ofen " «... 

Gratz " " - - 

The plan of instruction embraced both technical and commercial 
studies, except at Prague and Ofefl, where technical instruction only 
was given. In Vienna there was a preparatory school, and a school 
of industrial drawing, which accounts for the larger number of pupils ; 
Cracow has a school of fine arts, and of music, and Ofen a prepara- 
tory school. 

In 1850, a reorganization of the technical institutions was proposed, 
by which they should be raised into institutes of the highest class, 
with a system of special schools, as had been already instituted at 
Carlsruhe. After many years of agitation, in which the professors, 
and large manufacturers, and capitalists, as well as statesmen, took 
part, a new plan of studies was introduced at Prague in 1864-65 ; at 
Gratz in 1865-66, and in Vienna in 1866-67. At Vienna and Prague 
there are four schools : 1. Civil Engineering; 2. Architecture; 3. Ma- 
chinery; 4. Technical Chemisti-y. At Gratz, agriculture and forest 
economy, and surveying take the place of architecture. At Gratz and 
Vienna there are two general classes, which precede the special courses. 
At Briinn by decree of 1866, two regular courses for construction 
of machinery and technical chemistry, and three special courses, one 
for commerce, and one for master mechanics and builders, and a 
third for miners, have been established. 

Besides the Technical schools, there has grown up in Austria spe- 
cial schools of Agriculture, Commerce, Navigation, &c., of which a 
rapid survey will now be given, drawn from original documents, and 
the reports of the French and English commissioners. 



Sl'KCTAL- INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 3^ 



II. TECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS AND CLASSES. 

We will now give from official documents, or from the Reports of the English 
and French Commissions, drawn np from the same or similar documents, with 
the advantjio-c of recent jiorsonal visits to the institutions described, a brief notice 
of a few specimens of each grade of scientific and technical instruction. 

APPRENTICE AND WORKMEN'S SCHOOLS. 

The schools, which are known in Prussia and great part of Germany by the 
..anicof Improvement Schools (Forthildungschden) are in Austria called Trade 
Schools (Gcwei'beschulen), or industrial schools. The confusion which these dif- 
ferent significations of names may cause, ceases when we examine the object, the 
conditions, and the nature of the instruction given in these establishments. 
Their creation in Austria, and in Vienna especially, dates only from the year 
1857, when the Industrial Society was formed, with the approbation of the Gov- 
ernment and the assistance of the municipality. 

The members of this Society imposed on themselves, in principle, the obliga- 
tion of sending their apprentices, during the last year at least of their time, to 
follow the classes, which, under the title of Gewerhesohulen, should be opened in 
the Real or practical schools of the State or those of the town, and also to pay a 
subscription in pro})ortion to the importance of their establishments, even when 
they had no apprentices. This voluntary contribution is fixed at four kreutzers 
per florin (or one-fifteenth) of the taxes paid. On the other hand, it was decided 
that^ the apprentices should attend these classes during their last year, or in de- 
fault should not be regarded as having finished their apprenticeship. 

The teaching in each of these schools is under the supervision of the director, 
and is given by the professors of the practical school to which it is attached. The 
latter receive an addition to their salary in proportion to the number of hours' 
lessons ; if one of the professors be unable to undertake this additional work, the 
director appoints another person in his stead. 

In 1861, owing to the efforts made by the Chambers of Commerce and the 
manufacturers, there already existed in the suburbs of Vienna five of these 
schools annexed to the practical schools of Gumpendorf, Wieden, Landstrasse, 
Jiigerzeile, and Schottenfeld, as well a sa school of yvQ&\mg (Weberschule) at Gum- 
pendorf, and a practical school of building. They have the use of the premises, 
collections, and teaching appliances of the practical schools without any expense ; 
but the models of a mor« technical kind required are purchased with their own 
funds. 

1. TRADE SCHOOLS FOR APPRENTICES IN VIENNA. 

There are six trade or industrial schools in Vienna attached to the Eeal 
Gymnasium or Practical Schools, having a general resemblance, but with special 
instruction adapted to the vocation of the pupils who are apprentices and journey- 
men from the vicinity of the school. 

The instruction is divided into an elementary section having two classes, and 
several sections relating to different industrial specialties. In the elementary 
section theoretical instruction is given and the pupils are practised in the art of 
drawing, with especial adaptation to the future career of each. In the special 
sections, the knowledge acquired is apphed to the branches of industry chosen 



40 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 

by the pupil. The organization of the specialties must be adapted, in every dis- 
trict, to the requirements of the local industries. The specialties of the Gum- 
pendorf school are therefore principally those necessary for weavers, workers in 
silk, ribbons, trimmings, dyeing, &c. The school of Wieden has specialties con- 
nected with machinery, and such trades as brass-turners, joiners, bookbinders, 
workers in copper and bronze, founders, &c. In the Jsegerzeile school the 
courses bear chiefly on the building trades. 

The number of hours is nine and. a half during the week, partly after half-past 
six in the evening, and partly on Sundays in the forenoon. No class must ex- 
ceed 50 pupils ; if there are more, it must be divided into two. In the first class 
of the elementary section the time allotted to the different lessons is as follows : 
Religion, 30 minutes ; German language, 2 hours ; arithmetic, 2 hours ; calli- 
graphy, 1 hour; drawing, 4 hours; total, 9^ hours per week. 

The following is the allotment of time in the second class of the elementary 
section : Religion, half hour ; German, exercises in style and commercial corres- 
pondence, 1 hour ; arithmetic and mensuration, 1 hour ; elements of physics, 2 
hours ; geography, 1 hour ; drawing, geometrical and free-hand, projections, 
drawing of figures and ornament, and modeling, 4 hours ; total, 9| hours per 
week. 

By this arrangement a single pupil attends, including the three kinds of draw- 
ing, 17| hours instruction per week at most. 

In the special sections the lessons are thus distributed : Industrial drawing, 
4 hours ; architectural drawing, estimates, 4 hours ; drawing of machines, me- 
chanics, study of machines, 4 hours ; modeling, and drawing from the round, 4 
hours ; general chemistry, 1 hour ; study of raw materials, 1 hour ; commercial 
book-keeping, &c., 1 hour; applied mechanics, 1 hour; applied chemistry, 1 hour; 
total, 21 hours per week. 

In the two elementary sections, the instruction is compulsory for all the courses. 
In the special sections, on the contrary, the choice of courses is left to the pupils. 

The school year commences on the 1st of October and ends on the 31st of July. 
At the end of the year, the pupils receive certificates giving an account of their 
behavior, application, and progress in the different branches. The most pro- 
ficient pupils receive as prizes silver or bronze medals, or honorable mentions. 

The director of the practical school, to which the school for apprentices is 
annexed, is the principal manager. He, however, shares this authority with a 
delegate of the Industrial Society. They both endeavor to introduce into the 
teaching all the improvements required by the necessities of the local industries 
as indicated by the presidents of the industrial associations which patronize the 
schools. The instruction, as already stated, is given* by the professors of the 
corresponding courses of the practical school (Realsckule,) provided that the pro- 
fessors have sufficient time at their disposal and are satisfied with the payment 
offered. When any professor declines to undertake a course in the apprentice 
school, the director has to look for a teacher elsewhere. For the technical in- 
struction, the director may, with the authorization of the municipal authority, 
admit as pi-ofessors either manufacturers or foremen, who, in everA-^thing con- 
nected with the teaching, will be under his orders. For the purchase of apparatus 
and all things necessary for consumption and use, there is a yearly budget placed 
at the disposal of the director in concert with the professor of the specialty con- 
cerned. 

- The general management of the trade schools of Vienna is entrusted to a 
council composed of the presidents and vice-presidents of the chambers of com- 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 41 

moroe and manufactures, of the representatives of the province and city of Vienna, 
of the president of the committee of each school, and, lastly, of members of the 
cliambers of commerce elected for the purpose. This council meets on certain 
days in general assembly, to ascertain, in the presence of the directors, the state 
of the schools and to deliberate on the means of extending their usefulness. 

Every member of the Industrial Society for promoting the establishment of 
schools, whether he have apprentices or not, is hound to pay a contribution cal- 
culated on such a basis that the total, with the addition of sundry subventions, 
will cover the v/hole probable expenses of the school during the current year. 
By so doing, he has the right to send his apprentices (if they have received the 
proper elementary instruction) to the school, without any further payment, ex- 
cept for writing and drawing materials. Apprentices, after becoming journey- 
men, cannot continue to attend the school without the payment of regular fees. 

2. manufacturers' and tradesmen's school of PRAGUE. 

In 1847, the Society for the Encouragement of Industry in Bohemia founded 
a Sunday and evening school for drawing and modeling in plaster for appren- 
tices in Prague, which, in 1860, was extended in its range and thoroughness of 
instruction to the working classes generally. The plan was drawn up by an 
eminent engineer, who had studied the organization of industrial education in 
France and other countries, and adopted by the Diet of Bohemia and the 
council of the town. 

T3ie town provided a building for the establishment, as well as the furniture, 
and a yearly grant of 1,500 florins, the D^et voted 2,000 florins, and the Indus- 
trial Society engaged to give another 2,000 florins. The school, therefore, has 
a fixed income o£ 5,500 florins. The immediate superintendence of the school is 
entrusted to a ccruncil of three members elected by the Diet, three members of 
the municipal council, and three members of the Industrial Society. 

The school was opened in 1863. .The pupils are taught through the medium 
of both the German and the Bohemian languages, which, in some cases, renders 
two professors necessary for the subjects. The 16 professors are nearly all 
attached to the professorial staff's of the two higher practical schools of the town, 
in the different class-rooms of which the lessons are given. 

The plan of studies for the year 1867-68 is as follows : 

' From 8 to 9 a.m., - Technology. 
From 8 to 10 p.m., - Practical weaving. 






f Exercises in linear drawing. 

T?,,^^" 1 n *« 1 o o ™ j Exercises in free-hand drawng. 

xirom 10 to 12 a.m., - •< i-v • /? i • ^ 

' j Drawmg of machines. 

[ Free-hand drawing of ornament. 

f Exercises in linear drawing. 

From 2 to 4 D m - -I ^^^^^-'-^^^ ^^ free-hand drawing. 



j Drawings for construction of buildings. 
[ Free-hand drawing of ornament. 



One hour, 



Lectures on machines. 
Chemistrv. 



rri 1 __ i Natural history. 

^ Two hours, - - ] Algebra and geometry. 

rp ^ , ^ ,„ ( Drawing for construction of buildings. 

Two hours, . . I Modeling. 



42 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 



>-> • 


One hour, 


( Arithmetic. 

( Art of construction. 


11 ■ 


Two hours, 


j Written compositions and style. 
( Chemistry. 


H 1 




I Drawing'of machines. 


Two hours, 


- .; Modeling. 






i' Drawing of patterns. 


^.v 


One hour. 


- Algebra and geometry. 


1 =' 




( Lectures on machines. 


= 1 - 


Two hours, 


} Art of construction. 


'^i 




( Lessons in ornamentation. 


^ 


Two hours, - 


- Drawing of patterns. 


>>cf 


One hour. 


( Physics and mechanics. 
I Technology. 


'T -5 . 




r Lectures on machines. 


s? 


Two hours. 


} Art of construction. 


« 




1 ' Modeling. '' 






1 Greography. 


s>» 


One hour. 


) Natural history. 


^tc 




1 ' Lectures on machines. 


ll - 




.Arithmetic. 


Two hours, 


) Book-keeping. 


OQ o 


Two hours, 


( Physics and mechanics. 




- Modeling. 



In -winter evening classes are held from half-past six to half-past eight, and in 
summer from seven to nine o'clock. The lectures and drawing relating to the 
building arts end at Easter, those for other industries last from the beginning of 
October to the end of July. Candidates for admission to the preparatory school 
must be able to read, write, and calculate; and to attend the courses of the 
special diA-isions they must produce a certificate of capacity from the preparatory 
school, or fi-om a lower real school. The fee is half a florin a year for each 
course attended ; it is paid half-yeai'ly, and in advance. 

The technical and practical teaching is distributed into five principal divisions, 
according to the branches of industry in which the pupils are engaged. 

The Jirst is the school for the building trades, for masons, stone-cutters, car- 
penters, joiners, &c. ; the instruction includes geometry, the elements of algebra, 
the art of building in general, drawing for building and modeling, notions of 
physics and mechanics, the effects of heat ; these studies require two winter half- 
years. The second is the school for the construction of machines ; for smiths, 
mechanicians, conductors of machines, coppersmiths, modelers, joiners, «S:c. ; they 
are taught geometry, the rudiments of algebra, the elements of physics and me- 
chanics, the description and study of machines, and also drawing ; these studies 
require two years. The third, or chemical school, is for dyers, brewers, tanners, 
soapboilers, &c. ; the lectiires treat of general chemistry and chemical technology. 
The foiuih is the school for wea-\dng and spinning ; here the pupils are taught 
practical weaving, the calculations relative thereto, the preparations of the cards, 
taking out of patterns, &c. Th.& fifth, or school of industrial art, is intended for 
manufacturers of porcelain and earthenware, glass blowers, goldsmiths, confec- 
tioners, &c. ; the instruction consists of drawing and modeling. 

At the close of the courses there are examinations, after which certificates of 
capacity are given to the deserving, and the two pupils at the head of each divis- 
ion receive prizes. The number of workmen who attended the Prague school in 
1863-64 was 762. The expense was 5,900 florins, of which 2,380 was for pro- 
fessors, besides 1,620 for drawing and modchng. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 



43 



3. mechanics' school at bruewn. 

In 1851, the Chamber of Industry and Comnxerce in Briinn (a city, in 1860, 
of 45,000 inhabitants,) stimulated by the government activity in tlie thorough 
organization of real schools, established a Mechanics' school with two sections, 
the elementary for apprentices, who arc deficient in even primary education ; and a 
higher for siich additional studies as geometry, physics, free-hand, and geometri- 
cal drawing, besides lectures and practice in book-keeping, banking, and com- 
mercial correspondence. Chemistry is an optional study for ten hours a week. 

The pupils are divided into three principal classes: (1) for builders, with a 
special winter course for masons, joiners, and stone-cutters; (2) for mechanics, 
including a special class in weaving ; (3) for technical applications of chemistry. 

The instruction is given on Sunday, and the evenings, and in the winter, one 
hour by daylight, on Thursdays, is secured for drawing. Besides, several special 
assistants ; and in the weaving class, two foremen from the largest establishment 
in the city, twenty teachers from the real school, higher technical institute, and 
gymnasium, are employed. The school is free, and the attendance large. 

REAL GYMNASIUM OR PRACTICAL SCHOOL, 
In 1867, there were 87 Keal schools of the lower or three years' course, and 24 
of the higher or five years' course. These are all located in the chief towns, but 
draw their pupils from all parts of the districts where they are placed. 

HIGHER PRACTICAL SCHOOL AT PRAGUE. ^ 

This school, the origin of which the Bohemians trace with justifiable pride 
throogh the successive transformations, which the progress of industry rendered 
necessary, to the year 1576, in the reign of Rudolph II., an epoch long anterior 
to the foundation of most of the schools now existing in Germany, follows the 
same programme* of studies as the Vienna schools, as will be seen from the fol- 
lowing table. The pupils, (513 in 1867,) are divided into six classes, requiring 
six years. The subjects of instruction and number of hours are indicated below. 





1st 
Class. 


2d 

Clats. 


3d 
Class. 


4th 
Class. 


5th 
Class. 


6 th 

Class. 


Totals. 




Religious instruction. 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


12 


German language, 


4 


4 


4 


3-5 


4 


4 


23-25 


Geography and history. 


3 


3 


3 


3-5 


4 


4 


18-20 


Arithmetic, 


4 


4 


3 


- 


_ 


_ 


11 


Natural history, - - - 


2 


2 


_ 


2 


2 


2 


10 


Useful knowledge, 


2 


3 


- 


- 






5 


Bohemian language, - 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


18 


Calligraphy, - - - 


2 


2 


2 


2 


_ 


_ 


8 


Freehand drawing, 


_ 


6 


7 


6 


6 


6 


31 


Chemistry, 


_ 


_ 


6 


2 


2 


2 


12 


Construction of buildings, - 


- 


_ 


2 


- 


_ 


_ 


2 


Mathematics, . . _ 


— 


_ 


_ 


8 


5 


2 


15 


Linear draAving, - 


_ 


_ 


_ 


_ 


4 


4 


8 


Physics, - - - - 


_ 


_ 


_ 


_ 


4 


4 


8 


Description of machines, - 


_ 


_ 


_ 


_ 




2 


2 


Drawing of machines. 


_ 


_ 


_ 


_ 


_ 


2 


2 


Modeling, - - - - 


_ 


_ 


_ 


_ 


_ 


4 


4 


Geometry and construction 
















drawing, - - - ^ 


10 


4 


- 


- 


- 


- 


14 


Italian, . - , ^ 






' 






(2 


_ 


French, - - - \{ 


:)utofc 


lass. 


_ 


. 


" 


<2 


_ 


Stenography, - - S 












2 


- 



44 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 



The FrcncH commissioners remark : Of all the practical schools in Grermany 
that of Prague is certainly the one where linear drawing is best taught, and we 
are inclined to attribute this fact to the attention given from the very outset to 
the practice of freeliand drawing, which early habituates the pupil to trace his 
lines with a light hand. 

The instruction is given in German and Bohemian, but the professors are free 
to choose Avhich language they please. There are, in some cases, professors of 
each lainguage for the same course. The class-rooms, amphitheatres, and labo- 
ratories are spacious and well arranged. The collections are well stocked with 
models, and the workshop for modeling will accommodate 25 pupils at once. 

IMPERIAL HIGHER PRACTICAL SCHOOL AT VIENNA. 

The Imperial gymnasium in the Landstrasse is accommodated in a building 
rented for the purpose, formerly the residence of Prince Lichtenstein. It has 
numerous collections, especially of mineralogy and natural history. Well ar- 
ranged laboratories have been fitted up to enable the pupils who are so disposed 
to make themselves acquainted with the elements of chemical manipulation. 
There is a workshop for modeling, and the pupils are exercised in that art from 
a drawing, and conversely in drawing from models. The drawing-class rooms 
are very spacious and well lighted : the pupils have plenty of room. For draw- 
ing from the round or from models in relief, even elementary, there are cabinets 
or cells lined with green cloth, and in which the models are lighted by a single 
gas burner, so that the shadows may be more distinct. 

The time devoted, weekly, to lessons and graphic exercises, under the eye of the 
professors, is distributed as sho^vn in the following table : 





1st 


2d 


3d 


4th 


5th 


6 th 


Totals. 


' 


Class. 


Class. 


Class. 


Class. 


Class. 


Class. 


Compulsory. 
















Religion, - - - 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


12 


Arithmetic, 


4 


4 


3 


_ 


_ 


_ 


11 


Mathematics, 


_ 


_ 


- 


9 


5 


2 


16 


GeiTTian, - - - 


5 


5 


4 


5 


3 


4 


26 


Geography and history, - 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


21 


Natural history, - 


2 


2 


- 


2 


2 


-• 


8 


Physics, - 


2 


4 


_ 


_ 


4 


4 


14 


Chemistry, 


_ 


_ 


6 


2 


2 


2 


12 


Writing or calligraphy, - 


2 


2 


2 


2 


_ 


- 


« 


Freehand drawing. 


10 


6 


7 


4 


6 


6 


39 


Descriptive geometry draw- 
















ing, 


— 


_ 


— 


— 


4 


_ 


4 


Linear drawing of buildings, 


- 


4 


3 


2 


- 


- 


9 


]Machine drawing, 


- 


— 


_ 


- 


- 


4 


4 


Lectures on machines. 


_ 


_ 


_ 


_ 


_ 


2 


2 


Modeling, - 


- 


- 


- 


4 


4 


4 


12 



The time, per week, allotted to optional studies, is as follows : English language, 
5 hours ; Italian language, 3 ; French language, 3 ; stenography, 2 ; singing, 2 ; 
gymnastics, 2. 

We see by this table the immense importance attacbed to the teaching of free- 
hand drawing, almost exclusively executed from models in relief. For the six 
classes it occupies 39 hours per week, whilst to linear d^a^ving with rule and 
compass only 16 hours are given. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 



45 



At the close of every year there is an examination, and marks arc given ; ac- 
cording to the results the pupils pass to the upper classes. According to the 
information and notes of each professor the pupils are classed, and any note 
stating deficiency in a single branch of instruction prevents the pupil from enter- 
ing the upper class, and, on leaving, deprives him of tlie certificate of satisfaction 
required for admission to the technical institutes. It is evident, by these rules, 
that tlie system of outdoor pupils is compatible with strict discipline. When a 
pupil leaves the sixth class of a higher practical school with a certificate of emin- 
ence he is admitted de jure into the first class of the Polytechnic Institute, other- 
wise he must go through a year's preparatory studies. The examinations are 
very strict. The school fee at Vienna is 18 to 20 florins a year. The pupils 
who perform chemical manipulations in the laboratory pay an additional en- 
trance fee of two florins and one florin per month. The reagents arc furnished 
by the State. 

CITY HIGHER PRACTICAL SCHOOL IN VIENNA. 

The Eeal gymnasium, located in the suburb of Wieden, founded by the city 
and administered by the municipal authorities, is of the same order as the Gov- 
ernment School. The building is a very handsome one, and is most conven- 
iently arranged. The class-rooms for drawing and study, and the laboratories, 
are large and well lighted, and there are very good collections of apparatus and 
models. Drawing is taught from objects and models in relief. Free-hand draw- 
ing receives far greater attention than linear drawing ; the former has 38 hours 
weekly in the diflerent classes, the latter only eight, and yet the results are satis- 
factory. 

The subjects of instruction are distributed, per class and hours, as follows : 





1st 
Class. 


2d 
Class. 


3d 
Class. 


4th 
Class. 


5th 

Class. 


6 th 
Class. 


Total. 




Religion, - 
Arithmetic, 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


12 


4 


4 


4 


_ 


_ 


_ 


12 


Mathematics, 


_ 


2 


_ 


9 


5 


2 


18 


German, - 


5 


5 


4 


5 


3 


4 


26 


Geography and history, - 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


21 


Natural history, - 


2 


2 


- 


2 


2 


2 


10 


Physics, - 


2 


3 


- 


_ 


4 


4 


13 


Chemistry, 


_ 


_ 


6 


2 


2 


2 


12 


Writing and calligraphy, - 


2 


2 


2 


2 


- 


- 


8 


Descriptive geometry. 


- 


— 


— 


2 


4 


- 


6 


Free-hand drawing. 


10 


6 


6 


4 


6 


6 


38 


Linear drawing of buildings 
















and machines, - 


_ 


2 


2 


_ 


_ 


4 


8 


Lectures on machines, 


_ 


_ 


_ 


_ 


_ 


2 


2 


Construction of buildings. 


- 


- 


2 


- 


- 


32 


2 


Total, - 


30 


31 


31 


32 


32 





We see by this table that the distribution of time and lessons is almost identi- 
cal with that adopted at the Imperial and Royal School in the Landstrasse. It 
is the same with regard to the selection of the subjects for drawing, which, after 
relating to questions of general education, are divided into distinct industrial 
specialties. 



46 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 



POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. 

The object of the technical institutions at Vienna, Prague, and Gratz, is, to 
give a thorough, scientific, and, so far as can be done, also practical education. 
Instniction is imparted in separate courses, (Fachschulen,) of which there are four 
at Vienna and Prague; 1. Construction of roads, canals, bridges, &c. 2. Ar- 
chitecture. 3. Construction of machinery. 4. Technical chemistry. Other 
technical studies are not excluded, if they have reference to the above courses. 

In Gratz, instead of architecture, there is a course of agriculture and forest 
economy. Likewise a course of surveying and meadow culture. At Gratz and 
Vienna the accessory studies, which form the general scientific basis of the sepa- 
rate courses (mathematies, physics, and draAving,) are taught in two general 
classes, which precede the separate courses of study. The other subjects of in- 
struction are partly such as must be taught in the separate courses, in corres- 
pondence with the aim and object of the institution, partly such as offer an oppor- 
tunity to students for other and deeper studies. 

The students are classed as ordinary and extraordinary. 

The ordinary students, for the first year's course at Vienna and Prague, must 
hold either a certificate from a real school or gymnasium, (besides giving evi- 
dence of some proficiency in free-hand and geometrical drawing,) or pass an 
examination on the studies of the same. To become an extraordinary student at 
any of the three polytechnic schools, the candidate must give proof of possessing 
sufiicient preliminary knowledge to enable him to attend the lectures with profit. 

In Vienna and Gratz, the ordinary students must follow strictly the plan of 
studies laid down for each year ; unless, with the consent of the aiithorities a 
different plan for themselves has been formed. In Prague, the plan of studies is 
not obligatory. The free choice of lectures is permitted, with the only condition 
that satisfactory evidence is given of a sufficient preliminary knowledge. 

The charge for tuition for ordinary students, in Vienna and Prague, is 50 
florins; in Gratz, for ordinary and extraordinary students, 30 florins. Thechai*ge 
for the extraordinary students, at Vienna, is at the rate of 1 florin 50 kreuzers 
for each lecture (two drawing hours are counted as one). Extra lectures are 
to be paid for separately. Students, unable to pay, who show great abilities, may 
be allowed to study partly or totally free of charge. 

The internal administration of these institutions is in the hands of a board of 
professors, at whose head is a rector, (called director at Gratz,) who is chosen 
annually by the professors. The choice must be confirmed by the government. 
In Vienna, he can only be chosen again after two years' interval. The rectors at 
Vienna and Prague have an additional salary of 1,000 florins; the director at 
Gratz, who is chosen annually from among the professors of some other technical 
school, has 500 florins. The board of professors is formed by all the ordinary 
and extraordinary professors and representatives of the tutors (docenten). 

Each of the separate divisions has a president, who is chosen from among the 
ordinary professors engaged in each separate course of study, in Vienna for tAvo 
years, in Gratz and Prague for one year. These presidents superintend the 
course of studies as Avell as the discipline of the students in each division. Each 
division has again its own boai-d of professors, which settles the claims of stu- 
dents to dispense with one or the other course of studies, to decide in doubtful 
cases as to the admission of students, and their promotion to the next class. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 47 

POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AT PRAGUE. 

The Polytechnic Institute is intended to give the pupils who follow its studies 
a fundamental scientific education adapted to the profession they mean to adopt, 
and to make them so well acquainted with technical and scientific progress that 
they may be able without further prepai-ation to enter on the duties of i)ractical 
life. To attain this end, the instruction is distributed in four special divisions : 

A. Division, bridges, roads and civil engmQcring (Wassei' unci Strassenbau). 

B. Division of architecture and civil buildings (Hochhau). 

C. Division of the construction of machines (Maschinenbaa). 

D. Division of applied chemistry (Technische Cheinie). 
The following instmction is common to all the pupils : 

I. — Mathematics. Three courses of a year each. \st Course. — Algebra, an- 
alysis, elements of differential calculus, analytical geometry, plane and solid (7 
hours). 2d Course. — Higher equations, integral and differential calculus, with 
applications to geometry (6 hours). 3d Course. — Differential equations, varia- 
tions, calculations of least squares (5 hours). 

II. — Descuiptivk Geometry. 1. Orthogonal projections, oblique and polar 
in general, with a view to technical applications, (5 hours) ; drawing of buildings 
(10 hours). 2. Sterootomy, application of descriptive geometry to cutring of 
stones and voussoirs (2 hours) ; execution of models in stone-cutting (4 hours). 

III. — Land Surveying, l.s^ Course. — Surveying, leveling, theory and de- 
scription of instruments and apparatus (5 hours) ; topographical drawing from 
models (6 hours) ; practical surveying and leveling in the field (14 days in the 
year at least). 2a Course. — Contouring; geodesic leveling (3 hours) ; practice 
in the field (for 8 days iu the year at least). 

iv^ — Mechanics and Construction of Machines. 1. Elementary me- 
chanics, terrestrial statics and dynamics, hydrostatics, hydrodynamics, aerostatics 
and aerodynamics (3 hours). 2. Analytical mechanics, in the summer term (5 
hours). 3. Mechanics of constructions (3 hours) ; drawing of machines (6 hours). 
4. Study of machines, application of mechanics to the theory and the drawing of 
machines (no time specified). 5. Construction of machines, knowledge of ma- 
terials, and instruction in certain kinds of machines (5 hours). 6. Entyclopadia 
of machines, for pupils not destined for any specialty (5 hours); dra^ving of ma- 
chines (6 hours). 7. Construction of machines in the workshop (at kast 4 hours). 

V. — Technological Mechanics."" Working of metals, wood textile sub- 
stances, spinning, manufacture of Avoolen tissues and of paper (5 hours). 

VII. — Architecture and Civil Engineering. 1st Course. — Mason's and 
carpenter's work, constructions in iron, materials of formation and stability of 
buildings (4 hours) ; designs of construction (no time given). 2. 2d Course. — 
Technical study of edifices, Y)reparatory works, &c., (5 hours) ; drawing of build- 
ings (6 hours). 3. 3d Course. — Project of a large building from a given pro- 
gramme (12 hours). 4. Studiesof style with drawings (courses of 6 hours each); 
modeling in c1j«5^ (6 hours). 

VII. — Hydraulic Construction and Koad-making. \st Course. — Foun- 
dations, embankments, lakes and canals, construction of roads, resistance of 
bridges and railways (5 hours) ; drawings of constructions (no time given). 2d 
Cours?. — On bridges and railways (5 hours) ; drawing of ditto (8 hours) ; pro- 
jects of hvdraulic constructions and roads from a given programme (8 hours). 

VIII. — General notions on Hydraulic Works and Road-making. For 
pupils not destined for any specialty of construction (5 hours) ; drawing of" build- 
ings (6 hours). 

IX. — Genkral Physics. 1. Statics, dynamics, magnetism, electricity, heat, 
optics, acoustics (5 hoars). 2. Technical physics : application of physics to tech- 
nical questions and industry, pyrotechny, telegraphy, galvano-plastics (2 hours). 

X. — General Chemistry. 1. Raw materials and their uses ; working of 
metals, alloys; study of salts; organic chemistry (7 hours). 2. Analytical 
chemistry ; use of the blow-pipe ; qualitative and quantitative analysis, in winter 
(5 hours) ; practical analyzing in the laboratoiy (two courses of lo hours each). 
3. Technological chemistry: \st Course. — Chemical fermentation (in winter); 



48 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 

agricultural chemistry, bleaching and drying (in summer, 5 hours). 2c? Course. — 
Manufacture of sugar (in winter, no time specified) ; manufacture of glass, chem- 
istry of salts (in summer, 5 hours). 4. Chemical encyclopaedia, for pupils not 
intending to follow any chemical specialty. 

XI. — Mineralogy. On the technical and industrial applications (in summer). 

XII. — Geology and Paleontology. Their technical and industrial bear- 
ings (3 hours). 

XIII. — Botany. Technical and industrial applications (in summer, 3 hours). 

XIV. — Zoology. Technical and industrial applications (5 hours). 

XV. — Free-hand Drawing. According to their special technical studies 
(4 hours). 

SPECIAL SCHOOLS, OR DIVISIONS. 

The course of special instruction occupies five years for the first three divisions 
of the first category of pupils (bridges and roads, architecture, construction of 
machines,) and four years for the fourth division (applied chemistry). 

The subjects of instruction are spread over the successive years as follows : 

Division A. — Bridges and Roads. 

First Year. — Mathematics, 1st course (7 hours); descriptive geometry' (5 hours) ; 
working drawings (10 hours) ; general physics (.5 hours) ; mineralogy (4 hours) ; 
free-hand drawing (4 hours). In all, 35 hours per week. 

Second Year. — Mathematics, 2d course ((• hours) ; land surveying, 1st course 
(5 hours) ; drawing of plans (6 hours) ; elementary mechanics (.5 hours) ; general 
chemistry (3 hours) ; technical physics (2 hours). In all, 27 hours per week ; 
and during the summer 14 days practical surveying in the field. 

Third Year. — Mathematics, 3d course (5 houi's); analytical mechanics, and 
description of machines (5 hours) ; drawing of machines (6 hours) ; architecture 
(4 hours) ; drawing of buildings (6 hours) ; geology (3 hours). In all, 29 hours 
per week. Besides geological excursions. 

Fourth Year. — Road-making and hydraulic works, 1st course (5 hours) ; draw- 
ing for ditto (8 hours) ; architecture, 2d course (5 hours); draAving for ditto 
(6 hours) ; mechanics of building (3 hours) ; cutting of stones (2 hours) ; prac- 
tical modeling and stone-cutting (2 hours). In all 30 hours per week. 

Fifth Year. — Road-making and hydraulic works (2 hours) ; drawings for ditto 
(8 hours) ; drawing of projects (8 hours) ; technical mechanics (.o hours) ; land 
surveying, 2d course (3 hours). In all, 25 hours per week, and also at least a 
week in the year in visiting remarkable engineering works. 

s 

Division B. — Architecture and Civil Constructions. 

First ytar. — Same as Division A. 

Second year. — Same as Division A, plus 6 hours per week for the study of style, 
1st course. ■ 

Third year. — Same as Division A, plus 2d course of style ( 6 hours). 

Fourth year. — Same as Division A, plus 3d course of style (6 hours). 

Fifth year. — Architecture and civil constructions, 3d course, drawing up of 
projects (12 hours) ; national economy (5 hours in winter, 4 hours in summer) ; 
account-keeping (3 hours) ; technical mechanics (5 hours) ; study of style, 4th 
course (6 hours) ; modeling (6 hours). In all, 33 hours per week', besides visits 
to interesting constructions. 

Division C. — Construction of Machines. 

First and second years.— Same as Division A. 

TA/rc? yea/-.— Mathematics, 3d course, in winter; analytical mechanics, in 
summer (5 hours) ; drawing of machines (6 hours) ; encyclopaedia of construc- 
tion (5 hours); drawing of buildings (6 hours) ; geology (8 hours). In all, 30 
hours per week. 

Fourth year. — Construction of machines (5 hours) ; drawing of ditto ( 10 hours) ; 
projects of ditto (5 hours) ; technological mechanics (5 hours) ; technological 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 49 

chemistry and metallurgy (2 hours) : national economy, in winter (5 hours) ; 
aa'ount-keeping', in summer (3 hours) ; practice in -workshop (4 hours at least). 
In all 3j hours, besides visits to j;reat workshops. 
Fifth yea/-. — Practice in workshops. 

Division D. — Technological Chemistry. 

First year. — Mathematics, 1st course (7 hours) ; general physics (5 hours) ; 
mineralogy (3 hours' lessons, 1 hour of application) ; zoology in winter, botany, 
in summer (5 hours). In all 21 hours. 

Second year — General chemistry (7 hours); technical physics (2 hours); gen- 
eral mechanics (6 hours); drawing of machines (6 hours) ; geology (3 hours). 
In all 23 hours, besides geological excursions. 

Third year. — Analytical chemistry, in winter (5 hours) ; analysis in laboratory 
(15 hours) ; technical chemistry, in winter (5 hours) ; agricultural chemistry, in 
summer (5 hours) ; encyclopaedia of construction (5 hours) ; drawing of buildings 
(6 hours). In all 36 hours per week in winter, 31 in summer. 

Fourth year. — x\nalysing in laboratory (at least 15 hours) ; sugar-making, iron- 
works, glass-making, pottery, and chemistry of salts (5 hours) ; national economy 
and account-keeping (4 hours). In all 29 hours per week. 

It Avill be seen that in this programme the instruction given to mechanicians 
is continued without interruption for four years, and that practice in workshops 
is required only in the fifth year, which appears preferable to the plan adoptad 
at Dresden, of obliging the pupils to pass a year in the workshop after the first 
year's studies. 

The institute has 20 ordinary professors, 11 extraordinary professors of the 
first class, 20 tutors, and 6 masters. The number of pupils in 1862-63 was as 
follows : Natives of Prague, 120 ; of Bohemia, 575 ; of Moravia, 14 ; of other 
parts of the empire, 38 ; total, 747. The age of the pupils ranged from 16 to 
25, the great majority (526) being between 19 and 23. 

The Prague Institute possesses numerous collections well supplied -with the* 
necessary appliances for teaching. They consist of^ — 1. A library with from 
10,000 to 12,000 volumes. 2. Complete sets of models for descriptive geometry, 
models of surfaces generated by straight lines, &c. 3. Instruments for topogra- 
phy, surveying, and leveling for the use of the pupils ; topographical models in 
relief (Bai-din's system). 4. Models of machines in great number and variety; 
parts of machines ; apparatus to demonstrate the laws of falling bodies ; dyna- 
mometers ; divers prime movers. 5. Instruments for physical experiments, com- 
prising most of the new inventions in that department. 6. Technology-v-differ- 
ent tools ; 'raw products, &c. 7. Architectiu'C — models in plaster; handsome 
models of suspension and other bridges in wood, iron, &c. ; models of roofs and 
other carpenter's work. 8. Agriculture — well-executed models of farming ma- 
chinery and implements. 9. Natural history and mineralogy — collection of min- 
erals and rocks placed at the disposal of the pupils ; birds, reptiles, &c. 

The Institute has, for the study of applied chemistry, a complete laboratory, 
in which 40 pupils can simultaneously perform the principal manipulations. 

The French commissioner remarks, " Ave found here linear drawing in the great- 
est perfection. The lines are fine and light ; all the various kinds of working draw- 
ings are executed there, and the projects of public works, buildings, and machines 
are carefully got up." 

4 



50 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 



POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AT VIENNA. 

The Polj'technic Institute in "Vienna, as organized in 1815, was the culmina- 
tion of efforts begun in 1765 to shape the instruction of the schools to meet the 
special wants of pupils in their future mechanical or commercial occupations. 
In 1835-36, we found it the best equipped school of its class (for mechanical 
and commercial industries) in Europe, and it was thus described by Prof. Bache. 

The whole institution is intended to fulfill a threefold purpose, as a school for 
the mechanic arts, manufactures, and commerce, as a conservatory of arts and 
manufactures, and as an institute for the promotion of national industry. The 
last named object is effected by public exhibitions, from time to time, of the pro- 
ducts of manufactures, under the direction of the institute. For the better exe- 
cution of this object, a spacious building is now erecting on the premises, adapted 
to the occasional display and permanent deposit of specimens of the mechanic 
arts. The collections which form the conservators of arts are also used for in- 
struction in the school, and will be described in connection with it. 

Tlie whole institution is under the control of a director, who is responsible to 
the higher authorities of public instruction, and of trade and manufactures. The 
director is the general superintendent of the business of the institute and of the 
instruction, but does not teach. He regulates the admission of pupils and the dis- 
Xiipline. The money concerns are imder the charge of a treasurer, who is re- 
sponsible to the director. The inferior officers are responsible to the same 
authority. The discipline of the scholastic department is simple but rigid, no 
pupil being allowed to remain connected with it whose deportment is not proper. 
The courses are gratuitous, except a small entrance fee, and this is considered as 
warranting prompt removal when the pupil does not perform the duties prescribed 
by the institution. 

The department of instruction is composed of three schools, a technical, a com- 
mercial, and a " real school." The last named is a preparatory school for the 
two others, and may be entered as early as thirteen years of age. Its courses 
are of religious instruction, of German language, elementary mathematics, geog- 
raphy, history, natural history, elocution, calligraphy, and drawing, and are obli- 
gatory upon the pupils. Italian and French may be studied if the pupil desires 
it. As these courses lead in three years to the other departments of the institu- 
tion, the candidates for admission are required to possess the elementary attain- 
ments necessary to their successful prosecution. There are five professors and 
four teachers connected with this school, which is superintended by the vice-direc- 
tor of the institute. The instructors rank by regulation with those in the gym- 
nasia or classical schools of the empire. Tlie course of instruction is not as com- 
prehensive as that in the Prussian real schools, but is an adequate preparation for 
the next higher divisions, which supply in part these deficiencies. 

The technical and comm.ercial schools furnish special instruction according to 
the intended pursuits of the pupil, though he may, in fact, select the courses 
which he wishes to attend, not being limited as to the number or character of the 
branches. Tlie director advises with the pupil, on admission, as to the studies 
most appropriate to be followed, if his intended calling is fixed, and he is not 
allowed to join the classes, the courses of which require preparation, without pre- 
senting a certificate from the school at which he has been instructed, or being 
examined, to ascertain his proficiency. In regard to other courses, there is no 
such restriction. The age for admission is sixteen years. 

The instruction is given in the technical school by eight professors and two 
assistants ; the professors lecturing, and in some of the coui'ses, interrogating the 
pupils. Certain lectures are also gone over by the assistants with the classes. 
The courses which combine practice with teaching will be pointed out in enumer- 
ating the subjects of study. The division of these subjects, and the time devoted 
to them during the week, are as follows : 

I. General Chemistry, applied to the arts, five hours. 

II. Special Technical Chemistry, ten hours. This cour.se giivrs a particular account 
of all the processes of the arts of which the principles were developed in the general lectures. 



POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF VIENNA. 5| 

There is a J-pecial laboratory devoted to the course, where, under the superintendence of the 
professor or of his assistants, the pupils jro tiiroujrli the processes oij a small scale Those 
who have a particular object in view, as dyeing, bleacliinjr, printinj: upon stutTs, or the man- 
ufacture of chemical preparations or melallnrjry, are directed in their investigations espe- 
cially to the parts of clumislry which they will have to apply. Practice and theory are thus 
combined. 

III. Physics, with special reference to its applications, five hours. 

IV. Ele.mEaMtary Mathematics, including arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and mensura- 
ti(ni, ten houi-s. This course is intended for those who have not passed through the real 
8c!iool. 

V. Higher Mathematics, five hours. There is a repetition by an assistant, also of five 
hours 

VI. Mechanics, including the description and calculation of machines, five hours. This 
subjrct i.s foiuided upon a course of mach nes, considered as an application of descriptive 
geometry and drawing, superintended by an assistant. 

VII P'ractical Geometry, including land and topographical surveying, levelling. <fec., 
five hours. The lectures are accompanied by practice in the use of instruments in the field. 

VIII Civil and IIvDRAULic Architeotuke, fen hours. This includes a complete course 
of engineering, in its various branches. It is accompanied by exercises in drawing. 

IX. Technologv, or a general discussion of arts and trades, five hours. The subjects 
which come under the head of special chemistry are omitted in the lectures of thisdivision. 

X. The assistant profes.^or of chemistry delivers an extra lecture, daily, on the methods of 
measuring Specific Gravities, during part of the course. 

XI. Elementary Drawing for those who have not passed through the real school, five 
hours. There are extra courses in the Latin, Bohemian, and English languages, for those 
who wish to follow them. 

The time devoted to draw^ing depends upon the student, but it is obvious that 
his knowledge must be very incomplete, and that he will carry away from the 
school but an imperfect record of descriptive geometry and its applications, unless 
he devotes a great deal of time to this branch. In this respect the arrangement 
of the school is entirely difl'erent from that at Berlin, where the drawings accom- 
panying the courses are made as much a matter of regular duty as the attendance 
upon the leetm-es themselves. This is certainly the proper plan, and while it ap- 
peared to me that the time spent in the graphic exercises at Berlin was even 
beyond the measure of their importance, I am decidedly of opinion that a strict 
attention to this department is essential. 

The collections, by the aid of which these courses are carried out, are — 1. An 
extensive collection of chemical preparations for both special and general chemis- 
try. The pupils in special chemistry, as already stated, make preparations in the 
departments of the art which they intend to follow, and some of these are left 
behind them as specimens of their skill. In the department of the dyer there is 
quite a large series of specimens collected in this way. The laboratories for both 
special and general chemistry are admirably adapted to their purpose.* 2. A 
cabinet of instruments for the course of practical geometry. 3. A considerable 
collection of physical apparatus. 4. A collection of models of machines, and in 
engineering. 5. A technological cabinet of a most complete character, and ad- 
mirably arranged ; it contains many of the best specimens of Austrian arts and 
manufactures. All these collections are under the care of the professor in whose 
department they find a place ; there being, besides, curators for the immediate 
charge of them, and for keeping them in repair. Tlie cabinet of physical appa- 
ratus, and of models and machinery, were in the main supplied from the work- 
shops of the institution. These shops have long been celebrated for the astronom- 
ical and geodesic instrviments furnished from them. They are still kept up, 
though on a reduced scale, their chief object having been accomplished. They 
were never intended, like those of Berlin, to aiFord practical instruction to the 
pupils. The institution, indeed, does not recognize the principle that this can be 
done to advantage in the mechanical department. It is certain, as already stated, 
that great care is required to render such establishments of any avail beyond the 
point of giving to the pupil a general readiness with his hands, and that even 
when well conducted tlieyare expensive. Success in practical chemistry requires 
essentially a very considerable knowledge of theory ; the processes on a small 
scale represent, in general, fairly those upon the large, and experiments thus made 
frequently save the outlay which is required to make them in the large way. The 

* The laboratory of the professor of general chemistry, Professor Meissner, is one of the 
best arranged which I saw abroad. The furnace operations, and others likely to incom- 
mode the class, are performed behind a screen, with large glass windows, which allow a per- 
fect view : the space behind is provided with the means of carrying off the fumes. 



52 POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF MENNA. 

practice in the laboratory of a school is, besides, very nearly of the kind required 
for the manufactory. These, among other circumstances render the problem in 
regard to successful preparation for the arts depending upon chemistry, different 
ft'om that relating to the art of the machinist. It is in this department that the 
polytechnic school of Vienna is particularly strong. There can be no doubt that 
Austrian manufactures in general have received a great impulse through the me- 
dium of this institution, and particularly of its scholastic department, but while 
praise is yielded to the different courses, the arrangements for teaching chemistry 
must be considered as hcviug a preference over the others. 

The lessons in the commercial school embrace the following subjects : — 

I. Commercial correspondence, three hours per week. 

II. The science of trade (Handelswissenschaft.) three hours. 

III. Austrian laws relating to trade and exchange, three hours. 

IV. Commercial arithmetic, six hours, 

V. Book-keeping, by single and double entry, four hours. 

VI. Account of the materials of trade. (Waarenkunde,) the sources, uses, properties, kinds, 
adulterations to which they are subject, &c., four hours. 

VII. Commercial geography, three hours. 

VIII. History of commerce, three hours. There are five professors in this school. 

Once a week the professors of the institute meet, under the presidency of the 
director, to confer on the business of the institution. Saturday is appropriated in 
part to this purpose, and there are no exercises for the students on that day. 
One of the professors is secretary of the board. The professors rank by regula- 
tion with those of the imiversities. 

The lectures last fi'om October to August of every year. At the close of them, 
a pupil who wishes a certificate in any branch, presents himself, and is examined 
by a professor, in presence of a director and of two members of the imperial com- 
. mission of studies. A student who has attended the lectm-es, and does not wish 
to be examined, may receive a certificate of attendance. 

To supply the place of a regular division of studies for different callings, one 
of the earlier programmes contained a recommendation of certain courses of study 
as preparatory to particular occupations. The recommendations were the follow- 
ing : — For tradesmen, the two years of the real school, and one year of the com- 
mercial school ; or for a more complete education, an additional year, embracing 
the courses of chemistry, physics, and technology of the technical school. For 
dyers, printers in stuffs, bleachers, manufacturers of chemical products, of salt, 
of saltpeter, for miners, metallurgists, brewers, &c., special chemistry, physics, 
and technology, with some of the courses of the conmiercial school. For ma- 
chinists, hydraulic engineers, mill-wrights, foremen in manufactories, and mining 
engineers — a course of two years was recommended, the first to embrace mathe- 
matics, physics, and drawing, and the second, mechanics, njachine-drawing, and 
technology. As a preparation for agriculturists and foresters — courses of mathe- 
matics, physics, practical geometry, chemistry and book-keeping. For miners, 
mathematics, physics, practical geometry, mechanics, drawing, and book-keeping. 
For surveyors, mathematics, physics, practical geometry, drawing, and book- 
keeping. 

There is still a regular course laid down for architects and civil engineers, the 
satisfactory completion of wliich entitles to a diploma. The first year includes 
elementary mathematics, technology, and drawing; the second, higher mathe- 
matics, physics, and drawing ; the third, the applied mathematics, mechanics, 
practical geometry, and drawing ; the fourth, architecture, engineering, drawing, 
technolog}-, chemistry, and book-keeping. 

The library of the institute is appropriated to the several departments, and 13 
used by the students, as well as by the professors. Yearly appropriations, besides 
the entrance and diploma fees, are devoted to its increase. The professors have 
the right of recommending such works to be purchased as they may deem of use 
in their departments. An annual is published by the institute, consisting of origi- 
nal and selected scientific articles, by the professors, and notices of tie institution. 

To mark the advance in the subjects and courses of instruction, we give in 
-detail, (1) the requirements for admission to either of the special divisions in 
1868, and (2) the distribution of studies in the I. Technical Section ; 11, Com- 
mercial Section ; and III. The Special Courses. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 53 

Requirements for Admission into the Polytechnic Institution in Vienna. 

Candidates for admission as ordinary students into tlie Polytcclmic Institution, 
are subject to examination in the subjects, and to the extent given below. 

a. Mathematics. 

1. Arithmetic and Algebra. — Cipliering in general, and calculation with com- 
mon fractions and decimal fractions in particuhir ; change of common fractions 
into decimal fractions, and continuous fractions, rule of three, reduction, chain 
rule, division ; calculation, with logarithms ; extraction of square and cubic 
roots of numbers ; the rules of algebra ; the properties of products and quotients, 
of powers, radicals, and logarithms; divisibility of numbers; greatest common 
measure, and least common multiple ; properties of common continued fractions ; 
outlines of the theory of combination ; Newton's binomial proposition ; simple 
equations with one and more unknown quantities, equations of tlie second degree 
with one and two unknown quantities, and equations of higher degrees witli one 
and more unknown quantities, in as far as they can be resolved into quadratic 
equations ; simple indeterminate equations ; arithmetical and geometrical pro- 
gression ; calculation of interest. 

2. Plane Geometry; a. — Planimetry; congruence, similarity, superficial con- 
tents, and transformation of rectilinear figures, more particularly of triangle 
and square; properties of the circle; lines and angles of the circle; its rela- 
tion to the triangle, to the square, and to regular polygons ; its periphery and 
contents. 

6, Goniometry and Trigonometry. — The goniometric functions, their properties 
and mutual relations, and the more important formulas connected with them, 
particularly for the sums and differences of two angles, and for double and semi- 
angles ; problems of the resolution of the triangle, and application of this calcu- 
lation in given cases. 

c.^ Analytical Geometry. — Proposi'tion of the equations for the straight line and 
the circle in rectangular co-ordinates ; problems relating to the straight lines and 
the circle; proposition of the equations for the ellipse, the parabola, and hyper- 
bola from their definition ; deduction of the principal properties of these lines, 
more ])articularly as regards the focus and the tangents. 

3. So'id Geometry; a. — Stereometiy ; propositions and problems as to the x-e- 
lations between points, stx-aight lines, and planes ; properties of the parallel- 
opipedon, of the prism in general, of pyraniids, of regular bodies; superficies 
and solid contents of angular bodies ; properties of the cylinder, the cone and 
the sphere, their superficies and solid contents, lines and angles on the surface of 
the sphere. 

h. Spherical Trigonometry. — Properties of the spherical triangle ; problems for 
the solution of this; execution of the calculation in given cases. 

In all these matters accurate understanding of the theory, as well as skill and 
certainty in the execution of the calculations is required. 

h. Geography and History. 

Geography. — Knowledge of the leading points of mathematical and physical 
geography, particularly of orography and hydrography; survey of political 
geography ; knowledge of the most important bi-anches of production, and of 
the internal relations of the leading countries; closer acquaintance Avith the 
political geography and statistics of Austria, particularly relating to the natioiuil 
and productive circumstances, and the state of civilization in the several portions. 

History. — Synoptical knowledge of ancient history, more especially of Grecian 
history to the period of the doAvnfall of the Macedonian Empire. As regards 
the history of the East, the development of the Egyptians, the Persians, and the 
trading colonies of the Phoenicians is more particularly to be held in view ; the 
Hellenic states and constitutions dui'ing the heroic period ; the wanderings of the 
Darians; the Greek colonies; the legislation of Lycurgus, and the Messinian 
war; Solon; the Persian war; the Peloponnesian war; the Theban war, and 
the leadership of Thebes; Philip of Macedonia; Alexander's expeditions into 
Asia; the fate of the States which were formed out of the empire of Alexander. 

Roman History up to the time of Augustus. — The constitution of Rome during 
the time of the kings ; the llepublican constitution ; the struggles between patri- 



' 54 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA, 

cians and plebians for equality of rights ; the war with Tarento and Pj^rrhiis ; 
the Punic wars ; the Gracchi-Marius and Sulla; the first triumvirate; Julius 
Caesar ; the second triumvirate ; Caesar Octavian Augustus. 

Survey of medieval history, and more particularly of German history. Con- 
stantine the Great and the development of Christianity. The migration of na- 
tions and the founding of new empires. The Franks, Charlemagne. Dissolu- 
tion of the empire of the Franks. The Saxon Emperors, especially Otto I, the 
Salic Frank Dynasty, Conrad II, Henry III, Henry IV, and Henry V. The 
Crusades and their consequences. The Babenbergs. Foundation of the power 
of the Ilapsburgs. Charles IV and Wenzel. Sigismund and the ecclesiastical 
relations of his times. Germany under Frederick III and Maximilian I. The 
Italian republics of the middle ages. 

More detailed acquaintance with the history of modern times, and more par- 
ticularly with the history of Germany and Ausiria. Discoveries and inventions. 
The revival of art and science. The Reformation. Charles V, Philip II, and 
the Netherlands. The religious wars in France. Henry IV, The thirty years 
war. England under tiie Tudors, the Stuarts, Cromwell. France under Riche- 
lieu and Mazarin. The age of Louis XIV. The Austro-Turkish wars. Sweden 
under the Vasas. War of the Spanish succession. The northern war. Charles 
VI. The Silesian war and the war of the Austrian succession. Maria Theresa. 
Joseph II. The North American Avar of independence. History of the revolu- 
tionary period from 1789 to 1815. 

c. Physics. 

The requirements are in — a. General k' owledge : a perfectly distinct under- 
standing of the fundamental principles of the science, and a knowledge of the 
most important phenomena in nature and of the laws that govern them, founded 
on experimental demonstration, and on elementary mathematical proofs. 

6. Special knowledge : knowledge of the general properties of physical bodies, 
of the different forces working in them, of the various forms of aggregation, of 
the different degrees of solidity, of the laws of elasticity, adhesion, decomposi- 
tion, crystalization. 

In general mechanics, determination and measurement, combination, and res- 
olution [zerlegung) of forces from a single point of attack or from several points, 
the momentum of revolution (Drehungsmoment) and its composition, the simplest 
and most important of the complex mechanical prin*>iples of the theory of mo- 
tion, uniform and irregular motion, velocity, combination, and resolution of mo- 
tion, curvelinear motion, centripetal and cen rifugal force, gravity, and the mo- 
tion produced by it, projectile motion, oscillatory motion, revolving motion, 
point of inertia, free axis of rotation, impingement of elastic and of non-elastic 
bodies, resistance of motion, motion of working power and of vital force. 

Theory of the balance, absolute and specific weight, influence of -the earth's 
rotation round its axis on its form, and on the intensity of gravitation in differ- 
ent geographical latitudes, ebb and flood. 

Fundamental principles of liquid bodies, form of the free surface and the con- 
ditioning causes, pressure on the bottom and the side walls of the containing 
vessel, and the practical applications to be deducted therefrom. Equilibrium in 
communicating vessels, the most important phenomena of capillary attraction, 
rising (Aiifireib) equilibrium of floating bodies, determination of density by 
means of areometer and water poise, velocity of outflow under a constant amount 
of pressure, re-action of the jet and its applications, the shock of fluids, and the 
most important applications to water-wheels, turbines, &c. 

General • properties of elastic fluid bodies, measurement of elasticity, atmos- 
pheric pressure, and the measurement of this by means of different kinds of 
barometers, its variableness at different altitudes above the level of the sea. 
Mariotte's law and its most important applications ; different kinds of air pumps. 
Determination of the specific weight of atmospheric air, and of the density of 
gases. Gay-Lussac's law : theory of the balloon, forcing pumps, siphons, &c. 
Laws of absorption, velocity of out-flow under constant uniform pressure. 

Principal phenomena of magnetism. Outlines of the magnetism of the earth, 
magnetic point, magnetic axis, laws of distant effects of magnetism, methods of 
magnetising, paramagnetism, and diamagnetism. 



SPJECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 55 

PVincipal electrical phenomena, electrostatic induction, laws of distant action, 
and the production of such action by means of the revolving balance (Drehwage), 
the electrosco])e, tlie Leyden jar, and rlie condcnsator; elcctrophoricnl action, 
rapidity of the transmission of the electric condition, principal phenomena of 
contact electricity, laws of the gradation of tension, theory of the simple and 
complex voltaic julos, battery, current, physiological, thermal and chemical effects 
of the current. Principal features of electrolysis, the, strength of the current, 
and its measui-ement by chemical effects. Effects of the magnetic current, galva- 
nometers, multiplicators, &c. Electrodynamic and magnetic-electric induction, 
thermo-electricity, idea of the resistance of conduction, Ohm's law, and its most 
important applications, bifurcation of the current. The leading points in the 
applications of the laws of electro-magnetism to telegraphy and electro-magnetic 
motors. Atmospheric electricity. 

Leading points in the theory of undulation. Difi^^rent kinds of waves, reflec- 
tion and interference of waves, particularly of the waves of sound, rapidity of 
sound, conditions of sound, musical tones and determination of the number of 
their vibrations, tones of tightly strung cords, of bars, ot sound-boards (sound 
figures), and of columns of air, reverberation of sound, structure of the organ 
of hearing. 

Elements of the science of light. Elements of the theory of shadows, princi- 
ples of photometry, reflection by plane and curved surfaces ; simple refraction on 
plane and spherical surfaces (elements of the theory of lenses), distribution of 
color. Franenhofer's lines, principles of spectrum analysis, achromatic prisms 
and lenses, chemical effects of light, optical instruments of certain construction 
(camera-obscura, camera-chiara, telescope, &c. ), the eye and its structure, sub- 
jective phenomena of color, and diaphragmatic phenomena. Rapidity of the 
transmission of light, the most important phenomena of interference and refrac- 
tion, the fundamental phenomena of double refraction, polarisation by refraction 
and reflection, color of laminae, explanation of these phenomena by the theory 
of undulations. 

!E*rincip]es of the theory of heat ; expansion of bodies by heat, the thermome- 
ter, conduction of heat ; change of the state of cohesion, latent and specific heat, 
the elements of calometry, generation of steam, laws of the tension of steam, 
determination of the density of steam, vapor contained in the atmosphere, hy- 
grometry, the steam-engine. Radiating heat and the means of measuring the 
intensity of this, laws of radiation. Phenomena of combustion, heat caused by 
combustion. 

d. Natural History. 

Mineralogy. — The candidate should be acquainted with the most important of 
those properties of minerals by which they are characterized, and in accordance 
with these to determine and describe the most common minerals, or those which 
are most important as to their uses. But the knowledge of a definite scientific 
system of minerals is not required. 

With respect to the general portions of mineralogy (characterization, termin- 
ology,) the examination will eitend to : 

1. Crystallography, embracing the moi*phological properties of minerals. A 
knowledge of the- six systems of crystals according to the tises on which they 
are based, and according to their sample forms, as also of the most common 
combinations of two or more forms will be required. The knowledge of ciystal- 
lographic symbols, or of calculating and measuring crystallography, will not be 
required. 

2. Mineral physics embracing the physical properties of minerals : divisibility, 
hardness, and specific weight ; brightness, transparency, color (idiochromatic 
and allochromatic) minerals, veins (sfrich) ; diftlrence between minerals with 
simple and with double refraction, between magnetic and non-magnetic minerals ; 
fusibility. 

3. Mineral chemistry, or chemical properties of minerals; elements, combina- 
tions, equivalents, chemical constitution ; difference betAveen metallic and non- 
metallic minerals ; definition of ores, (sulphurous, oxygenated, and saline ores,) 
of stones, (silicate,) and of salts, (carbonate, sulphate, tS^c.) 

A knowledge of the chemical reaction of minerals is not required. 



56 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 

Among the most common, and most important minerals, as to their uses in 
special mineralogy are counted: 

1. From among the group of metallic minerals, 
a. The metals occurring in a pure form. 

h. The most important ores, such as iron pyrites, magnetic iron, iron glance, 
red oxide of iron, brown iron ore, sparry iron ore, manganese, red ore of nickel, 
shining cobalt ore, copper ore, variegated copper pyrites, copper glance, red cop- 
per ore, malachite, lapis lazuH, sulphuret of lead, white lead ore, green and brown 
lead ore, tin-stone, shining silver ore, gray copper, red silver ore, cinnabar, sul- 
phuret of zinc, lamellar calamine, sulphuret of antimony, arsenical pyrites. 

2. From am.ong the group of non-metallic minerals. 
a. Sulphur and graphite. 

h. The most important stones : quartz, opal, feldspar, analcime, staurolitc, mica, 
chlorite, talc, serpentiae, steatite, ho-rnb-lende, augite, granite, vesuvian, cyanite, 
olivine, tourmaline ; also the most important of the precious stones ; the diamond, 
corundum, (sapphire and niby,) topaz, spinel, zircon, beryl, (emerald.) 

c. The most important salts ; calcareous spar, aragonite, gypsum, anhydrite, 
ponderous spar, celestine, apatite, nitre, fluor spar, rock salt. 

The candidate must he able to indicate the most important morphological, 
physical, and chemical properties of all the^e minerals, as also their most impor- 
tant uses, and the localities in wdiich they are principally found. 

The knowledge of a systematic nomenclature (as for instance that of Mohs) 
is not required, nor either the chemical formulas. 

Botany and Zoology. — In botany and zoology the candidate is expected to he able 
to give a systematic sketch of each of the kingdoms, and to possess a knowledge 
of the most important plants and animals which enables him to distinguish and 
characterize them. By the most important plants and animals are meant such 
as are especially interesting on account of their frequent presence in our coun- 
tiy, of their application in arts and industry, of their usefulness, or their inju- 
riousness, of the conspicuous place which they occupy in the household of na- 
ture, or of their peculiar ge/)graphicnl distribution. 

Plants and animals of this kind will be laid before the candidate for him to 
classify and characterize. 

As more important subjects of examination may be mentioned : 

a. In Botany : principal organs of the phanerogamous plants; foiTns of the 
roots, the pedicels, and the leaves; blossoms; various parts of the fiow^er; outer 
circle of petals, anther, stamen, pistil, and seed bud; survey of the different 
kinds of fruits ; properties of the seed. 

Characteristics of the cryptogamous plants in general. Linne's system. 

Classification of plants according to the natural system. 

Characteristics of the various classes of non-floAvering plants, and the different 
orders of vasculiferous cryptogamia, {Gefafscrytogamen.) 

Characteristics, affinities, geographical distribution, and use of the toost im- 
portant families of seed-bearing- plants. 

b. In Zoology: the principal functions of animal life, motion, sensation, nutri- 
tion, and propagation; indication of the most important organs conv ected there- 
Avith ; the local position of the latter in the animal body, and their nature in 
general must be demonstrated on one of the higher (vertebrate) animals; influ- 
ence of climate on animal life ; division of the animal kingdom into classes, 
(vcrtcbrata, mollusca, &c.,) indicating the distinctive characteristic of each; di- 
vision of mammalia, birds, reptiles, and insects into orders. Distinctive charac- 
teristics of the various families of carnivora, of pachyderma, and of ruminata. 

e. Geometrical and Free-hand Drawing. 

Orthogonal projection ; representation of straight lines and planes ; graphic 
solution of problems relative to their mutual relations ; representations of bodies 
bounded by planes; intersections of their surfaces; representation of conic, 
cylindrical, and rotative surfaces ; their intersection with straight Tines and 
planes, and their mutual intersections, as also their points of contact Avith planes ; 
application of this to the determination of shadows. 
, Elements of the method of perspective projection. 

Free-hand drawing, to draw a head or an entire figure in correct outline from a 
model, and to draw an ornament with shading. 



POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF VIENNA. 



67 



I. TECHNICAL SECTION. 

The course of instruction consists of a preparatory division comprisinf^ two 
years, and four special divisions, viz : 1. Bridges and roads. 2. Architecture. 
3. Construction of machines. 4. Chemistry. The teaching commences on the 
1st of October and ends on the 31st of July. It is divided into courses of a 
year, and courses of half a year. The subjects taught are • 

A Mathematics, descriptive geometry, practical geometry, higher land sur- 
veying, spherical astronomy, technical mechanics, analytical mechanics, general 
physics, teclniical physics, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, analytical 
chemistry, mineralogy, geology, zoology, paleontology, and botany. 

B. Study of machines, general elements of maHiinery, construction of ma- 
chines, mechanics relating to construction, general elements of the construction 
of buildings, architecture and the art of building ; bridges and roads," railways, 
description of soils ; technical chemistry, knowledge of merchandise, agricultural 
and forest economy. 

C. General history, history of Austria, histoiy of the building art, history 
of the inductive sciences; German literature; esthetics, political economy, sta- 
tistics ; mercantile law, law of exchange, maritime law ; Austrian organization 
and administration ; book-keeping. 

D. Technical and free-hand drawing ; decoration, aijd drawing of ornaments ; 
landscape drawing ; modeling. 

E. French, Italian, and English languages; stenography. 

These subjects are distributed between the preparatory and special divisions, 
and nearly the same number of hours is allotted to each, as in the Prague Insti- 
tute just described. The lessons in botany, zoology, gco'ogy, mechanical and 
chemical technology, construction of machines, art of building, and in the agri- 
cultural sciences, are followed by excursions and visits to establishments. The 
practical course of geometry is also terminated by important field operations. 

The folloAviug are studies, with the hours per week allotted to each : 



Preparatory 


Division. 










WINTER. 


SUMMER. 


SUBJECTS. 


Lessons 

of 1| hours 

each. 


Hours 
devoted to 
dra^ying. 


Lessons Hours 
of 1 }; hours devoted to 
each. ( drawing. 


FIRST YEAR. 

Mathematics, (1st course,) - - - 
Descriptive geometry, ... 
Inorganic chemistry, - - - - 

Mineralogy, 

Geology, 

Technical and free-hand drawing, - 


5 
3 
2 
3 


8 , 
6 


5 
3 
2 

3 


8 
8 


Total, - 


13 


14 


13 14 


SECOND YEAR. 

Mathematics, (2d course,) - 
General physics, - - . . 
Technical mechanics, - - - 
Practical geometry, - - - - 
Technical and free-hand drawing, 


3 
2 
3 
3 


6 

8 


3 
3 
3 
3 


_ 

6 
10 


Total, 


11 


14 


12 


16 



58 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA 
I. — Division of Bridges and Roads. 





WINTER. 


SUMMER. 


SUBJECTS. 


Lessons 


Hours 


Lessons Hours 




of li hours 


devoted to 


of li hours devoted to 




each. 


drawing. 


each. 


drawing. 


FIRST YEAR. 










Stereotomy and perspective. 


*" 




3 


6 


Surveying, 


3 


~ 


2 


— 


Analytical mechanics, ... 


3 




_ 


_ 


Elements of machinerv, - . - 


3 


6 


3 


6 


Construction, (1st course, ) - 


4 


8 


4 


8 


Total, 


13 


14 


12 


20 


SECOND TEAR. 










Technical phvsics, - . - - 


2 


_ 


2 


.. 


Applied mechanics, - - - - 


3 


- 


- 


- 


Mechanism, 


2 


- 


2 


— 


Land surveying, - - - 


- 


_ 


1 4 


Bridges and roads, .... 


3 


— 


3 


Projects and construction. 




15 


15 


Total, 


10 


15 


8 


19 


THIRD TEAR. 










History of constructive art. 


3 


_ 


_ 


_. 


Organization of construction, - 


1 


_ 


_ 


_ 


Construction of bridges. 


2 


_ 


2 


_ 


Construction of railways, 


2 


_ 


2 


— 


Projects, 


- 


15 




20 


Total, - - - - - 


8 


15 


4 


20 



II. — Division of Architects and Buildings. 



FIRST YEAR. 










Stereotomv and perspective, 


- 


- 


3 


6 


Elements of machinerv, - 


3 


6 


3 ■ 


6 


Constructive mechanism, - - - 


2 


_ 


2 


_ 


History of constructive art, 


3 


_ 


_ 


_; 


Architecture, (1st course,) - 


4 


8 


4 


, 8 


Total, - - - . - 


12 


14 


12 


20 


SECOND TEAR. 










Technical phvsics, .... 


2 


_ 


_ 


_ 


Applied mechanics, - - . - 


3 


_ 


3 


- 


Elements of construction, ... 


_ 


_ 


3 


6 


Architecture, (2d course,) 


•5 


_ 


5 


_ 


Architectural drawing and projects, - 


- 


14 


- 


14 


Total, 


10 


14 


11 


20 


THIRD TEAR. 










Organization of construction, 


1 


- 


- 


- 


Architecture, (3d course,) 


3 


_ 


3 


- 


Projects, 


- 


15 


- 


15 


Total, 


4 


15 


3 


15 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 
III. — Division of Mechanicians. 



59 





WINTER. 


SUMiMER. 


SUBJECTS. 


Lessens Hours 


Lessons | Hours 




of 11 hours devoted to 


of labours devoted to 




each. 


drawing. 


each. 


drawing. 


FIRST YEAR, 










Tecliiiical physics, ... - 


2 


- 


2 


- 


Elements of construction, 


3 


6 


3 


6 


Analvticjil mechanics, - - . 


3 


-r 


- 


_ 


Machinery, 


- 


- 


4 


- 


Macliinc construction, . . . 


3 


- 


3 ' 


- 


Manufacture of machines. 


- 


10 


- 


10 


Total, 


11 


16 


12 


16 


SECOND TEAR. 










Constructive mechanism, - ^ 


2 


_ 


_ 


_ 


Applied mechanics, - - . - 


3 


- 


3 


- 


Apparatus for warming and lighting, 


1 


- 


- 


- 


Metallurgy, 


2 


- 


- 


- 


Machine construction, ... 


3 


- 


3 


- 


Projects and manufacture, - - - 


- 


15 


- 


15 


Total, 


11 


15 


6 


15 



IV. — Division of Applied Chanistry. 



FIRST TEAR. 










General physics, - - - - - 


2 


- 


3 


- 


Applied mechanics, - - - 


3 


- 


3 


- 


Botany, 


- 


- 


3 


— 


Zoology, 


3 


- 


- 


- 


Organic chemistry, . - - - 


2 


- 


2 


- 


Analytical chemistry, - . - 


1 


- 


- 


- 


Manipulation in the lahoratory, - 


- 


10 


- 


10 


Total, 


11 


10 


11 


10 


SECOND TEAR. 










Technical physics, . . - - 


2 


- 


2 


- 


Elements of construction, 


3 


- 


- 




Technoloay of mechanics, - 


3 


- 


3 


- 


Acquaintance with raw materials, - 


— 


- 


2 


- 


Metallurgy and salt works, - 


2 


_ 


1 


— 


Materials for heating and lighting, - 


1 


_ 


_ 


- 


Manufacture of salts, glass, &c.,- 


- 


- 


3 


- 


Manipulation in the laboratory, 


- 


10 


- 


10 


Total, 


11 


10 


11 


10 


THIRD TEAR. 










Elements of machinery, - - - 


3 


- 


3 


- 


Printins:, dyeing, bleaching, &c., 


5 


- 


- 


- 


Permented liquors, manufacture of sugar, 










soap, stearine, &c., - - - 


— 


- 


5 


- 


Manipulation in the laboratory. 


- 


15 


- 


15 


Total, 


8 


15 


8 


15 



60 POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE OF VIENNA. 

II. Commercial Section. — The course of instruction comprises the follow- 
ing subjects: 

1 . Commercial science, giving a complete exhibit of commercial economy, of 
arts and manufactures, commercial atiairs in relation to the statistics of the 
population and the commercial history of the world : 5 hours per week. 

2. Commercial law, legislation with regard to commerce, maritime law, &c. : 
3 hours per week. 

3. Commercial composition, ordinary commercial style and correspondence :' 5 
hours. 

4. Commercial calculations, with special reference to the principal practical 
applications of political arithmetic : 5 hours. 

5. Book-keeping — book-keeping as a special science, and as apphed to com- 
merce and industry : 4 hours. 

6. Knowledge of goods ; the qualities and properties of different products, 
materials, and manufactures: 3 hours. 

7. Commercial geography : 3 hours. 

8. Statistics, from an industrial and commercial point of view: 4 hours. 

9. History of the Austrian constitutional law : 2 hours. 

10. History of the Austrian administrative law: 2 hours. 

III. Extra Courses. — Connected with the Polytechnic Institute, special 
courses are given in: 

1. Mechanical constructions, comprising the application of mechanics to arch- 
itecture and the art of constructions : 3 hours. 

2. National political economy, with special regard to arts and manufactures: 
2 hours. 

3. History of Austrian commercial law: 1 hour. 

4. Spheric astronomy: 3 hours. 

5. Science of the guarantee of capital and interest. This comprises an ex- 
hibit of the development of this science, its usefulness and its importance, and 
an exhibit of its theoretical basis. 

6. Instruction in first surgical aid to be rendered in cases of accidents result- 
ing from certain industries : 2 hours. 

7. Calligraphy: 2 hours. 

8. Stenography (Gabelsberger's system) : 3 hours. 

9. German literature ; Commentaries on the life and poetry of Goethe : 2 
hours. 

"10. Organic chemistry ; Alcohols. 

11. General and microscopic vegetable anatomy, (during the winter half-year.) 

12. Vegetable physiology in its relation to agriculture, (during the summer 
half-year.) 

IV. School of Languages. — Instruction is given in the following lan- 
guages: Turkish, 5 hours ; Persian, 5 hours ; Arabic, 6 hours ; Itahan Ifinguage 
and literature, 6 hours; English language and literature, 3 hours; French lan- 
guage and literature, 5 hours. 

V. School op Industrial Drawing. — 1. Elementary drawing, comprising : 
(a.) Drawing from nature: figures, plants, ornaments, &c. ; (6.) Descriptive 

geometry; (c.) drawing of projections and perspective. 

2. Technical drawing, comprising all the varieties of drawing applied to the 
designing and construction of models intended for spinning, printing tapestry, 
&c. 

3. Drawing applied to the arts of construction and metallurgy. 

4. Popular course of machine-drawing, with explanations of the construction 
and the working of machines. 

The drawing-classes are open every day from 8 to 12, and on Sundays from 
9 to 12. ' 

The whole Institute numbers: 19 pubhc and ordinary professors ; 1 public 
extraordinary professor ; 1 assistant professor ; 7 tutors ; 6 private professprs ; 
2 extra tutors ; 18 assistants ; 3 librarians ; 2 superintendents of the techno- 
logical museum ; 2 superintendents at the astronomical observatory. 

The technological museum comprises more than 200,000 specimens of models, 
machines, &c., admirably arranged. 



'EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. gj^ 

GENERAL ORGANIZATION OP THE EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. 

(Extracts from Prof. Koristka's account of Fliyhcr Polytechnic Instruction in Get' 
many, France and Switzerland).* 

The Polytechnic schools are the creation of our own (Jay. Not one of them 
is a hundred years old, for the oldest, that in Paris, was founded in 1794. Then 
followed the school of Prague, 1806, (begun, it is tine, as a special school, in 
1765); Vienna, 1815; Berlin, 1821; Carlsruhe, 1825; the Paris central school, 
{ecole centrale,) 1829 ; Munich, 1827 ; Nuremburg, 1829 ; Augsburg, 1833 ; Stutt- 
gart, 1829, then Planover, 1831; in Belgium, Liege, and Ghent, 1835, and at 
length, within the last twenty years, the new polytechnic institutes in Austria, 
and also certain beginnings in England. At the same time, Ave must mention 
that only a few of these schools in Germany received in the begiiming the name 
or had the full character of polytechnic schools. They were founded under the name 
of Industrial Schools, extended their scope gradually, and at length received the 
new designation as well as their present internal organization. 

The first schools of this kind, both in Austria and in Gex-many, comprised all 
technical subjects which the scholai'S were obliged to learn in turn. In the be- 
ginning, while industry was little developed and technical knowledge little cared 
for, these institutions answered fully to the demand, and the schools of Vienna 
and of Prague Avere, at that time, considered model institutions. But through 
the rapid advances of art and industry in our day, these schools did not need so 
long a time, as did those of former times, to divide themselves into groups. In 
the course of twenty to thirty years followed the division of labor, and with this 
came the problem : how to extend the single schools so that those who desired 
it could carry on exhaustive studies on particular subjects, and on the other 
hand, to provide for a general course, taking up all branches as formerly. It was 
found impossible to unite these two aims. 

Necessarily, then, those schools, which wished to supply the new demands of 
technical knowledge and industry, were gradually obliged to alter their organi- 
zation ; to fulfil especially the chief requirements of the same ; to introduce more 
exhaustive courses, so that, far instance, a course which originally consisted of 
instruction in mechanics was divided into two parts, theoretical and practical 
mechanics, afterAvards into three parts, when the construction of machines Avas 
added to the two former studies, and later yet special instruction Avas given in 
the making of steam-engines and locomotives. 

It Avas the same Avith the art of building, and with technical chemistry. Almost 
all the schools in Germany, Belgium, and France, yielded sooner or later to this 
practical necessity, and so arose the organization of the so-called Fac/i-schools, i. e., 
schools in Avhich particular branches of biTsiness are taught. 

In Austria, however, and in some parts of Bavaria, the old order of things re- 
mained, for Avhich they offered as excuse the actual state of industry and the 
little need of a present division of labor ; but they Avere at length obliged to yield. 

True, Hanover did not accept the organization of schools for particular indus- 
tries (Fachsc/nden), but it has been found, on comparing the plans of their schools 
with those of Carlsruhe or Zurich that they differ only in name. Still, there was 
wanting in Hanover the plan of supervision adopted in the special schools, and 

* Der noehere polytechnische Untenicht in Deutschland , in der Schweiz, in Frankreich, BeU 
gien und England. Carl Koristka, Prof, am polytechnischen Landesinstitut zu Prague, &c. 



62 EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. 

with this the conferences of the teachers seemingly so necessary tq their pros- 
perity ; but this also was not long wanting. Finally, we might add that ac- 
cording to the plan of education in Paris, there was no real division for special 
studies there also, but all that has been said of Hanover applies to Paris as well, 
and besides, there the lectures of the professors form but a part of the instruction. 
Instruction by recitation forms a feature ^f even more importance, and the pupils 
were certainly divided according to their intended pursuits. 

As for the number of the divisions, we find in all the schools at least four : chemi- 
cal, mechanical, architectural (the latter divided into two parts, that of building 
with especial attention to architectural ornament), and that of highways, rail- 
ways, bridges, &c., styled in France and Belgium des ponts et chaiissees 

These four groups form the principal divisions in most polytechnic schools ; 
only a short time ago, Berlin transferred the building department from the in- 
dustrial school to the academy designed for this special ' study, but in Dresden 
both branches of building are united. In Belgium the schools at Liege and at 
Ghent are connected with each other. 

The division of technical studies into these three or four distinct parts is so 
decidedly demanded by the nature and practice of technical science, that it is 
unnecessary to defend or support it here. 

Another question is, whether the whole field is occupied by these four groups, 
or if others are not necessary. It cannot be denied that there is a great number 
of branches, which it would have been better to confide to special schools : as for 
instance, mining, foundries, agriculture, forest culture, ship-building, &c., not to 
speak of military fortifications, There is no doubt that one might give special 
instruction in these in the polytechnic schools just as well as in mechanics, chem- 
istry, &c., provided thorough instruction in these branches is desired. Mean- 
while, at the same time with the polytechnic schools, even earlier there arose, 
at Freiburg, Schemnitz, Mariabrunn, Tharand, Altenburg, Hohenheim, &c., 
special schools where practical as well as theoretical instruction was imparted 
with great success. 

This further division has resulted only in profit to the polytechnic schools, their 
organization becoming more simplified, and united action being much facilitated. 
Some of them possess one or more of these special schools besides the before- 
mentioned, as, for instance, Zurich has a forest-school, Carlsruhe a forest, mer- 
cantile, and post school, Berlin a ship-building department, Liege a mining 
school, &c. 

No one will deny that almost all branches of science are in some way, more or 
less, connected, and that it is, without doubt, very necessary and desirable that 
the intelligent workman (techniker) should know something out of his own nar- 
row field. This argument was for a long time the chief weapon of the defenders 
of the old state of things in Austria ; according to their notions, the artist should 
have made himself thoroughly familiar with a course of general study. But cer- 
tain as it is, that a mechanic should possess sufficient knowledge of building as to 
be able to judge a plan accurately, so sure is it, that at present one no longer ex- 
pects from a machinist that he should be able to plan and superintend the build- 
ing of a railway, nor from an architect a chemical analysis ; and the change, 
moreover, is regretted by no one. In order to meet the real necessities of the 
case, lectures on the most practical and important parts of other branches of 
science should be judiciously given. 

In almost all the polytechnic schools, we find one or more general classes, in 



EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCUOULb. Qg 

which those things are taught which form the common basis of all technical 
knowledge, or which give the pupils superior culture, Carlsruho has three, [Stutt- 
gart two, Dresden one, Berlin, Liege, and Ghent, one or two such general 
classes! ; in Paris the whole polytechnic school, consisting of two classes, is noth- 
ing more than a general preparation for tlic special departments. Even in Zu- 
rich, where there was formerly great opposition to this plan, a preparatory class 
has lately been formed, although these classes are very much opposed, there are 
certainly branches on which all technical science, in every department, is based, 
such for instance as higher mathematics, physics, with the geometry involved in 
it, which might be taught with advantage in one or two general mathematical 
classes, which all pupils, without exception, would pass through. We cannot 
demand of these preparatory schools that they give their pupils the pure disci- 
pline of science, so far as is necessary in the polytechnic schools, but on the other 
hand, since these subjects, which really demand a riper judgment for their com- 
prehension, are to be taught in the polytechnic school, this leaves time to the 
pupils during the one or two years they pass in the preparatory school, to choose 
their occupation or profession. 

Let us sum up in a few words the present organization of the polytechnic 
schools : First, one grand division consisting of one or two classes, and open to 
all scholars in common ; then four branches for the four technical divisions, for 
building, architecture, mechanics, and chemistry, to which special courses may be 
added with advantage. 

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION. 

A preparation for entering the Polytechnic Schools, in both Germany and 
Switzerland, can be sought in private or even self-instruction, since examinations 
are always held on entering the schools, and it is not necessary that the candid- 
ate should have been through any particular school. Meanwhile, it is plain that 
this method is very uncertain and expensive, and therefore, in all countries, 
where polytechnic institutions have been established, preparatory schools have 
also been established wherever they did not before exist. 

These latter schools have, however, not the aim alone of preparing for the poly- 
technic school, but instruction for the middle classes of the industrial popidation 
is joined with it, is indeed for the most part, the real aim, preparation for the 
polytechnic school being only a mino" end. Many polytechnic schools of Han- 
over and Dresden give this preparatory instruction themselves, either in a pre- 
paratory course or in their lowest classes. 

The different names of these preparatory schools are : Trade (gewerbe) schools, 
(schools for artizans), real schools (schools where modern languages and the 
sciences are taught), real gymnasiums (corresponding to the American Pligh 
School), industrial schools, &c. These must be carefully distinguished from the 
secondary and other improvement schools mainly for mechanics, which admit only 
artizans and work-people as scholars, and give instruction mostly during the even- 
ing and on Sundays. As chief representatives of this class of schools, we would 
mention the " Canton schools for artisans" (Kanton-Industrieschulen), "the dis- 
trict school for artisans" (Kreisgeiverbeschulen), and the projected school of lan- 
guage and science (ReaJgymnasien) in Bavaria,'and the " provincial schools " for 
artisans (Provinzia/gewerbeschiilen) of Prussia. 

The chief branches of study everywhere are the elementary mathematics and 
drawing, further thorough instruction in the mother-tongue, physics, and foreign 



04 EUROPEAN POLYTECHNTC SCHOOLS. 

modern languages. In mathematics the course goes at least as far as the use of 
logarithms, equations of the second degree, plane trigonometry, and in the Swiss 
schools still further. We cannot of course dwell longer on these schools here, 
our only object being to see the requirements for entering the polytechnic 
schools. 

The schools for artisans, of Switzerland, form generally a second division of 
the canton-schools, whose first division is the gymnasium. The case is the same 
with the industries-school at Zurich. It forms, together with the gymnasium 
there, the admirably organized canton-school, which is directly connected with 
the common-school ( Volkschide). The industrial-school has the work of prepar- 
ing the pupil directly for practical life or for admission to higher technical schools. 
It is divided into an upper and lower school, each of which has three sub-divis- 
ions. The hours of instruction, per week, are specified. In the lower industrial 
school are taught: religion 6 hours, German language 12, geography 5, history 
8, natural history 4, natural philosophy 4, practical arithmetic (including de- 
cimals and proportions) 9, mathematics, including fundamental rules and equa- 
tions of the 1st and 2d degree, 4, geometry (planimetry and measurement of 
bodies) 6, geometrical figures 6, French language 16, English language (not ob- 
ligatory) 8, (free-hand drawing) designing 8, calligraphy 4, singing 3, gymnastics 
6, use of weapons. 

In th<5 upper school all these branches (gymnastics and use of weapons ex- 
cepted) are not obligatory. Pupils can enter any one of the three principal 
departments, that of mechanics, of chemistry, or of commerce, into w'hich the 
instruction is divided. The rector is, however, required to see that in the choice 
of branches by the scholar, he does not take special studies alone and entirely 
neglect the general branches. Every scholar must be occupied at least thirty 
hours a week. In the upper school are taught : religion, only in the first year, 
2 hours, theoretical mathematics, continued fractions, logarithms, progressions, 
algebraic analysis, higher equations, plane and spherical trigonometry in full, 
analytical geometry 20 hours a week in all three year courses, geometry by 
figures 6, technical design 18, practical geometry, with simple field-measurements 
and designs, 7, theoretical mechanics, and mechanical technology, 6, chemistry 
and chemical technology with practice in the laboratory 10, lectures 8, exercises, 
botany and zoology, 3, mineralogy 2, knowledge useful to merchants, i» seven 
courses, 26, French 11, English 12, Italian 10, German 7, history 12, geography 

5, free-hand drawing 10, calligraphy 2, singing, gymnastics, and the use of arms. 
The canton-school at Zurich is admirably arranged. The total numher of 

scholars at the industrial school, in 1861, w^as 370.' As soon as tliere are over 
forty scholars in a class a division is made. 

The Provincial schools for artisans (Kreisgewerbesclmleti) and the gymnasium 
for language and science (ReaJgymnasien) of Bavaria, which we wish to bring 
up as a second example of the preparatory instruction, have the same double 
aim as the first mentioned example. According to the present organization 
these schools have a three years' course divided for industrial occupations and 
commerce. The follqAving branches are taught : higher arithmetic 5 hours, ele- 
mentary mathematics, including logarithms and plane trigonometry, 1 2, natural 
history and encyclopaedia of science 10, physics 3, practical chemistry 5, religion 

6, German 10, geography 6, sketching, projecting, and designing, 24, calligraphy 
2, modeling in clay 8, those who are to be merchants take, instead of the draw- 
ing and modeling, French and English, 10, mercantile, arithmetic, and counting- 



EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. g5 

room knowledge, 15. An important reform is projected (carried out in 1864) 
for those autl all technical schools in Bavaria, so that the school of science 
is alone to fit this class of pupils, while the real gymnasiums are to take a 
middle place between these and the polytechnic schools. This is to have a four 
years' course, and to teach the following branches : mathematics, arithmetical 
equations, the study of functions, plane and spherical trigonometry, 25 hours, 
natural history 5, physics and chemistry 10, geometry by figures 6, designing 24, 
religion 8, German 9, Latin 10, French 16, English 4, geography and history 7. 

In several of the greater States of middle Germany already such real gymnasi- 
ums exist, and it is not to be denied that there are many good reasons for organi- 
zation. They give, in truth, a second drill, and are often used as a preparation 
for the polytechnic schools. The provincial schools for artisans throughout 
Prussia have a similar organization, and such ought really to be organized in 
every capital city. Each of these schools have only two classes and a one year's 
course. These are especially designed for boys of 14 at least, that they may 
there obtain that instruction necessary to them in their business, or prepare them 
to be received into the Trade Institute at Berlin. 

The following are the branches taught with the number of hours devoted to 
them : elementary mathematics, including logarithms, equations of the second 
degree and progressions, plane ti-igonometry and conic sections, elements of de- 
scriptive geometry, 21 hours, physics and chemistry, with experiments, 12, me- 
chanics and instruction on machines 3, instruction in building 3, mineralogy 2, 
designing and modeling 14, sketching 18. The lower class is chiefly for theo- 
retical instruction and drawing, the upper for the practice of what has already 
beenf learned. 

Besides these there are, in Germany, a great number of similar schools under 
the name of real schools, as at Darmstadt, &c., or higher district schools, people's 
schools, as at Hanover, which undertake, also, the courses of a gymnasium, and 
usually accomplish the whole in from six to seven years. 

MECHANICS — INSTRUCTION ON MACHINE BUILDING AND MECHANICAL 
TECHNOLOGY. 



. 


LECTURES. 


DRAWING. 














Teachers. 




Terms. 


Hours. 


Terms. 


Hours. 




Zurich, 


10 


38 


4 


48 


4 


Carlsruhe, 


6 


24 


2 


20 


4 


Stuttgart, 

Dresden, - - - 


5 
10 


24 
35 


3 
2 


24 
36 


4 
3 


Berlin, 


11 


26 


9 


28 


5 


Hanover, - 


6 


31 


2 


16 


4 


Paris, (Central School) 
Liege, (School of Arts) - 
Prague, (old plan) 
" (new plan) 


7 
5 
2 

8 


14 

18 
15 
33 


3 
3 

4 


32 

10 
32 


6 
3 
2 
4 



In no field of technical science has such great progress been made in the last 
thirty years as in that of mechanics. In no branch of study, therefore, is the 
difference between our Austrian and foreign institutions of learning so great as 
in this, and that also as much in the manner of teaching as in the arrangement 
of the subjects taught and the helps used. 

5 



66 EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. 

While with US, iu Prague and in Vienna, last year [1862] the whole subject, 
excepting mechanical technology, was taught by a single teacher in a single 
course of a year with from five to ten weekly hours of instruction, the same sub- 
ject has been divided in Germany into three individual branches with at least 
one teacher for each branch. 

Theoretical and analytical mechanics, and machine construction, are the chief 
branches taught at every good polytechnic school, and the last mentioned is even 
dfvided into two or more branches besides the necessary instruction in drawing 
and construction. We need only to glance at the figures of the foregoing table 
in order to see how far behind the others we are. Certainly, it heightens the 
merits of the Austrian teachers of mechanics, who thus, in the short time granted 
them by the school-programme of instruction, must go over the whole extended 
subject with its branches, and every unprejudiced person will acknowledge that 
they have accomplished much under the unfavorable circumstances. 

As for the division of the subject, this is described in the account of the schools 
at Carlsruhe, Zurich, Dresden and Berlin. We will only add a few remarks ; 
and first, the school at Zurich differs from most others, in the opinion that differ- 
ent courses of lectures shall be given on the theory of machines (maschinm-khre) 
and on their construction (maschinen-bau) but that these lectures shall be given 
by separate professors, while other schools, particularly Carlsruhe, consider this 
impossible, or, at least injudicious. 

It is certainly true that the theory of machines differs from machine-building, 
and that, since Rcdtcnbacher, Weissbach, and especially Reuleaux, have brought 
the latter to an independent art, a union of these two subjects under one teacher 
can scarcely exist v/ithout more or less neglecting one or the other. On the 
other hand, we must also acknowledge that, since both subjects complete each 
other, the lectures must be so arranged that this difiiculty can only be overcome 
by the most friendly understanding between the two professors, as happily is the 
case in Zurich at the present time. 

In France, it is only lately that the new opinions have been adopted. By the 
old plan mechanics v/ere taught in two branches : theoretical and practical, the 
latter being divided into several courses, as hydraulic machines, steam-machines, 
&c. With their excellent mathematical apparatus, the French technical teachers 
explained with ease the general principles involved in every machine, regarding 
each as an independent example, but their defect lay in paying little regard to 
empiricism, while the English fell into just the opposite mistake, and devoted 
themselves exclusively to proportions and to innumerable exjjerimeitts and 
proofs. 

A second remark has reference to machine shops as to whose introduction into 
the Austrian schools there is such difference of opinion ; the call from business 
men (industriellen) being so loud for such workshops, that to appease them the 
scholars should become finished mechanics before coming to them. 

It would be well to take counsel from the experience of the schools mentioned 
in the first part of this report. The institute at Berlin has the greatest and old- 
est arrangement of this kind. The work-shop costs over 9,000 thalers yearly, 
but the interest shown by the scholars is very little, and all competent judges at 
Berlin desire it to be discontinued or greatly limited. Then come Augsburg 
and Nuremburg, where the work-shops are on a more modest scale, but where, 
'on account of the severe discipline and the small number of scholars (not over 
twenty), the results have been most favorable. Then we must mention Liege, 



EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. QfJ 

where the work-shops nre leased to a macliinist, and where, also, a very practical 
arrangement is made with regard to ngrieulturc. In our oj)inion, although the 
number of scholars is even smaller, the results arc even more favorable. In all 
other schools the machine-shops, whenever there are any, are considered as side- 
affairs, as in Carlsruhe and Zurich. In Hanover, Dresden, and the central 
school of Paris there are no such work-shops for scholars. Dresden gives the 
most instruction in this respect. True, there were no machine-shops arranged 
for the school, but the government had made a contract with one quite celebrated, 
by which the scholars were permitted to work there a certain number of hours, 
weekly, during the whole course, and to receive instruction there. In the year 
1829, these hours comprised 48 per cent, of the whole time of instruction, but it 
diminished yearly, the lectures and exercises in designing being increased at its 
expense, so that, in 1835, it was only 35, in the year 1838 only 26, in 1849 only 
14 per cent., and in 1852 was wholly discontinued. 

All these results speak in no way favorably for the work-shops. It is also in 
the nature of the case that their establishment can never have the exj^iected re- 
sults in most polytechnic schools; for, in the first place the costs of such a work- 
shop, and its yearly support, is very considerable. Secondly, only a few scholars 
can be taught, for it is impossible to instruct 60 to 80 scholars, which is the 
number at Vienna and Prague, without enormous outlay. Thirdly, the matter 
must be regarded in an economical point of view, as it is plain that in a private 
machine-shop much more economy of time and work can be practiced than at 
such a public school Finally, the milder discipline of a polytechnic school is a 
hindrance to success, since the pupils are under no more strict regulations in 
their practical work than in their theoretical studies, and yet, as every one knows, 
the severest discipline, the most exact observance of the hours of labor, is neces- 
sary in a machine-shop (fahrik) if anything- is to be accomplished, and order to 
be sustained. The opinion of those who think that young men are only spoiled 
in the shops is therefore not wholly without reason. But should a school which 
has large means and few scholars wish to establish such work-shops, we would 
recommend the method of Liege, or that of Augsburg and Nuremburg. 

But what shall we do then ? How shall young mechanics fit themselves, prac- 
tically, for their work ? 

We reply, that a part, and that a very important one of the practical education, 
consists in a systematic study of machine-building, as that, at present, is taught 
in the better polytechnic schools, the great industry in the construction and de- 
signing of machines in th£i school itself But we can never demand from a 
school that it should instruct the pupil in all the practical points relating to 
machine construction as thoroughly as the work-shop can do with regard to the 
single machine, to whose construction it has been dedicated for years. If, how- 
ever, we demand this kind of practice, it can be obtained only b}' the pupil's 
taking practical lessons in a machine-shop either before his entrance into the 
school or after he graduates. The easiest method, and the one we would recom- 
mend, is the one in present use in Dresden and proposed at Stuttgart, namely, 
that the scholar enter upon this practical part after the first year passed at the 
school, for reasons previously given. In Austria little attention has as yet been 
given to this branch, and provision for the scholars in home institutions, since 
many of these are in the hands of foreigners, is extremely difficiilt. To help the 
scholars in this respect, the school-committee should make a contract with the 
best manufactories (Fabriken) to receive yearly, for a specified sum, a certain 



68 



EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. 



number of young mechanics as apprentices. The scholars should pay this sum 
to the school and the school to the factory. Those of the best scholars who have 
no means should receive assistance, the school paying for them out of its own 
funds. We are convinced that the best factories would consider this an honor, 
and that this branch of manufactures in Austria would thus be so raised, that in 
twenty years all such aid would be imnecessary. This plan h*as been tried in 
Hanover, and in a very short time obtained the best results. Naturally, we hold 
the establishment of a small work-shop, with an experienced superintendent at 
its head, as very desirable for every polytechnic school. The chief aim of such 
work-shops should be to keep in repair the models it already possesses, to invent 
new according to the directions of the teachers, and to reserve a few places for 
such scholars for whom it had previously been impossible to visit a machine-shop 
in order to instruct such in the more common practical parts of working in metals, 
and to prepare them to attend a larger work-shop. A small number of places 
would answer for a large number of scholars by letting them take turns, and 
great care is to be taken that this instruction be kept in the background, and at 
the same time that it do not degenerate into a mere pastime. 



BUILDING AND ARCHITECTURE. 





LECTURES. 


DESIGN. 




SCHOOLS. 










Teachers. 


hJ\JM.±.\J\JAUi^» 


Terms. 


Hours. 


Terms. 


Hours. 




Zurich, - - - - 


5 


14 


9 


40 


4 


Carlsruhe, - - - 


10 


2.5 


8 


41 


4 


Stuttgart, - - - - 


7 


21 


8 


40 


4 


Munich, (Engineers' School,) 


6 


8 


3 


30 


3 


Dresden, - - . - 


3 


6 


3 


18 


2 


Hanover, - - - - 


6 


21 


8 


52 


3 


Paris, (Central School,) 


1 


2 


1 




1 


Ghent, (Civil Engineering,) 


3 


6 


2 


■ . , 


2 


Prague, (old plan,) 


1 


5 


1 


5 


1 


" (new plan,) 


7 


20 


8 


43 


3 



From this table we see that the greatest number of courses and lectures on this 
subject are given in the school at Carlsruhe. As for the lessons of design, we 
must remark that here in mechanics, as well as in the making of bridges and 
roads, the number of hours given in the plan is only the minimum. In reality, 
the industrious student must, in order to satisfy his teacher, devote much more 
time to construction and designing. The chief difference betAveen the Austrian 
and other schools is, that in ours the constructive part (chiefly at least) is taught, 
while the architectural part is left in the hands of the art academies, (not to be 
confused, however, with special schools, like that of the Berlin Building Acad- 
emy,) Avhile in all the foreign schools, with exception of the Parisian, several 
terms are devoted to this ; sometimes, also several teachers demanded. And, in- 
deed, one cannot understand why it should not be possible to give a thorough 
education to architects of the highest grade at our polytechnic schools. The 
building of houses is indeed a branch in itself, and the desire to separate the 
practical from the esthetical part of planning a building, and to establish diiFer- 
,ent schools for each, seems to us unnecessary, and moreover, directly opposed to 
a harmonious union of both aims. Besides this, the pupils after leaving the school 
will be much governed in their future course by inclination. If one, however. 



EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. 



69- 



grants to the polytechnic school the right of educating professional architects, 
one should not take from it the right to form the taste of the pupils, and their 
appreciation of the beautiful, at least as much as is now done in the Austrian 
schools, for under present arrangements, the pupil would find it much more use- 
ful to travel for one year, than to spend three there. 

For this reason, we find lectures on building materials and building, as well 
as those upon style, history of architecture, &c., given in great numbers at for- 
eign schools, as is also intended by the new plan at Prague. 

In the best schools, the demands upon the scholar in the highest course (last 
term) are very great. We have had opportunity to see in Carlsruhc and Zurich 
great and detailed designs, made by scholars, of which many skilled architects 
need not have been ashamed. There is difference of opinion, as to Avhether at Carls- 
ruhe and Zurich there should be one general course of study for all the scholars, 
or whether one should adapt the studies to each individual scholar, as at other 
schools. Those persons who superintend special schools are really the only ones 
who should decide here. 

In all schools, for the purpose of illustrating the courses, models in wood, clay, 
and plaster of Pai-is, are furnished. We do not" contradict ourselves in the 
opinion given in the previous article, by recommending the establishing of such 
workshops as these everywhere. Their cost is not great, the interest of the pupils 
is kept awake, and leads soon to the wished-for result ; a thing not always to be 
affirmed of the machine shops. The reparation of wood models, the modeling 
of ornaments in clay, stone, and the forming of objects from drawings, are 
excejlent exercises for the pupil. That here too, a previous practical experience 
is very useful, and in many schools is understood to precede these, we do not 
need to state. Excursions to interesting buildings in process of construction, 
accompanied by the professor, are at all times to be recommended. 



CONSTRUCTION OP EOADS AND BRIDGES. 





LECTURES. 


DESIGNS. 




SCHOOLS. 










Teachers. 




Terms. 


Hours. 


Terms. 


Hours. 




Zurich, . . - - 


2 


12 


2 


12 


2 


Carlsruhe, . - - 


4 


20 


4 


20 


2 


Stuttgart, - - - - 


2 


14 


2 


14 


1 


Munich, - - - - 


2 


12 


2 


12 


2 


Dresden, - - - - 


1 


12 


1 


12 


1 


Hanover, - - 


2 


16 


2 


16 


2 


Paris, (Roads and Bridges,) 


6 


12 


3 




6 


Ghent, ( Civil Engineering, ) 


3 


9 


3 




2 


Prague, (old plan,) 


1 


5 


1 


5 


1 


" (new plan,) 


3 


12 


4 


27 


2 



This subject is, without question, best provided for, as the table shows, in the 
school des ponts et chaussees in Paris, which school is entirely devoted to this 
branch. We should also remark that one or two courses and one teacher might 
in this table be added to the German schools. We have already mentioned them 
in the article on building. They comprise instruction on building materials, and 
carpentry and masonry, but belong equally to the construction of streets and 
bridges. That which has been said in the previous article about workshops for 



10 



EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. 



modeling in wood, clay, and plaster of Paris, applies perfectly to this subject. 
It is acknoAvledged in all schools that pupils in this branch need the most thorough 
and exhaustive mathematical instruction, as well as that instruction on machines, 
at least belongs to the preparatory course. On the other hand they are, in gen- 
eral, excused from the greater part of the architectural branches. We have 
already given the programme of instruction in Carlsruhe and at Paris. It only 
remains for us to express the wish that the professors of the technical schools 
should join with those of the building and railway department, in order that the 
students in this branch may have the opportunity of prolonged practice, for the 
simple visiting of a building in process of construction Avith the professors, as is 
the custom in many schools, cannot suffice. 



CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. 



SCHOOLS. 



Zurich, - - , 
Carlsruhe, - - - 
Stuttgart, 

Dresden, ... 
Berlin, - . - 
Hanover, - . . 
Paris, (Central School,) 
Liege, (School of Arts,) 
Prague, (old plan,) - 
" (new plan,) 



Terms. 



Hours. 



22 
U 
19 
10 
20 
13 
13 
20 

iq 

22 



Teachers. 



The practical exercises of the scholars in the chemical laboratory are not given 
here, since in most schools no regular time, but often a whole day, on which the 
lectures are suspended, is devoted to them. There is only a very small difference 
in this respect between foreign schools and ours. Everywhere there is the same 
division into general, analytical, and special chemistry, Avhich latter division has, 
in general, four or five subdivisions. It is to be wished, first, that the laboratories 
were at least twice as large, in order to satisfy present needs, and to accommo- 
date all capable scholars with practical work ; in the second place, that the labo- 
ratories Avere better endoAved and arranged, since they are very poorly furnished, 
that of Vienna excepted ; and. thirdly, that there might be more teachers, in 
order, to take up the subjects more in detail. The school course of Zurich, Carls- 
ruhe, and the Central School at Paris, show the division of instruction, and at 
the last school the comprehensiA^e analytical method of treating the most impor- 
tant inorganic and organic compounds is especially interesting. The schools 
of Zurich and Carlsruhe have perhaps the best laboratories ; those of Stuttgart, 
Berlin, HanoA^er, and Dresden are good. 



BOARD OF TEACHERS AND DIRECTION OF POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. 

We have already remarked that the proper organization of a technical institu- 
tion is veiy essential to its success. Even more important is the method of teach- 
ing, for it is possible that a school under the old system of things might accom- 
plish much, if possessing some superior professors ; but it is completely impossi- 
ble that a school sbould ansAver the Avants of the age, if it possesses inferior 
teachers, even though it have the best possible organization. 

It is thus a natural question, in Avhat way and by what means a school is to 
obtain a superior class of instractors 1 Before ansAvering that question, we must 



EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. 72 

mention another important point connected with this. In most schools the 
chief professors form a corps of instructors, the faculty, which has certain rights, 
and upon which falls directly the discipline and direction of the school, Berlin 
being the only exccj)tjpn. The present arrangement at the Austrian Universi- 
ties, which is projected in Prague, is convenient, namely, that the assistant 
teachers, tutors, resident graduates, &c., vote certain ones among their num- 
ber into the faculty. The system of tutors is indeed as yet allowed only 
in the polytechnic school at Zurich, but we cannot see why this plan should 
not work as well elsewhere. In the Austrian schools there is more liberality. 

At the head of the faculty, and hence of the school, in all schools is a director 
(president). He is either chosen yearly and approved by government, or is ap- 
pointed directly by government, as at Dresden, Berlin, Hanover, and of course 
at Paris also. Tbis circumstance, the yearly choice of a director or his appoint- 
ment by government, is of great importance for the progress of each school, for 
it is sure that in the first case this, as well as the direct guidance of the school, 
is in the hands of the faculty, while in the second case, Avhatever rights may be 
granted the faculty, they arc really vested in the hands of the director. It is 
rather a delicate point for us to endeavor to express the different views held in 
Germany on this subject, since, however much Ave may guard against it, we may 
be accused of seeking our own interests. Notwithstanding, we hold it for our 
duty, here where a principle is in question, and where we are not sure that any one 
director will agree with us, to pronounce our opinion, that under the present cir- 
cumstances in the higher technical institutions, we Avould much prefer the periodi- 
cal choice of a director (we state no term of service), and that by choice of the 
faculty. The most weighty arguments against the choice are the greater author- 
ity of a constant director, his influence upon the instruction that it may be well- 
ordered, the more severe discipline Avhich he could enforce, the avoiding of quar- 
rels and jealousies among the professors, as is the case at a yearly choice. These 
advantages have not always been obtained, for the authority of the (public school) 
teachers from among whom the director should be chosen, rests only upon their 
ability and success. Careless teachers would certainly be corrected sooner by 
the gener.al disapproval of the faculty, than by the director alone, for in quiet 
times good discipline depends upon the individual teachers, and in disturbed 
years severe discipline can be carried out least of all by a director who does not 
always possess the confidence and support of the faculty. Certainly any of us, 
who has lived the last twenty years, can cite examples of this. Finally, there are 
parties in every corporation, to avoid which, one must have no faculty at all. 

On the other hand, a yearly choice has the advantage, that only a very worthy 
member of the faculty will be chosen. This director, clothed with the whole 
moral power of his brother professors, the man in whom they place full con- 
fidence, has thus great influence on the students. The faculty will choose 
only such a man as will work energetically to further the interests of the school, 
and who will not pursue his own department of science to its injury. 

In places where the director is chosen yearly, the practical instruction must 
naturally be separated from the scientific,, and be entrusted to a teacher or other 
officer. In the universities this method has so far succeeded admirably. 

But certainly the worst method is that adopted in some of our neighbor States, 
where the direction of technical institutions has been put in the hands, not of 
former teachers, but of officers of the ministerial department, and no influence 
at all, in the direction of the school, granted to the faculty. 



72 EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. 

If we come now to the rights of the faculty, the one above-named is certainly 
the most important, namoJy, the choice of a director, since the whole tone of the 
institution, and its attitude towards the world, depends directly upon this, and in 
this Avay is directly countenanced by the faculty. The other most important 
rights ai*e those of discipline, which all faculties possess, that of making sugges- 
tions as to endowments and stipends, as well as suggesting reforms of individual 
branches of instruction, which right appertains to most faculties in GeiTnany, 
but those of France do not possess it. Finally, the right of making suggestions 
when a vacancy in the faculty is to be filled. This is a privilege which only the 
Austrian schools enjoy, but one to be wished most heartily to others. The ob- 
jection has been raised that in such case, out of desire to aid friends, quite other 
than pure scientific merit may procure the appointment, and this objection is not 
wholly ■without grounds. It would, however, never be dangerous, since the fac- 
ulty has only the right of proposing tAvo or three candidates, not of appointing 
them, this right remaining in the hands of the supreme authority under which 
the school stands. "We could, however, wish that the faculty might possess more 
rights than are commonly possessed by it ; and thus w^e come again to the ques- 
tion with which we started in this article, namely, how a technical institution 
may secure for itself and maintain a thorough system of instruction 1 

In the German schools it is not a matter of so great importance that the fac- 
ility has no influence over the filling of vacancies' in the school, since it has al- 
ways been a point of honor in the middle and smaller States to obtain the great- 
est possible reputation for their own university and polytechnic school. We 
have seen how even ministers of state have not scorned to make a journey and 
to negotiate personally with the persons devoted to this or that science. In 
Austria this is quite different, for by the system of salaries, a kind of regular 
advancement takes place when vacancies occur, so that worthy scientific men 
have no hope of rising through their talents. In Prague the salaries have been 
very considerably reduced since 1806. In many institutions of Austria they are 
less than are given to an overseer in a factory. How can we demand men to 
give a young man the education of an engineer, or of a superintendent of a fac- 
tory, for the purpose of teaching, when he can at once get three times as large a 
salary in the workshop as in the school. Notwithstanding we hear complaints 
that so few talented men engaged in industrial pursuits, and devote themselves to 
technical instruction, while the very best teachers in the technical schools in Ger- 
many, as Karmaroch in Hanover, Redtenbacher (now dead) m Carisruhe, Schnei- 
der in Dresden, &c., are Austrians who have deserted their own country because 
it offers them no situation befitting their talents. 

Wherever the school is divided according to the different branches, as at Zurich, 
Carisruhe, and Stuttgart, frequent meetings are evervwhere held by their pro- 
fessors, who watch over the progress of instruction at the special schools ; and 
choose from their own number a president of these meetings. 

In the French schools, as well as at Zurich, Berlin, and Hanover, a special 
committee is appointed to watch over the progress of the school. This com- 
mittee consists of a director and two or three professors, besides several distin- 
guished scientific and business men, and the higher ministerial authority. These 
are appointed by government, which then makes directly on it all calls for ad- 
vancement in instruction, and for filling vacant professorships. It is evident that 
this superintendence of government must be granted in concuiTence with the 
professors and the director. 



EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. 73 

CONDITIOX OF THE SCHOLARS AT POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. 

The division of the pupils, the method of admission, fees of tuition, discipline 
and examinations are to be considered under this head. 

In almost all the schools of Germany and Switzerland there are two classes 
of scholars: One of them, which is the principal one everywhere, has the name 
scholar or student, (in Austria, audience) ; the second ciitegory has in Zurich 
and Hanover, the name " hearers ; " in Carlsruhe and Dresden, " transient aud- 
itors" (hospcs) ; in Stuttgart, and also in Austria, "special hearers or scholars." 

The first class bind themselves to go through the whole course, prove their 
preparation on entering, and conform to the customary reviews, examinations, 
and written work. The latter class are not bound to any of these things. They 
are men in an independent position, or with regular employments, hearing only 
certain lectures without being obliged to pass an examination on them. In the 
French schools, in that of bridges and highways, as well as in the mining school, 
there are also two divisions, the eleves ingenieures and the eleves eoctet-nes, but the 
only difference here is that the first are graduates of the polytechnic school, who 
have to submit to no entrance examination, and who will be received into the 
service of the state, while the second class have none of these privileges, and 
must go through the whole course. In the Central School at Paris, and at the 
Belgian schools, there is only one class of pupils. 

At all the polytechnic schools it is required that the pupils shall be of a certain 
age on entering ; at Zurich and Berlin, 17 years old ; at Stuttgart, Dresden, and 
Haijover, 16 ; the Paris schools alone demand no particular age. Further, an 
examination is required in all schools on entering ; but in Berlin and Dresden 
the certificate of a gymnasium or of an industrial school is accepted. At all 
these examinations, mathematics and designing are the principal requirements, 
but some knowledge of physics, natural history, and style, is required. These 
examinations are most severe in France, where a list of questions is made out 
for every subject, and an examining committee are appointed who are exceed- 
ingly conscientious in their duties. In the German schools these examinations, 
from the desire to fill up the schools, are unfortunately not as severe as they 
should be for the good of the schools. The introduction of such examinations 
would be of great advantage to the schools of Vienna and. Prague, since this 
would bring all the scholars, so differently prepared at different schools, up to 
one level, leave the poorer scholars to the industrial schools, and picking out 
only the best, would at once reduce the number, and bring together a more intel- 
ligent and energetic class of students. 

The tuition varies exceedingly at the different polytechnic schools. The 
smallest tuition fee is that paid at Stuttgart, 15 florins; next year this is to be 
doubled. Then follows Zurich, 50 francs ; this also is to be doubled ; then Han- 
over, from 24 to 36 thalers ; Berlin and Dresden, 40 thalers ; in Dresden, for 
natives only, foreigners pay 60 ; and finally, Carlsruhe, 66 florins. The most 
expensive school is the ecole centrale of Paris, where the annual tuition is 800 
francs. In all these schools, practice in the chemical laboratories is extra ; in 
Zurich, it is 40 francs ; in Carlsruhe, 44 florins ; in Berlin, 50 thalers. In almost 
all schools, industrious and poor scholars are released from these expenses, but 
this for only a fcAv at a time ; for instance, in Hanover, generally only 4 or 5 per 
cent. ; in Zurich, 6 ; in Carlsruhe, 10 ; in Dresden, at the most, 20 per cent. 
We are pleased with the two conditions, high tuition fees and few exceptions to 



74 EUROPEAN POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. 

their payment. In the higher institutions of learning, the tuition should not be 
merely nominal, even though the State itself be bound to render assistance to 
the institution. Rather help the poor student with stipends sufficient to obtain 
him his daily bread, and to permit him to devote himself exclusively to his 
studies. This is the method at the industrial institute at Berlin, and at both the 
polytechnic and the central school of Paris. The tuition fees in all the pol;f- 
technic schools come into the school fund, with the one exception of Zurich, 
where two- thirds of it is divided among the professors. 

In order to give a fair judgment upon the discipline of all the schools, it would 
be necessary to make quite a stay at each, since the practice is generally milder 
than the rule would indicate. The French schools are certainly the most severe, 
confinement {career) being among their punishments. For the rest, in some 
German schools, as at Dresden and Carlsruhe, conduct while out of the school is 
watched, and irregularities censured, but in most schools, conduct during session 
hours alone is regarded, and whatever misdeeds occur out of these hours are left 
to the police. In Stuttgart the pupils of the mathematical department are sub- 
ject to severer discipline than those of the special departments. On the other 
hand, in Berlin, where a few years ago such extremely severe discipline was 
practiced, they are fallen now into the opposite extreme. 

In our opinion, severe discipline is of little avail. This is proved in the 
Parisian schools. If the students are intelligent and ambitious, the discipline 
will be good without rules. Whenever admission examinations are demanded, a 
sure means of discipline is secured. A second means seems to lie in the hands 
of the individual teachers, who by frequent association with the students, Avill 
inspire them with zeal, and awaken intellectual activity within them. Should 
there, notAnthstanding, be some unruly spirits, a fifteen years' experience has 
proved to us that in most cases, a careful examination by the faculty will accom- 
plish much more than severe military rules. 

The greatest difference between the Austrian schools and those of other coun- 
tries we find to consist in the way in which the progress and industry of the 
scholars are judged. In the French and Belgian schools, even when the student 
does not board in the school, he is required to pass his time there fi-om eight in 
the morning to six in the evening, one hour only being taken out for dinner. 
The lectures themselves occupy little time ; during the greater part- of it, the 
scholar must occupy himself with his studies in the school-room, where he is un- 
der the constant surveillance of the repeators (repetiteurs) . In Germany this 
surveillance is not so severe ; home study is more recommended to the scholar. 
In other schools more time is given to repetitions and to written work than in 
Austria, for these alone determine the ability and knowledge of the student, and 
that much more surely than the final examinations in the letter country, to 
wliich all students, who desire a certificate at the end of the year, have to subject 
themselves. That these final examinations are in reality no sure proof of the 
industry and ability of the student, all Austrian technical teachers are agreed, 
but also they agree as fully that in those of our technical institutions, which like 
Vienna and Prague, are so overfilled, so long as this lasts, without at least the 
doubling of the number of teachers, the abolition of the final examinations and 
the introduction of the other method is a pure impossibility. In Germany, the 
ratio of teachers to scholars is 1 : 8 to 1 : 1 8 ; in Prague and Vienna, 1 : 25 and 
I : 30, and in some years even greater. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 75 

SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE AND RURAL AFFAIRS. 
There are three kinds of institutions designed to give special instruction in 
ao-riculture and kindred industries, viz : 1. Scliools of Agriculture, which are 
of three grades; 2. Schools of Forestry, which are likewise classiiic^d into supe- 
rior, middle, and lower oradcs ; 3. Veterinary Schools, of which there arc 6 -with 
21 professors, and 391 pupils. 

I. SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE. 

The Special Schools of Agriculture, of which there are seventeen, may be 
classed as follows : 

1. The superior agricultural schools of Austria are among the oldest and best 
in Europe, that at Krumman in Bohemia, having been founded in 1799, and that 
at Graetz, Trieste, Lomberg, and Trutsch, in 1809. 

The school at Graetz has nine professors, a model farm, a botanical garden, 
rich collections in natural history, and an establishment for silk worms. 

The superior school at Krumman in Bohemia, founded by Prince Schwart- 
zenberg in 1799, is located on an immense domain, and is conducted with every 
appliance of botanical gardens, model farms, stock, illustrative collcc^ons of imple- 
ments and machines, laboratories, herbarium, and numerous and able professors. 

The superior school or academy at Altenburg in Hungary, provides for the com- 
plete study of agricultural science. It has nine professors and 147 pupils. The 
school fee is 63 florins ; the total yearly cost 19,400 florins. It is a government 
establishment, possessing collections of all kinds, a chemical laboratory, a tech- 
nological gallery, a library, and a botanical garden. It gives instruction in ar- 
boriculture and in rural and forest management. The exhibition of samples of 
the grain cultivated, and models of the implements used on the model farm, of 
the insects and animals w^hich injure the plants, the herbals and soils, the copy- 
books, and drawings by the students, exhibited at Paris Exhibition of 1867, re- 
ceived the special notice and award of the jury. 

2. Middle agricultural schools have been founded at Grossau, in Lower Aus- 
tria ; at Teschen-Liebwerd, in Bohemia ; at Kreutz, in Ci'ontia, and at Dublany, 
in Gallicia. The studies occupy two years. There ai'e 27 professors, and 164 
outdoor pupils. The school fee is from 30 to 52 florins. The yearly expendi- 
ture amounts to 9,200 florins. They are maintained by local resources and agri- 
cultural societies. 

3. There are seven lower agricultural schools : at Grossau, in Lower Austria ; 
at Liebejei-Rabin ; at Teschen-Liebwerd, in Bohemia ; at Gratz, in Styria ; at 
Kreutz, in Gallicia ; at Ezernichow% in Gallicia ; and at Laybach, in Carinthia. 
These schools have 23 professors and 230 pupils. The school fee varies from 30 
to 40 florins, partly met by the work of the pupils. 

4. Besides the above, there are several schools devoted to special departments 
of rural economy, such as raising of bees, &c., as well as chairs of agriculture 
in 13 higher literary institutions. 

II. SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF FORESTRY. 

The Schools of Forestry, (9, with 36 professors,) are classified as follows : 
1. Superior forest academies are established at Mariabrunn in Lower Austria, 
and at Schemnitz in Hungary. The studies extend OA'er from two to three 
years. The qualification for admission is a certificate of studies from a gymna- 



76 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 

sium or a superior practical school These establishments have a museum, col- 
lections, a botanical garden, and a laboratory. They have 14 professors and 160 
pupils in the two together. The school fee is 10 florins. There are some gratu- 
itous pupils. Both schools are maintained by the government. 

2. The middle forest schools are situated at Wiessewasser, in Bohemia ; at 
Aussen, in Moravia ; at Kreutz, in Croatia. The studies occupy from two to 
three years. The primary school preparation only is required. These schools 
have 12 professors and 100 pujiils. The gratuitous admission is compensated by 
the work of the pupils. 

3. At Pibram, in Bohemia ; at Windschacht, in Hungary ; and at Nagnay, in 
Transylvania, there are lower Forest Schools. The courses extend over two or 
three years. The preparation required is the primary school and the habit of 
working. There are eight professors and eighty-seven pupils, all gratuitous* 
These establishments are maintained by the State. 

IMPERIAL FOREST ACADEMY AT MARIABRUNN. 

The Imperial Forest Academy at Mariabrunn passed through various phases 
before it was reorganized in 1866. Formerly the Minister of Finance had the 
general supeiwitendence, but at present it is assigned to the Minister of Com- 
merce and Political Economy. Its aim is to impart a thorough theoretical and 
practical instruction in forest economy, for which purpose the large imperial 
forests in the neighborhood are placed at its disposal. The course is of three 
years duration, and consists partly of class lectures, and partly of scientific ex- 
cursions and studies in the surrounding forests. 

The students are either regular, who go through the complete course, or extra- 
ordinary, who take only a partial course. Students are admitted on presentation 
of a testimonial certificate of satisfactory scholarship in a real school or gymna- 
sium ; if from the latter, they must give additional evidence of proficiency in 
geometrical drawing. Since "maturity examinations " have not been generally' 
introduced in the real schools, those students who cannot present a testimonial, 
have to undergo an examination extending over all those subjects which are re- 
quired for admission at the polytechnic institute in Vienna. As a general rule 
all candidates must give proof that for one year they have been engaged in prac- 
tical forest economy. To be admitted as an extraordinary student, the candidate 
must have completed the 18th year of his age, and be sufficiently versed in the 
preliminary studies. 

Formerly students were obliged to live in the academy buildings, which condi- 
tion has been lately abolished. Ordinary students, who have gone through the 
complete course of instruction, may be admitted to a rigorous examination, (for 
a diploma,) the conditions of which are prescribed by an imperial resolution of 
January 16th, 1850. This examination is held by a special examination com- 
mittee, and consists of two divisions : Fii'st, mathematics, geodesy, forest sur- 
veying, mechanics, construction of machinery, architecture, chemistry, forest 
botany, geology, climatology, forest entomology. Second, forest economy in all 
its various branches. This examination is both written and oral. 

The director of the academy is chosen by the ministry, who at the same time has 
the functions of a professor, and is assisted by four professors and three assistants. 

The salary of the director is 3,000 florins ; that of the professors, 1,500 ; 2,000 
after ten years' service, and 2,500 after twenty years. The assistants' salaiy is 
500 florins. The director, professors, and assistants live rent free in the academy 
buildings. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 



77 



ACADEMIES AND CLASSES FOR COMMERCIAL INSTRUCTION. 
"We find in Austria the earliest efforts to adapt scliools and instruction to the 
needs of a commercial career. Tha plan drawn up by Wolf of Baden, and ap- 
proved by the Empress Maria Theresa, (who had authorized instruction in book- 
keeping in the Piarist schools in 1763,) for a Commercial Academy in Vienna 
in 1770, was intended "to offer to young men who intend to devote themselves 
to commercial pursuits, a fundamental knowledge of all that distinguishes a skil- 
ful commercial man from a shop-keeper." The number of pupils was limited to 
sixty, and the course embraced, besides other studies, the German, French, and 
Italian languages, general and commercial geography, commercial and maritime 
law, book-keeping, and drawing. In 1799, the plan of this academy was re- 
modeled, and again in 1808, making the studies more scientific, as well as more 
practical. On the model of this school, institutions were founded at Brunn in 
1811, at Brody in 1815, and at Lemberg in 1817, and a commercial class, in 
the same year, was added to the navigation school at Trieste. In all the modifi.- 
cations of the real schools, the commercial classes have been provided for. 



ACADEMY OF COM3IERCE AT VIENNA. 

1. In 1857, the Academy of Commerce at Vienna was founded for young men 
intending to follow commercial pursuits. A capital of 400,000 florins was sub- 
scribed, and suitable premises built for the purpose. The school is provided 
with technological collections, a museum of natural productions, and complete 
chemical laboratories. A committee composed of nine members presides over 
the general management. The instruction is given in two divisions, one of them 
preparatory, requiring two years' study, the other technical, occupying tbe same 
length of time. The number of hours per week devoted to the different branches 
of instruction is shown in the following table : 



PREPARATORY DIVISION. 


TECHNICAL DIVISION. 


SUBJECTS TAUGHT. 


No. of hours. 


H 


SUBJECTS TAUGHT. 


No. of hours. 




1st 
year. 


2d 

year. 


1st 
year. 


2d 
year. 


1 


Religion, - 
German, - 
Arithmetic, 
Geography, - 
History, - 
Natural history. 
Calligraphy, 
Book-keeping, 
Piiysics, - 


2 
4 
5 
4 
3 
4 
2 


2 
3 
4 
3 
3 
2 
4 
2 
2 


4 

9 
7 
6 
6 
6 
2 
2 


Commercial calculations. 
Book-keeping, - - - 
Commercial correspondence. 
Political economy, - 
Commercial law and exchanges, 
Geography, commercial and 

statistical, ... 
Commercial history, - 
Chemistry, - - - - 
Physics, - - - - 
Study of merchandise and tech- 
nology, - - - - 
Austrian commerce and manu- 
factures, - . - 
Model counting-house, - 


3 
2 
3 
3 

2 

3 
3 

2 

3 


3 

3 

2 
2 

2 

4 
8 


6 
2 
3 
6 

4 
5 
5 
2 

7 
8 


Totals, - 


24 


25 


— 


Totals, - - - - 


24 


24 


- 



Besides this compulsory curriculum there are French, English, and Italian 
classes, one or other of which every pupil must attend, or tv^^o, or all, if he 
pleases. There are excellent laboratories for those pupils who wish to learn 
how to analyze different kinds of merchandise. This study is altogether op- 



78 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 

tional. In winter, qualitative analysis is taught, and quantitative in summer. 
The school fee is 157 tlorins, 50 kr. a year for all the courses. 

Into the first class of the academy are admitted : those youths who have satis- 
factorily finished a higher real school, or higher gymnasium, or the preparatory 
class of some commercial academy ; furthermore, those who in a rigorous exam- 
ination for admission give satisfactory evidence of possessing the degx-ee of gen- 
eral knowledge acquired usually in the preparatory course of the academy. As 
a general rule, only such are admitted to this examination as have entered their 
16th year. For entering the second class of the academy, it is necessary either 
to have gone through the first class, or pass a rigorous examination. 

To tiie first year of the preparatory course are admitted : youths who have 
absolved a three years' class, lower real school or lower g\Tiinasium ; those who 
(wherever they may have received their previous instruction) by a rigorous ex- 
amination show the degree of knowledge usually acquired at the schools. 

To the second year of the preparatory course, those are admitted who have 
either gone thi'Ougl.^;he first class of the same course, or (wherever they may- 
have been educated) show that degree of knowledge which is necessary for un- 
derstanding the subjects taught in the second class. Only such are admitted to 
an examination for this class as have entered the 15th year of their age. Every 
scholar is obliged to attend all the recitations marked obligatory in the plan of 
study. Extraordinary students are only admitted in the higher classes. 

At the close of the courses there are examinations for those who please to pre- 
sent themselves, and certificates of capacity are given to all who pass satisfacto- 
rily. Among the optional branches of instruction are stenography, to which 
some importance is attached, and drawing, which is cultivated both artistically 
and for its commercial uses. 

Besides the regular classes during the day, there are evening classes for per- 
sons already engaged in business. These are held from 7 to 9 o'clock from Oc- 
tober till Easter, and are attended by about 250 persons who pay four florins 
for each course, with the exception of the living languages, which are only two 
florins, and stenography, fixed at one florin. The subjects taught in these 
classes are commercial arithmetic, book-keeping, commercial correspondence, tho 
rules of commerce, and exchange, &c., the living languages, and stenography. 
The majority of the persons attending the evening classes present themselves for 
examination to obtain certificates. 

ACADEMY OF COMMERCE AT PRAGUE. 

2. The Academy of Commerce at Prague was founded in 1826. It has a three 
years' course, in addition to a certificate of studies completed in the trade school, 
or the real gymnasium. The French language is obligatory ; English and Italian 
are optional studies. There were in 1867, 204 pupils. 

ACADEMY OF COMMERCE AT PESTH. 

3. The Academy of Commerce at Pcsth was founded in 1859, by the Chamber 
of Commerce, and in 1867 had 136 pupils, distributed through a three years' 
course, which was founded on the basis of the studies of the real school com- 
pleted. It employs 29 professors, a portion of whom are attached to other insti- 
tutions of the city, giving special instruction in this academy. 

The commercial academies at Graetz and at Reichenberg (Bohemia) has a 
gimilar organization. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 79 

ACADEMIES OF THE FINE ARTS AND INSTRUCTION IN DRAA^NO AND MUSIC. 
The following are tlie schools of art, as applied to painting, sculpture, engrav- 
ing, and music, in Austria : 

ACADEMIES AND SCHOOLS OF ART. 

1. The Imperial Academy of the Fine Arts in Vienna was founded hy Joseph 
I, in 1704, and completed by Charles V, in 1726. It is a State institution, as a 
gallery, a body of artists, and a school of instruction in art having 1 1 professors 
and an average of over 200 pupils. It has a valuable collection of pictui'cs, 
several of them by the first artists, such as Claude, Murillo, and Titian. 

2. At Gratz, there is an Academy of Painting, maintained by the province, 
with 30 to 50 pupils. " 

3. At Prague, the Academy of Arts is maintained by the " Patriotic Society 
of the Friends of Art," with Rn average of 61 pupils. 

4. The School of Fine Arts at Cracow is maintained in connection with the 
Technical Institute, Avith 5 professors and 24 joupils. 

5 Drawing is taught as a regular and indispensable branch in all technical 
schools, and in fifty-two art schools so designated. 

INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC. 

1. The Conservatory of Music at Vienna originated Avith an association, but 
receiA'cs an annual subsidy from the government. It has a six years' course ; 
fees, 4 to 6 floi'ins per month. It has a director, 20 professors^ and an average 
of OA'er 200 pupils of both sexes. 

2. The Conservatory of Music at Prague is supported by the " Society for the 
Improvement of Music," Avith aid from the government. It has three depart- 
ments : one for instrumental music, Avith a six years' course ; one for singing, 
W'ith a tAvo years' course ; and one for the opera, with a tAvo or three years' 
course. The teaching is gratuitous for natiA^es. There is a. director, a sub- 
director, and 19 professors. 

3. The fifty-two art schools mentioned above, are also schools of music. They 
are partly organized by associations, partly by professors, and number in all, 231 
professors, and 3,973 pupils of both sexes. 

SPECIAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALE EDUCATION. 
There are several institutions of special and professional instruction for Avomen, 
of which we giA'e a brief notice. 

1. There exists in Vienna an Institute, Avhere the daughters of ofHcers with 
limited means and large families are educated so as to be able to take situations 
as governesses in Avealthy families. 

The pupils are 78 in number, and the expSnse of the establishment is defrayed 
by the government and private benefactions. 

Girls are admitted from six to eight years of age, and remain till they are 20. 
The pupils are distributed into four classes, and each class has two divisions. 

The directress of the establishment has imder her orders four sub-directresses, 
a mistress for needlework, and a mistress to teach housekeeping. 

2. There are 8 schools for mid wives :. at Linz, Klagenfurt, Laybach, Trieste, 
Allc-Laste near Trent, Zara, Venice, Czernovicz. Instruction of the same kind 
is also given to Avomen at the faculties of medicine and surgical establishments , 



go SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 

A large number of apprentice-mid wives receive considerable pecuniary assistance 
during their studies from the provinces and townships. 

Candidates must be at least 24 years of age, and less than 50, must be able to 
read and write, be of good reputation, and of healthy constitution. 

The course of instruction occupies, according to circumstances, four, five, or 
six months. It is both theoretical and practical, and is given by a professor of 
obstetrics, aided by a midwife and a nurse. 

In most of the schools there are two promotions yearly. On leaving, the 
pupils have to undergo a severe examination, for which those who have the 
means pay a fee of 30 florins. 

There are ten professors engaged in these schools, with a like number of mid- 
wives and nurses. The professor's salary is from 420 to 630 florins. More than 
1,200 midwives are instructed every year in these establishments. The expen- 
diture amounts to 9,815 florins. 

INSTRUCTION IN MINES AND METALLURGY. 

Austria was one of the earliest to establish courses of instruction in the 
sciences connected with the profitable exploration of mines, and the smelting 
of ores. The Academy at Schemnitz was founded in 1763, lectures having been 
given at even an earlier period to a class of men charged with the superinten- 
dence of the salt-works, mines, collieries, and furnaces belonging to the crown. 

MINING ACADEMIES. 

Mining academies exist at Schemnitz, in Hungary ; at Leoben, in Styria ; and 
at Pibram, in Croatia. 

The courses last from two to four years. The qualification for admission is a 
certificate from a gymnasium ©r a higher practical school. There are 23 pro- 
fessors and 255 pupils. The school fee is 10 florins, and many pupils are ad- 
mitted without payment. The total expense is 14,700 florins. These establish- 
ments are supported by the State. 

In addition to these special schools of mining, the sciences which belong to 
the subject are thoroughly taught at the Polytechnic School, and iDustrated in 
the collections of the Geological Institute, at Vienna. 

MIKING ACADEMY AT SCHEMNITZ. 

The Mining Academy at Schemnitz was founded during the reign of Maria 
Theresa, to aid in tKe developing the mines adjacent to that town, and distrib- 
uted through the surrounding district, and in training engineers and overseers 
of the imperial mines in other parts of the empire. 

The institution is well endowed, and well equipped with a laboratory, and all 
the facilities of assaying and smelting. The course extends through three years. 
First year. — Geometry, algebra, tngonometry, and conic sections, physics, me- 
chanics, crystallography, and drawing. Second year. — Chemistry, mineralogy, 
metallurgy, and geology. Third year. — Surveying, machinery, art of mining, 
with practical exercises, dressing of ores, smelting, construction of machines and 
buildings, mining accounts, &c. A fourth year is given to additional practical 



SPECIAL IXSTRIICTIOj!^ LX DUCHY OF BADEI(. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The Grand Duchy of Baden had, in 1861, on a territory of 5,904 
square miles, 1,369,291 inhabitants, of whom 896,683 were Catholics, 
24,099 Jews, and the rest Protestants. 

About two-thirds of the population are engaged in agriculture, and 
the industrial acdvity of the other third is turned to ribbons and cot- 
ton fabrics, clocks and fabrics of straw, toys and trinkets. There 
are over 300 lar^je manufacturinoj establishments. The income for 
1862 was 17,140,192 florins, (about $7,000,000,) and the state budget 
for public instruction, in 1863, contains the following items: 

Florins 
Popular schools, ------ 86,084 

Normal schools, .... - 30,086 

^ Special aid to teachers in primary schools, - - 56,000 

Higher burgher schools, . . . _ 31,000 

Secondary schools, . . - - - 68,838 

Teaching of gymnastics, - - - - 8,250 

Universities, - - - - - - 178,087 

Technical or professional schools, - . - 18,025 

Cabinets of physics, collections of natural history, &c., at 

Carlsruhe, ------ 3,279 

Aid to savants, artists, museums, &c., - . - 5,677 



Total, -----. 485,326 

The supervision of public instruction, and of all institutions of 
education aided out of the budget, belongs to the Ministry of the 
Interior, who acts through a Council of Education, which is com- 
posed of a member for each of the four circles, or districts, into 
which the kingdom is divided, and a representative of each of the 
highest authorities in the evangelical, Catholic, and Jewish church 
organizations. 

The system of public schools* embraces: 

I. Primary Schools, — which, in Baden, are denominational in 
their local management, but which must be attended by all children 
over six and under fourteen years, unless excused. There were in 
1866, 2,157 primary schools, of which 1,389 were Catholic, 740 
Protestant, and 28 Jewish, with an aggregate attendance of 200,000 

*See Report on National Education in Europe, Part I, Germany. 

6 



82 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 

pupils. Eveiy parish must provide in winter, in the primary f chool- 
house, for a class of girls in sewmg, knitting, and other horae-Avork, 
for one hour after the boys are dismissed. An evening class is main- 
tained twice a week, for young persons (whose attendance is optional,) 
who have left school, for further instruction in penman-hip, letter 
writing, and the elements of natural history, and the industries of 
the locality ."* 

II. Secondary Schools, — including 28 burgher scliools, (superior 
]6rimary schools.) with 2,154 pupils; 5 high schools for girls, with 
280 pupils ; 3 pedagogiums, with 382 pupils in a course of 6 years ; 
8 lyceums, wdih 2,108 pupils in a course of 9 years ; and 5 gymna- 
siums, with 652 pupils in a course of 8 years. 

III. Superior Schools, or Universities, viz : One at iHeidelberg, 
founded in 1386, with a faculty of theology, philosophy and philology, 
medicine, and law, and an aggregate of 752 students ; 1 at Freiburg, 
founded in 1454, with a faculty of Catholic theology, law, medicine, 
and philosophy, and an aggregate of 356 students; 1 Cathohc archi- 
episcopal seminary, with 35 students. 

IV. Special and Professional Schools, viz : 3 primary normal 
schools, with 170 pupils ; 3 superior normal schools, (connected with 
the pedagogiums,) with 50 pupils ; 2 agricultural schools, with 80 
pupils ; 1 veterinary school, with 10 pupils ; 2 military schools, (one 
a review school for staff officers,) with 60 pupils ; 1 normal school 
for gymnastics, with 35 pupils ; 1 school of the fine arts, with 35 
pupils ; 41 schoo'S of arts and trades, with 4,803 pupils ; 1 poly- 
technic school, with six sections, (1 for mechanics, 1 for engineers, 
1 for builders, 1 for foresters, 1 for chemists, 1 for constructors of 
machines, 1 for post office and other public service,) and 589 pupils ; 
1 watchmaking school, with 80 pupils ; 3 straw-plaiting schoolf=, 
with 120 pupils; 1 workmen's society industrial scliool, with 80 
pupils ; 1 institution for deaf mutes, with 30 pupils ; 1 institution 
for the blind, with 25 pupils. 

V. Associations for the Adrancemeni of Literature, Science, and 
the Arts. — Under this head there are: 1 museum of natural history; 
1 gallery of paintings and statuary ; 5 public libraries, with an aggre- 
gate of 200,000 volumes, &c., &c. 

* By the law of 1864, the primary schools are divided into elementary and superior ; the ele- 
mentary are confined to the rural districts which can maintain only one teacher, and the mini- 
mum instriaction fixed by law , the superior primary schools are taught by two or more teachers, 
each of whom must give thirty-two lessons a week. When a school exceeds sixty pupils, there 
must be three classes. The schools are to become less denominational, and each commune can 
elect its own committee, one of whom must be the teacher, and in the /arger communes, a 
physician, as well as the pastor. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 83 

SPECIAL SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION. 
Out of the many excellent institutions for special instruction in 
the Grand Duchy of Baden, "vve select for particular descnption, two 
which have attained great reputation.* 

' POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT CARLSRUHE. 

The PoLYTECHXic School of the Grand Duchy of Baden is located at 
Carlsnihe, the capital of the duchy, a city of 25,000 inhabitants in 1860. The 
germ existed in a school of engineering founded in 1814, which was expanded 
into a h\rge scientific school in 1825, by Prof. "Winter, under tlic encouragement 
and aid of tlie Grand Duke Louis, receiving a building, and a forest school in 
1832, and a chemical, a machine construction, and a commercial department in 
1836, and then attained, by steady growth, the proportions of the most complete 
polytechnic school in Germany. Without large or diversified industries in the 
city of its location, and with several competing institutions of the same charac- 
ter in close proximity, (Stuttgart, Darmstadt, and lately Zurich,) the number 
of scholars has steadily increased, and its range of instruction has kept pace 
with the demands of the age, because its managers have been successful in ob- 
taining and retaining an able corps of professors, and have provided them with 
suitable class-rooms, lecture-halls, laboratories, workshops, and aH the material 
aids of technical instruction. 

ORGANIZATION. 

This establishment is a kind of technical university, which, in addition to 
scientific studies of a high order, comprises in its organization several special 
divisions. The first of these is devoted not merely to mathematical science, as 
its name would seem to indicate, but also to the general scientific knowledge 
necessary for the other technical divisions, and which the pupils may acquire by 
following the particular courses relating to those sciences. This institution was 
the first of its class to introduce the system of independent schools, or divisions 
in the several great departments of industry, foimded on a commoa scientific 
basis. 



The technical divisions, or schools. 


are: 






Engineers, 


- 


requiring 2 


or 2^ years. 


Architects. liSX " 


" 




2" " 
4 " 


Foresters, 


- 


' t€ 


2 


Chemists, 


. 


it 


2 


Constructors of machines, - 


. 


" 


2 


Commerce, 


_ 


te 


1 


Posts, 


- 


(( 


1 " 



The only qualification for admission is that the candioate shall possess the 
requisite instruction to enable him to folloAV one of the divisions. There is no 
absolutely compulsory series of study; the examinations alone impose on the 
pupils the necessity of acquiring the necessary instruction, and thus indicate to 
them the courses which are indispensable. 

♦Compiled from Programmes of Institutions, Report of French Commission, and Report of 
Hamburgh. Committee, and memoranda of a visit. - , 



g4 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 

Mathematical Division. 
The studies of this division extend over two years. For admission to the first 
year's course the candidate must be above 17 years of age, and must prove that 
he is sufficiently acquainted with elementary mathematics, and can treat of a 
given subject in the German language. A candidate may enter the second year's 
course at once on showing that he knows the subjects taught in the first year, 
and that he is 18 years of age. The following is the progranmie of studies: 

Hours. 
First Year: ■ 

Differential and integral calculus, - - - - 5 

Plane and spherical trigonometry, - - - - 2 

Analytical geometry of two dimensions, - - - 2 

Descriptive geometry, - • - . _ g 

Elements of mechanics, - - - - - 5 

Experimental physics, - - - - - 4 

(And one hour of repetition.) 

German language, - - - - - - 2 

Erench language, - - - - - - 3 

Eree-hand drawing, - - - - - - 2 

Modeling, - - - - - - - 4 

Second Year: 

Differential and integral calculus, - - - - 4 

Analytical geometry of three dimensions, - - - 2 

Analytical mechanics, - - - - - - 5 

Descriptive geometry, - . ... 4 

Technical drawing, (summer,) - - . . - 4 

Practical geometry, - - - - - - 4 

Higher physics, (winter,) - - - - - 3 

Physical experiments, (summer,) - - - -6 

General chemistry, (course of the chemical division,) - - 4 

Mineralogy and geology, - - - - -3 to 4 

German literature, - - - - - - 2 

Erench language, - - - - - - 3 

English language, - - - - . . - 3 

Eree-hand drawing, - - - - - - 4 

Modeling, - - -'- - - -4 

Division of Engineers. 

This division prepares for all the branches of the profession, military engineer- 
ing excepted. 

To be admitted, the candidate must possess the knowledge acquired in a' gym- 
nasium or lyceum as far as the second class, and that of the two years' mathe- 
matics of the preceding school In the absence of certificates, the candidate 
must pass an examination. 

The studies occupy two years, according to the following programme : 

Hours. 

First Year: 

Calculation of variations, (winter,) - - - - 2 

Surveying, -•- - - - - - 2 

Method of least squares, - - - - - 1 

Applied mechanics, - - - - - - 3 

Technological chemistry, - - - - - 3 

Eoads, hydraulic constructions, (with three afternoons of ex- 
periments,) - - - - - - -5 

Construction of machines, - - - - - 12 

Grerman literature, - - - • - - 1 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 85 

Hours. 
Ancient and mediaeval literature, - - • - 5 

Practical construction in wood and stone, - - 4 to 6 

Free-hand and landscape drawing, - - - - 4 

English language, - - - - • - 3 

Second Year: 

Bridges and roads, ------ 6 

Construction of railways, - - - - - 2 

Exercises in practical building every afternoon in winter, and 

both morning and afternoon in summer, - - - 

Construction of machines, ----- 6 

Questions in mathematical physics, (summer,) - - 2 

Popular law, .._... 2 

German literature, - - - - - - 5 

Ancient and mediaeval history, - ... 5 

Free-hand and landscape drawing, - - - - 4 

Third Year ; " 

This course, which is one of six months only, is intended for engineers who 
intend to practice' in the Grand Duchy. They have to familiarize themselves 
with the regulations and usages as to contracts for public works, as well as to 
price currents (two hours per week.) 

Hours. 
Drawing up of projects, specifications, estimates, - - 8 

Higher architecture, ------ 3 

The pupils are taken out for excursions to building yards and works in course 
of execution ; in this case the lessons are interrupted. 

Division of Builders. 

This division is subdivided into two parts ; the lower section is intended to 
train builders, (werJcmeister,) capable of projecting and executing all ordinary 
buildings for dwellings and manufacturing purposes. The higher division is 
meant to train architects in the higher sense of the Avord, and those who pass 
through it are expected to improve themselves subsequently by traveling to study 
the more remarkable creations of their art. 

This division requires four years' study ; the qualifications for admission are 
tlie same as for the engineering division, except that only the first year's course 
of the mathematical division is necessaiy. 



First Yea 



1st division,) . - - 

Mineralogy and geology. 
Building materials, 
Descriptive geometry, - 
Statics of buildings, 
Architectural drawing from copies, 
Drawing of plans, - - - 

Landscapes, . - _ 

Drawing of ornaments, 
Modeling in plaster, 
Building arches in the yard. 
Modeling in wood, 
Ancient and mediaeval history, 
German literature. 







Hours in 


Hours in 






^\ 


inter. 


Summer. 


emica 


course. 












4 


4 




- 


3 to 4 


3 to 4 








2 


2 




. 




4 


4 








2 


2 




. 




4 


6 








4 


6 




. 




4 


4 








4 


6 




. 




4 


— 








_ 


4 




_ 




4 


4 


. 






5 


5 




. 




1 


1 



Hours in 


Hours in 


Winter. 


Summer. 


8 


6 


5 


5 


4 


4 


2 


2 


5, 






6 




6 




4 




6 




- — 


_ 


4 


4 


4 



SQ SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 



Second Year. 

Knowledge of machines, - - - 

Bridges and roads, - - - 

Technical architecture, - - . - 

Elementary studies of projects. 
Architectural drawing from models and copies, 

projects, - ■ - - . - 

Projects of dwelling houses. 
Landscape drawing, - - - 

Drawing ornaments from copies, - 
Modeling in plaster, . - - 

Building arches in the yard, 
Modeling in wood, - . - 

Ancient and medieval history, - . - - _ 

Literature, -----_ „ 

Third Year : 

Technical course of architecture, 2d part, - 3 3 

Higher art of building, - - - 3 3 

History of ancient architecture, - - - 2 ' 2 

Plans of dwelling houses, - . - 6 9 
Graphic studies on the more remarkable orders and 

edifices, - .... 2 3 

Aerial perspective, - . - - - 2 3 

Drawing ornaments from models and nature, 3 3 

Drawing of figures, .... 4 4 

Free-hand draAving, - - - - 4 4 

Modeling from models, - - - - 5 4 

Ancient and mediaeval history, - - - - 

German literature, .----- - 

Fourth Year: 

Popular law, - - - - - 

Higher art of building, - - . - 

History of medi£eval and modern architecture. 
Projects of great public buildings, 
Study of the architecture of the middle ages, and 

copying of the principal monuments, - 
Perspective views in Avater colors, - . - 
Drawing of ornaments, . - . - 

Pigure drawing from plaster models and nature, 
Pree-hand drawing, . . . - 

Modeling from nature or fancy. 

Ancient and mediaeval history, - - - - - 

German literature, --.-_. - 

The mornings left free are devoted to graphic studies, and, at the end of the 
school year, there is a competition for the fourth class. A gold medal is given 
for the best project. 

In these programmes for the architectural division, it is worthy of remark that 
there is no mention of mathematical instruction with regard to the stability of 
buildings, the strength of materials, «S:e. Such being the case, it is not easy to 
see the utility of the high mathematics and mechanical analysis required for ad- 
mission into this division, the first two years of which are intended to form 
builders and overseers of works. It would, perhaps, be better to require less of 
the higher mathematics and more of the applications of the principles of science 
to the art of building. The practice of exercising the pupils of this divi'sion in 
the actual construction of various arches appears to be excellent. But as this 



2 


2 


3 


3 


2 


2 


6 


9 


2 


3 


2 


3 


2 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


4r 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 87 

can only be done with bricks, it should not set aside that of makinf^ vaults and 
other constructions in plaster on a reduced scale, which oblige the pupils to trace 
all the panels and completely realize the different parts. 

After the first two years' studies, the pupils who have no higher ambition 
than to l)ccomc builders or overseers of works have acquired sufficient theoreti- 
cal and practical instruction. 

Division of Foresters. 

The instmction of this division consists of: 1. A preparatory course; 2. 

Two years' studies. To enter the preparatory course, the qualification required j 

is proficiency in the subjects taught in a lyceum as far as the second class, or > 

else in all the classes of a gymnasium. The following is the programme : 

Hours. 
Preparatory Course: 

Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - - 3 

Plane and solid geometry, ----- 3 

Experimental physics, - - - - - - 4 

General and special botany, - - - - 4 

Zoology, - - - - - - - 3 

Botanical excursions and observations once a week in summer. 

History of German literature, - - - - - 2 

Popular law, - - - - - - 2 

Rudiments of forest science, - - - - - 2 

Practical instruction in forest questions and in the accounts of 

forest administration, - - - - - - 

First Year: 

General arithmetic and algebra, - - - - 2 

Plane polygonometry, spherical trigonometry, - - - 2 

Mathematical forest exercises, - - - - 4 

General chemistry, - - ' - - - - 4 

Mineralogy, (winter,) - - - - - 3 

Geology, (summer,) - - - - - - 4 

Practical mineralogy, - . _ . _ 2 
General botany, anatomy, chemistry, physiology, geography, 
(winter,) -..----4 

Climate, meteorology, knowledge of soils, - - - 3 

Natural history of timber trees, - - . - 2 

Forest management, (winter,) - - - - - 3 

Forest dues, ------- 2 

Practical geometry, - - - - - - 4 

Excursions and explanations in the forest, - • - - 
Botanical excursions, - ----.-. 

Second Year: 

Solution of problems, - - . - . 2 

Agricultural chemistry, - - - - - 2 

Administrative science, political and financial economy, - 2 

Roads and hydraulic constructions, (elements,) - - 2 

Guarding and protecting of forests, - - - 2 

State of foi-cst science, - - - - - - 2 

Working and valuations after rational methods, - - 4 

Valuation of the soil and produce of the forest as the basis of 

their real worth, ------ 2 

Notions on the chase, - - - - - - 2 

Forest administration, ----- 2 

Forest police, - - - - - - - 3 

Forest laws and those of the chase, - - - - 2 

Excursions and journeys Avith applications. 



88 



SPECIAIj INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 



Division of Chemists. 
This division is especially devoted to young men who purpose following careers 
in which a knowledge of chemistry, physics, and natural history may be useful, 
whether they intend to devote themselves to chemistry or to engage in mining 
or metallurgical works. Admission is free to all who possess the instruction 
necessary for following the courses, and are full 1 7 years of age. The subjects 
taught are summarily stated in the following programme : 



General chemistry, 1st course, inorganic part, (winter term,) - 
Organic chemistry, (summer term,) ... 

General chemistry, 2d course, history and philosophy of chem- 
istry . (one year,) - - - 
Repetition of chemistry, (winter,) - - . . 
Conference on chemical analysis, (summer,) 
Art of assaying metals, . . . . _ 

Manipulations in the laboratory, - - . _ 

Qualitative and quantitative analysis, - - - - 

Agricultural chemistry, (winter,) - - 

Chemical technology, organic and inorganic, various manu- 
factures, (one year,) 
Metallurgy, (one year,) ------ 

Experimental physics, 

Repetitions of physics, ------ 

Higher physics, ------ 

Botany and geology, ------ 

Mineralogy, (winter,) - - - - . 

Physical geography, (summer,) . - - - 

Knowledge of useful minerals, (winter,) - - - 

Practical mineralogy, excursions, &c., (summer,) 
Crystallography, (winter,) - - . - - 



Hours. 
4 
4 

1 
2 



This very extensive curriculum constitutes a series of courses which may be 
followed, not only by the pupils more Especially destined for the chemical arts, 
but also for those of the other divisions. To take part in the chemical manipu- 
lations, the pupils pay 44 florins a year, and are supplied with all the needful 
re-agents. 

Division of Constructors of Machines. 

The qualification for admission is the instruction acquired by a pupil during 
the first year of the mathematical division. The whole course takes two years. 
The number of hours per week devoted to each subject is indicated in the follow- 
ing programme : 



First Year: 

On machines, - - - - 

Construction of machines, - 

Arrangements of machines. 

Experimental physics, 

Applied mechanics, - 

Practical geometry, - - - 

Mechanical technology, - 

Chemical technology. 

Metallurgy, ... - - 

Knowledge of useful minerals. 

Roads and hydraulic constructions. 

Free-hand di'awing, - - - • 

Ancient and medieval history, - 

Practice in workshops from 4 to 6 p. m. 

German and French literature, - 



Hours. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 



89 



Second Yem- : ^ 

On nuii'hines, ... 

Coustruetioa of machines, 

Putting- up machines, 

Mechanical technology, - 

Select questions of mathematical physics, 

Higher physics-, - - - - 

General chemistry, - - - 

Itl. repetitions, (winter,) - 
Road and Ixydraulic constructions, 
Kiiihvays, (summer,) - - - 

Chemical technology, 
Metallurgy, . . - - 

Ancient and mediaeval history, 
German literature, - . - 

Free-hand drawing - - - 

English language, ... 

Practice in workshops from 4 to 6 p. m.. 



Houra. 

6 
4 
6 
2 
2 
6 
4 
2 
6 
2 



Commercial Division. 



The qualification for admission to this 
acquired in an upper middle class school. 
the following programme : 

On commerce, - - - 

Book-keeping, 

Commercial correspondence, 

Commercial arithmetic, 

Knowledge of merchandise, 

Commercial geography, 

Commercial liistory, 

( German, 
Languages. } French, - 

( English, 
Calligraphy, 
Drawing, - . - 



division is the instruction that can be 
The instruction is given according to 

Hours. 
- - - - 5 



Post Office Division. 
The qualification for admission is the degree of instruction acquired on leaving 
the upper class of a gymnasium or the higher division of the fifth in a lyceum. 
Two years are required to complete the courses which are arranged as follows : 



First Year: 

Arithmetic, - - - - - 

Mechanics, - - - - - 

Experimental physics, - - - - 

French language, . - - - 

German language, , - - - 

Calligraphy, - - - - - 

Second Year: 

Political arithmetic, - - - - 

Geography, ----- 
General notions of political economy, (summer,) 
Popular law,- .... 

Commercial law, .... 

Application of mechanics to conveyance, - _ 



Hours. 

3 
3 
4 
4 
2 
2 



Prof. 


Assist. 


4 


2 


6 


2 


4 


1 


3 


— 


3 


_ 


3 


_ 


2 


-■ 




Masters. 


- 


- 9 


. 


1 


. 


- 1 


- 


3 



90 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 

Hours. 
Ancient and mediaeval history, - - . - - - 5 

German literature, - - - - - . 2 

French language, - - - - . - 3 

French littraiure, . - - - . - 2 

English language, - . - - - - - 3 

Calligraphy, -------2 

Management. 

The committee of management consists of a director, two councillors, the 
librarian, the secretarj^, and an accountant. The staff of teachers, professors, 
assistant professors, .and masters is arranged as follows : 

Mathematics, - - - - 

Natural sciences, - - - 

Architecture and building. 

Bridges and roads, - - - - 

KnoAvledge of machines. 

Forest sciences, . . _ _ 

Commerce, - - - 



General courses, (languages and literature,) 
Sculp tui-e, . - - - - 

Calligrajihy, - - - - - 

"Workshops, - 

The professors are appointed and paid by the government. The director is 
elected for one year, by the heads of the several divisions. 

The students are classified as regular or irregular. The latter are persons of 
ripe age, and generally graduates of other technical schools, and attend only 
special courses of lectures, by permission. The regular students must be mem- 
bers of some particular division, and pay an admission fee of S3. 00, and an annual 
tuition of 66 Rhenish florins. The tuition covers more than half the expendi- 
tures of the institution. The rest is paid by the government. 

The discipline of the institution is strict, and the head of each department is 
charged with the supervision of his pupils. 

The number of pupils, regular and irregular, in 1861, was 826, and the age 
ranges from 18 to 22 years. 

Buildings and Material Equipments. 
The building, laboratories, and collections for illustrating the studies of the 
several divisions, are among the best in Europe. The main building is 406 feet 
(Bavarian) long, and 42 feet deep, with wings 100 feet long, by 40, in the rear. 
The laboratory of the chemical department is in a separate stmcture, (220 feet 
long, by 50 deep,) and will accommodate 100 students at their manipulations, 
with separate rooms for distillation, and other processes. There is a separate 
building, of the same size, for the lectures, models and designs for machines, in 
which the collections are very large and complete. The workshops, three in 
number, are not large, and the only one appropriated to students is not largely 
resorted to. The cost of the buildings was about $250,000. The collections 
and instruments, for illustration in each division, are large and admirably selected, 
or constructed on the premises for use. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 9X 



TRADE SCHOOLS. 

The object of the trade schools [gewerbe schiden,) of Baden, as expressed in the 
words of the hiw, is " to afford to young persons .who propose to follow a trade, 
or mechanic art, which requires no liigh grade of technical or scientific training, 
and who have already acquired a practical knowledge of its rudiments, such 
Jcnowledgc and skill as will make them capable of an intelligent pursuit of it." 

The scliools are open to apprentices, or those about to become apprentices, 
above the age of fourteen ; to journeymen, of good character, possessing suffi- 
cient preparatoxy knowledge, and to any one who may Avish to attend any single 
course. 

Attendance upon them Avas, until recently, obligatory upon all apprentices, 
but the regulation was found to bring in pupils who felt no interest in the studies, 
and did not profit by the instruction, but disturbed those who were studious. 

There were 4,920 pupils in all the schools, (forty-one in 1868,) of w^hich about 
600 Avere journeymen, and 800 pupils not yet connected Avith any trade. 

The number of professors Avas, in 1862, thirty -four, Avith thirty-six assistants, 
and the total of their salaries Avas 30,533 florins of the Rhine. The expenses are 
defrayed in part by the state, in part by the parishes, and a small tuition fee is 
charged, Avhich may be remitted, in case of inability to pay. 

The school is held, during the Avinter, from seven to ten in the morning; during 
the summer, from six to nine, and on the afternoon of Sundays. The Avhole 
course lasts three years, and is preceded by a preparatory course. Pupils are not 
obliged to pursue those studies Avhich haA-e no reference to their future occupation. 

The best of these schools, although not the one numbering the most pupils, is 
that at Baden-Baden. Its curriculum, which Ave take as an example, is as folloAVS : 

TKADE SCHOOL AT BADEN. 

Commercial course, 1st class, (1 hour per week,) keeping accounts, drawing up 
bills, letters of credit, bills of exchange, notes, receipts, &c. ; 2d class, (I hour,) 
certificates, forms conferring poAvers of attorney {fonnules de pleins pouvoirs,) ad- 
A-ertisements, letters of credit, &e. ; 3d class, (1 hour,) bills of exchange, princi- 
pal documents made valid by the mere signature of the individual putting them 
forth, { principaux actes sous seing price,) petitions to the government, commercial 
letters, &c. 

Course of arithmetic, 1st class, (2 hours,) simple fractions and decimals, com- 
parison of the Aveights and measures used in France and Baden, proportions, rule 
of three; 2d class, (1 hour,) rcAicAv of AA'liat Avas taught the first class, rules of 
interest, alligation, partnership, extraction of square root; 3d class, (1 hour,) 
equations of the first degree and several unknoAvn quantities, continuation of the 
rules of partnership and of interest, extraction of cube root. 

Course of geometry, 1st class, (1 hour,) triangles, squares, and polygonal figures ; 
2d class, (1 hour,) mensuration of surfaces; 3d class, (1 hour,) mensuration of 
the volume and Aveight of regular bodies. 

Course of industrial economy, 2d class, (1 hour,) connections between workman 
and employer; 3d class, (I hour,) connections between employer, master Avork- 
man, and workman. 

Course of hook-heepirig, 3d class, (1 hour,) drawing up of inA^entories, transac- 
tion of fictitious business. 

Course of natural history and mechanics, 2d class, (1 hour,) considerations upon 
the general qualities of bodies, centres of graA'ity, stability, parallelogram of 
forces; 3d class, (1 hour,) hydraulic press, pumps of various kinds, heat, and 
magnetism. 

Course of geometrical drawing, includes a course of free-hand draAving and 
modeling. 



92 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 

Course of free-hand drawing, 1st class, (1 hour,) regular plane figures ; 2(1 class, 
(1 hour,) regular solids; 3d class, (3 hours,) machines, plans, subjects, &c. 
Course of modeling, the 3 classes, (4 hours,) turning, metal and wood work. 

To the practical course are assigned five workshops, in which the pupils work 
from half past seven to nine. ' The number of pupils in this school is 200. 

The other leading trade schools are at Constance, 233 pupils ; Freiburg, 361 ; 
Carlsruhe, 304 ; Pforzheim, 483 ; Heidelberg, 424 ; and Mannheim, 282. 

SCHOOL FOR WATCH AND CLOCKMAKING AT FURTWANGEK. 

Since the sixteenth century the manufacture of clocks has been one of the 
staple trades of this part of Germany; and in 18^7 it is estimated that there 
were more than 4,000 persons employed in watchmaking. In the year 1849 a 
special school for this branch of industry was established, and the place selected 
for its seat was Furtwangen, in the canton of Freiburg, the old centre of the 
clock manufacture in the Black Forest. 

This school now comprises : 1. A general trade school ( Gewerheschule) teach- 
ing more especially everything connected with clockmaking. 2. A purely prac- 
tical school, with workshops for improving Avorkmen in the diiferent branches 
of the art, and provided with everything required for promoting the progress of 
horological manufactures in Baden generally. 

Industrial School. — The instruction given here consists of three courses, each 
occupying a year. The classes are always held in the morning, beginning at six 
o'clock in winter, and at five in summer, and vary from seven hours to fifteen 
and a half hours per week for each class of pupils. Moreover, seeing the gen- 
eral importance of free-hand drawing, three hours are devoted to it every Sunday 
for apprentices and workmen. The clockmaking school even supplies pupils of 
insufficient means with all the necessary material. 

For children of either sex, between the ages of eight and fourteen, there are 
three courses of drawing. Instruction in modeling is given to joiners, sculptors, 
and painters, if they desire it. Besides, pupils are also taught moulding, the art 
of casting, of taking impressions on various materials, gilding on wood and 
stone, burnishing, varnishing, polishing, copper plate printing, &c. 

In 1861 this school had 49 pupils and seven free auditors. 

There are : 1 . A principal professor of special drawing, of mechanics, of the 
knowledge of machines, of applied physics and chemistry. 2. A professor of 
free-hand drawing, of oniaments, modeling, and decoration. 3. An assistant 
master for German, arithmetic, geometry, geometrical constructions, and com- 
mercial accounts. 

The instruction is thus distributed among the three classes : 

Hours. 

First Class: 

Arithmetic and plane geometry, - - - - 3 

German language, - - - - - - 2 

Geometrical constructions ; drawing applied to clockmaking, 2 to 3 
Free-hand drawing, - - - - - -lto3 

Second Class: 

Arithmetic and geometry, surfaces, volumes, curves, &c., - 2 to 3 
German, contracts, commercial correspondence, - - 2 

Book-keeping, ------ 1 

Applied mechanics and physics, power and work, centre of 
gravity, the pendulum, simple machines, lever, wedge, 
screw, pulley, -•- - -.- - '.^ 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 93 

Hours. 
Motions of clockwork, generalities on the measure of time, 

constituent parts, and their relations, - - - 1 

Drawing geometrical constructions, penetrations, curves for 

the teeth of wheels, tools, - - - - 2 to 3^ 

Free-hand drawing with the pencil, shading, - - 1 to 3 

Third Class: 

Arithmetic and mechanics, problems in clockwork, transfor- 
mation of movements, - - - - -lto2 
Motions of clockwork, calculation of wheels, the different 

kinds of clocks, the best escapements, tools, and machines, - 2 
Applied physics, especially with relation to clockwork, - l|- 

Special di-awing for clockwork, - - - - - 4 

Free-hand drawing, shading, - - - . i^ 

Workshops for Improvement. — There are at present three of these v/orkshops, 
two for watches and one for clocks. 

The first watch workshop admits young men who intend to follow the trade, 
and gives them all the means of becoming expert workmen. The second shop 
is a continuation of the first, that is to say, as soon as a young man has acquired 
in the first sufficient skill to take part in the manufacture of watches, he is at 
liberty either to enter any private manufactory or to pass into the second shop, 
where he continues to work under the direction of the professor, at the same 
time receiving wages. Skilful watchmakers are also received in this second shop 
to work by the piece. Both these shops are under the same roof as the school. 
The workshop for clocks is, on the contrary, owing to want of room, in the resi- 
dence of the professor, and as he keeps a workshop of his own for clocks, the 
organization is analogous to the one we have described for watches. Every 
pupil has a place to himself like a workman ; the tools are exactly the same as 
in a complete watch and clock manufactory, organized according to the best and 
most recent processes, and on the system of division of labor. 

The workshops are never closed for want of work; but there are holidays at 
Easter, at the end of the school year, and in Carnival time, just the same as in 
the other manufactories of the Black Forest. The working hours are, in accord- 
ance with the general usages of the trade, from 7 to 11 .30 a. m., and from 1 to 
7 p. m., that is 10^ hours' work per day, — 63 hours per week. Of those who 
attend the trade school, those in the first class have seven hours' instruction, and 
58 of practice in the workshops, in all 65 hours in winter; those of the second 
class, 12 hours and 54 hours, or 66 hours in all ; those of the third class, 7 hours 
and 58 hours, or 65 hours. In summer the theoretical courses begin at an earlier 
hour, which prolongs to 66 or 68 hours the time employed per week. 

In the workshop for clocks the hours of work, according to the custom preva- 
lent in the Black Forest, are 13 per day. In the second shop those who work 
by the piece can leave off at dusk. 

There is no time fixed for pupils to remain in either workshop ; their stay de- 
pends on the aptitude, application, and progress of each individual. In general 
the apprenticeship does not exceed three years. In the contract signed on enter- 
ing, the pupil engages to pay a certain sum in case he leaves the school by his 
own desire, or if, on withdrawing from the watch workshop, he leaves the Black 
Forest. In all other cases the instruction is gratuitous. 

Each of the two workshops has a bench for 10 pupils, the number of practical 
pupils, therefore, can not exceed 20. 



94 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 

Workshops foi- Watches. — The principle of division of labor is adopted in these 
shops, so that, as soon as a pupil possesses a general knowledge of the trade, he 
is advised to select the particular speciality for which he has most aptitude, or 
which best meets the actual wants of the establishment. 

The instruction therefore consists : 1. Of a general part common to all the 
pupils. 2. Of a part special to each pupil, and which will render him perfectly 
competent to undertake one or more of the branches forming the complete manu- 
facture. 3. Of a part intended to form workmen thoroughly versed in both the 
practice and the theory of the art. 

The first, or general part, forms the basis of all the subsequent instruction, 
and is, therefore, of the utmost importance. While the pupils are going through 
it the professor has ample opportunities of appreciating their capabilities and 
of deciding what special branch will best suit them. 

In this part of the course the pupil has to acquire, — dexterity in filing, turn- 
ing, drilling, polishing, &c. ; a knowledge of the treatment of materials, harden- 
ing and annealing of steel, hammer-hardening of brass, &c. ; the power of mak- 
ing small tools, such as punches, drills, counter-sinks, rimers, screw-taps, &c. ; 
tlic iise of the simple machine tools ; a facility of producing pieces in the rough, 
a knowledge of the constituent parts of a watch, the practice of drawing watches, 
and all their parts. 

The details of the practical teaching are so numerous that it is impossible to 
give them here. Strict attention is paid to the perfection of the work, and to 
the exact proportions of size. The parts most minutely examined for the mak- 
ing of the pieces in the rough are the lever, escapements, the balances, the cut- 
ting and setting of the jewels the position of the wheels, &c. The instruction 
of the complete watchmaker embraces a knowledge of. all parts of the divided 
labor ; it must also familiarize the pupil wdth the geometrical proportions of the 
parts of a watch, enable him to judge of its movement, to undertake improve- 
ments, and even to devise new^ systems. 

This instruction is given by a professor and his assistant, both practical watch- 
makers. 

In the year 1860 there were 13 pupils, four of whom had completed the course 
at its close. In 1860-61 there were only 11 pupils, as none are admitted but 
those who display more than the average talent. 

Workshops for Clocks. — The object of these is to improve this branch of manu- 
factures in the Black Forest. Owing to the peculiar organization of the clock 
manufacture, it is very difficult to establish the principle of division of labor in 
this branch ; the instruction given, therefore, is such as to enable every pupil to 
take any work that he can obtain in establishments already existing, or to set 
up a workshop of his own. It is indispensable that, while more especially culti- 
vating the branch for which he feels most inclined, he must none the less learn 
to make complete movements, and to prepare the different pieces in the rough, 
othenvise he could not be of much use in the present manufactories of the Black 
Forest. It is nevertheless necessary for him to know the system of the division 
of labor, and the use of the more expensive and more perfect machines, so as to 
be able to take advantage of them whenever an opportunity occurs. 

The instruction is divided into: 1. The general elementary teaching com- 
mon to all the pupils ; 2. The general improvement of the pupil in all the 
branches, but with a more particular study of that for which the pupil is 
best fitted. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 95 

The pupil has to acquire : Dexterity in filing, drillinc:, turninj? ; the knowl- 
edge of materials, and manner of treating them ; the making of the dificrent 
tools; instruction in the use of the various machines required in the manufacture 
of clocks ; the knowledge of the constituent parts of a clock, their purpose, and 
execution. The concluding instruction consists in teaching how to make the 
cases, harrels, and wheels; the moving powers; the conditions indispensal)le for 
good working of the wheels ; the making of ordinary movements ; striking and 
repeating clocks ; finishing with pieces in the rough. As there are always in the 
workshops pupils of various degrees of proficiency, this last course can not he 
divided into sections. The instruction is given hy a professor. 

The Furtwangcn school has in all six professors, one of whom is director ; 
there arc also two workmen and one man servant. 

During the last ycai' there were 80 pupils : 

In the industrial school of the first year, - - - 29 

" " second year, - -. 11 

" " third vear, - - - 9 



T 1 11 (for Avatches, 

In the workshops | ^^^ ^^^^^^^ 



Fifty-four hoys, from 8 to 14 years of age, and 18 girls, from 8 to 13, have 
attended the school for free-hand drawing. The yearly sum allowed for the 
school by the government is at present 10,0(X) florins. 

PLAITING SCHOOLS. 
Another of the staple industries of the Black Forest is straw-plaiting, and this 
also has been encouraged by the opening of schools. In 1851 a school for girls 
was established at Furtwangen under an able mistress, and in this school skilful 
workers were trained who have since themselves become mistresses. Numerous 
other schools for straw-plaiting have been opened in the Black Forest. 

SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY. 

There is a school of agriculture at Hochburg, with 21 pupils ; of arboriculture 
at Carlsruhe, for only eight or ten weeks, with 10 pupils ; of horticulture at 
Carisruhe, with 13 pupils ; of grazing and meadow culture at Carlsruhc, with 
16 pupils. 

The agricultural school at Hochburg was founded in 1848, on the national 
domain. Its course of instruction is ample, with 12 lessons a week in wintorj 
and 17 in summer, and extends throiigh three years. The practical instruction 
in the first year is devoted to ordinary farm labor ; in the second, to the care 
of animals generally; and the third year in particular to horses. Instruction is 
gratuitous. Each pupil receives a gratuity of $16, and regular wages for his 
work, amounting the first year to $28 ; the second, to $37 ; and the third, to $46. 
The cost of boird is alx)ut $70 dollars a year. 

The knovrlcdge of agriculture is also propagated in the primary schools, the 
masters of Avhich are bound to give lectures on the subject beyond the limits of 
elementary teaching, properly so called, especially to the improvement and even- 
ing classes. The central commission of agriculture sends competent persons to 
see that this instruction is properly given, and awards prizes to the masters who 
perform this part of their duty with distinguished ability. 

For the diffusion of knowledge concerning agriculture there is, under the 
direction of the central commission of the Grand Duchy, an agricultural society 



96 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BADEN. 

-Nvliich extends its action over the whole country. At the end of 1862 this society- 
numbered 11,934 members, and it publishes a weekly journal of agriculture 
which has a circulation of 9,000 copies. 

MILITARY SCHOOLS. 

In 1820, the Grand Duke Louis founded the School of Cadets for the educa- 
tion of young officers; but its existing organization dates only from 1851. 
Youths are admitted to this school from 15 to 18 years of age, after being recog- 
nized as fit for the military service, and having proved that they possess the 
requisite instruction, which comprises all that is taught in the gymnasia of the 
Grand Duchy as far as the fourth class inclusively. 

Tlie studies last three years, and embrace : 

Tlieoretical Course. — German and French mathematics, the military code, tac- 
tics, the military art, fortification, history, geography, land-surveying. 

Practical Courses. — Infantry and artillery exercises, manoeuvres, and the use 
of arms, fortification, surveying, and reconnoitering. 

Gi/mnastics. — Fencing and sword exercise; gymnastics, riding, swimming. 

The number of cadets, in 1867, was 60. 

There is likewise at Carlsruhe an improving school for superior officers. 

SCHOOL OF GYMNASTICS. 

At Carlsruhe there is a central school of gymnastics partly supported by the 
government, the object of which is to train all those who intend to teach this 
branch of education. Those candidates who are already employed in teaching 
gymnastics in various degrees complete their training in this establishment ; such 
persons as are employed in assisting the actual professors of gymnastics are also 
admitted. In case of need, assistance is granted to these candidates. 

This institution is also in connection -with the establishments of public instruc- 
tion at Carlsruhe, and especially with the lyceum. The pupils of the last-named 
schools receive their gymnastic lessons there, and a part at least of the pupils 
of other public schools may also be admitted. 



The experience of Baden in reference to Trade schools is, that the attendance 
of pupils should not be obligatory, and that every pupil should be required to 
pay a small fee. If the instruction is good and cheap, those likely to be improved 
will attend, and if only a moderate tuition is required and paid in advance, they 
will attend more promptly, regularly, and diligently. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The Kingdom of Bavaria, on an area o. 29,617 English square 
miles in 1864, had 4,807,440 inhabitants, of whom 679 out of every 
1000 were engaged in agriculture, and 227 in mechanical arts and 
commerce, and the balance in other occupations. 

The total annual expenditure of the government of Bavaria, in 
1864, amounted to 46,720,597 florins, of which 902,507 florins were 
expended for general instruction and 138,578 for technical, making 
a total of 1,041,085 by the two departments for educational pur- 
poses. This amount was independent of all local expenditure, 
which raised the sum to about 4,000,000 florins. 

The institutions of public instruction are administered by two 
ofiBces ; those of general education by the Minister of Education 
and Ecclesiastical Affairs, and those of a special character by the 
Minister of Commerce and Public Works. 

1. Primary or Common Schools, ( Volksschule.n.) — Of these there 
were in 1863, 7,113 schools with 8,937 teachers and 946,275 pupils. 
Besides the primary-schools there are 1,550 Sunday and holiday- 
schools, {^Sonn-und I^eiertagsschulen,) open one or two hours on cer- 
tain evenings and on Sundays, completing and extending the course 
pursued in the primary-schools, with 129,128 pupils. So general is 
the attendance on elementary-schools, public and private, that all 
but eight per cent, of the recruits who joined the army in 1864 read 
and wrote well. Besides the regular primary schools, there are 91 
infant schools, with 6,796 pupils, and 143 private schools, with 6,853 
pupils, most of whom are in elementary studies. Taking the whole 
of the kingdoyi, there is one primary-school for every 530 inhab- 
itants. 

2. Secondary Schools. — 95 Latin schools or preparatory gymna- 
siums, with 8,205 pupils; 28 classical gymnasiums, with 3,800 
pupils ; 6 real or scientific gymnasiums, with 1,200 pupils; 30 pub- 
lic high-schools for girls, with 1,200, and 143 boarding-schools for 
girls, with 6,853 pupils. 



98 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 

3. Superior Schools. — 10 lyceums, with university studies, at- 
tended by 700 scholars, (mostly Catholic, preparing for the priest- 
hood;) 3 universities, (Munich, Wiirzburg, Erlangen,) each with 
four faculties, and a total of 2,959 students in 1867; 1 academy of 
science, with cabinet of natural history, royal library of 800,000 
volumes, chemical laboratory, (under Baron de Liebig,) which are 
made subservient to the university at Munich. The conservatorium 
of scientific collections, and laboratories embraces 12 sections, and 
has an income of 48,000 florins from the government. 

4. Special and Professional Schools. — Bavaria is well supplied 
with institutions adapted to special occupations and classes, viz. : 

10 Normal schools for primary school teachers, with 18 teachers and 518 
pupils. 

3 Seminary courses for secondary school teachers, (one in each university, 

with 96 seminarists. 

4 Superior agricultural schools, with 29 agricultural sections in the trade 

schools; with an aggregate of 2,114 pupils. 
1 School of forestry, with 40 pupils. 
1 School of horticulture, with 30 pupils. 

1 School of veterinary surgery, with 18 teachers and 140 pupils. 

2 Commercial schools, with 18 commercial divisions in the trade schools, and 

an aggregate of 2,000 pupils. 
29 Trade schools, with an agricultural, commercial, and mechanical section. 

3 Polytechnic schools — now existing as 1 Central Polytechnic at Munich, 1 

School of Arts at Nuremberg, and the School of Machinery at Augsburg. 
1 Academy of painting and sculpture, with 1 director, 13 professors, and 231 

pupils. 
1 School of architecture, with 9 teachers, and 143 pupils. 
261 Schools of drawing, of which 121 are independent, and 140 are united 
with other institutions — with 9,973 pupils. 
1 Conservatorium of music, with 1 director, 14 teachers, and 94pup0s. 
10 Schools of music. * • 

1 Central and 9 provincial institutions for the deaf and dumb, with a total 

of 23 teachers and 256 pupils. 
1 Institution for the blind, with 3 teachers, 13 assistants, and 16 pupils. 
1 Institution for idiotic children, with 3 teachers and 23 pupils. 
3 Schools of midwifery, with 14 teachers and 132 students. 
35 Orphan institutes, with 1,400 children; and 75 rescue homes for neglected 

and vicious children, witli 2,250 inmates. 
Besides the royal library of 800,000 volumes, the University of Munich has a 
library of 150,000 ; that of Wurzburg, 100,000 volumes; of Erlangen, 140,000 
volumes ; and 24 public libraries, with ap aggregate of 2,000,000 volumes. 

The logical arrangements of the schools of science and literature 
in the system of Public and Special Instruction in Bavaria impressed 
the French Commissioners so favorably, that they have represented 
them in the accompanying diagram. 





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8 


1 ' 1 


^•1^ 


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p 




SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. JQI 



SYSTEM AND INSTITUTIONS OF SPECIAL INSTRUCTION. 

Bavaria was one of the first states in Germany to found a school 
of art, in its highest sense, and one of the earUest to apply instruc- 
tion in science to the development of mechanical industry, and to 
bring its young artisans and workmen of every kind into systematic 
courses of technical instruction.* 

The Academy of Art in Nuremberg was founded by Sandrart in 
1662, and after being long conducted by him, gained new distinction 
under Preissler, and no school of art out of Munich has done so 
much in our day to develop taste and skill in artisans and artists as 
the Royal School of Art, and several private schools of drawing now 
in successful operation in that quaint old town. 

The first Technical School, so called, in Germany, was opened in 
Nuremberg in 1823, under the lead of Scharrer, afterwards mayor 
of the city, who gave the impulse, by providing instruction one 
hour on Sunday, and two evenings in the week, in drawing (free- 
hand and architectural) and mathematics. He was assisted by Hei- 
deloff, architect, and Hermann, afterwards professor in the Poly- 
technic and counselor of state. The school was adopted by the 
municipal authorities, and as the instruction was of the best kind, 
it was completely successful, and by the expansion of its studies and 
length of term, grew into a Trade School, under the law of 1834, 
till 1836, when it had V teachers, with 490 pupils (one-fourth of 
them journeymen) in 11 divisions, receiving instruction in mathe- 
matics, drawing, modeling, molding and casting metals, wood-carv- 
ing, &c. The pupils of this school, (called, in 1836, Mechanic 
. School,) created a new trade for this district of Bavaria ; and the 
example of special schools on Sunday, evenings, and holidays, was 
followed by other cities, until in several of them the mechanic 
schools grew into polytechnic schools — Munich in 1827, Nuremberg 
in 1829, and Augsburg in 1833, none of which, however, attained 
to the highest scientific development — the pupils not being required 
to go through a thorough course of theoretical study, as in some 
other institutions of this class. In all, the plan of instruction was 
pretty much the same, but gradually Munich turned its force 
towards construction and engineering; Augsburg and Nuremberg 
to mechanical handicrafts. In 1862 the school at Munich was di- 
vided into two parts, the polytechnic proper, and the school for con- 
struction and engineering. 

♦For the details of this system, see National Education, Part I, Gkruam States, Bavaria. 



102 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 



In 1864 the whole system of real-schools, trade-schools, and poly- 
technic schools, which had grown up since 1808, was reorganized. 
After the law of 1808, real-schools and real-institutes were set up 
in the large centres of population parallel with the progyranasiums 
and gymnasiums. The real-schools added to the elementary course 
the study of French, drawing, the elements of natural history, and 
algebra. The real-institute added to the real-school course, which 
usually terminated at the fourteenth year, the natural sciences, more 
of mathematics, history, general philosophical studies, as well as the 
literature of modern languages. This course, if carried out, occu- 
pied four years, and was intended to prepare for higher academical 
studies and for special careers, such as financiers, merchants, &c. 
The system did not work well, and was modified in 1816 — the real- 
institutes being discontinued, and the real-schools converted into 
higher burgher- schools — which were only the higher classes of an 
elementary school. The deficiency of State realistic seminaries was 
partially supplied by the municipal authorities, associations and in- 
individuals, in artisan schools, further-improvement or Sunday- 
schools, mechanic schools, and polytechnic institutes, in which the 
arts of design and drawing received particular attention. To give 
this new instruction, which the necessities of society had created, 
thorough organization and symmetry, the government, in 1829 and 
in 1833, decreed the estabhshment of technical schools in all the 
large cities of the kingdom. The law of 1833 discontinued the 
higher burgher-schools and laid down the outlme of a course of in- 
struction for the technical schools, which was perfected by the 
law of 1836. The object of the technical schools, in the language 
of the law, is " to carry the sciences into industry, and to put indus- 
trial pursuits themselves upon a footing corresponding to the prog- 
ress of technical art and the competition of foreign industry." With 
this aim the technical schools had their central point in the exact 
sciences, and were preparatory for, 1, the artist's vocation proper; 
2, the technical branches of the public service, especially architec- 
ture, mining, salt works, and forests ; 3, for technical departments 
of civil life ; 4, for strictly civic vocations, particularly for carrying 
on improvements in manufacturing, agricultural, and mechanical 
industries. 

In the development of this system there sprung up, and existed 
in 1863, the following institutions: 

1. Schools of arts and trades, or technical gymnasiums, with an 
agricultural, commercial, and mechanic arts division. Of these 
there were twenty-nine, in as many centres of population and in- 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 103 

dustry. They received pupils at twelve years of age, and dismissed 
them at the end of three years. With several were connected pre- 
paratory schools, and with all, a Sunday and holiday or feast-day 
school for apprentices and journeymen. 

2. Polytechnic schools or technical lyceums. Of these there were 
three, located at Munich, Nuremberg, and Augsburg. They received 
their pupils at the completion of their fifteenth year, and with a 
preparation equal to the attainments of the graduates of the tech- 
nical gymnasium. 

3. Special courses, or schools for the completion of technical in- 
struction: (1,) engineering in the polytechnic school at Munich; 
(2,) mining, foundries, and salt works in the department of public 
economy in the University of Munich ; (3,) higher forestry service 
in the Royal Forestry School at Aschaffenburg, and one year in the 
University ; (4,) higher agricultural training, in the Central School 
of Agriculture at Weihenstephan, near Freising ; (5,) for the fine 
arts, including architecture and ornamentation of an artistic character, 
the Royal Academy of Arts in Munich, and (6,) for higher chemical 
analysis, the laboratories of the Academy of Science, the Conserva- 
tQi-ium, and the University. 

This system, although it developed a prodigious amount of scien- 
tific and artistic talent, and in several directions, of improved indus- 
trial fabrics, did not satisfy all the wants of different classes and 
different industries. In consequence of " urgent pressure from the 
Department of Commerce and Public Instruction," the king promul- 
gated in 1864 a new law respecting technical institutions, according 
to which they are now classified and administered. 



EXISTING ORGANIZATION OF TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. 

. The system of technical instruction, as organized under the law 
of 1864, and in force after 1868, when the classes under the former 
system will have completed their curriculum, and the new classes 
will be in full operation, consists of — 

I. The trade-school, [gewerbschulen — twenty-nine in all, located 
in the principal centres of population and industries,) designed to 
impart a fitting general education, and the theoretical knowledge 
preparatory to different occupations, and the professions in which 
science forms the basis of the highest success. The instruction be- 
gins where the common school leaves off, and while it is passably 
complete in itself, it is the systematic preparation for a more ex- 
tended course in commercial and agricultural studies which can be 



104 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 

organized in the institution with the sanction of the highest author- 
ities, or pursued in the special institutions of a higher grade. 

Eight of these institutions, one in the chief town of each of the 
eight districts or circles into which the kingdom for administrative 
purposes is divided, are designated in the law as district or higher 
trade-schools. 

II. The real-gymnasium — this class of schools, of which there are 
six, one in the chief town of each of the six provinces, is of a higher 
grade than the trade-school, and includes, in a four years' course, 
the study of Latin and one or more modern foreign languages. It 
presupposes the attainments of the primary -school and of the first 
year of the classical gymnasium, with which its first year is par- 
allel. The final examination and certificate entitles to admission 
into the polytechnic school at Munich, and into the university, for 
participation in such studies as do not fall within the special limits 
of the three faculties of theology, jurisprudence, and medicine, and 
if found qualified after special examination, into the higher special 
schools of forestry, agriculture, veterinary science, or separate 
branches of the public service. 

III. The polytechnic school at Munich, in which the different 
professional studies of engineering, architecture, technical chem- 
istry, trade and commerce, are treated independently of each other, 
in courses of two years each, on the basis of a common scientific 
instruction in mathematics and the natural sciences, and the art of 
drawing, pursued to the extent deemed necessary for each profes- 
sional course. 

The Royal School of Machinery at Augsburg, and the Royal 
School of Art at Nuremberg, both of which were polytechnic 
schools up to 1865, are not yet permanently organized as part of 
the system. Their present course of instruction exceeds the course 
of the district trade-schools, and falls short of the Central Poly- 
technic School. 

With each of these institutions or their teachers are associated, 
more or less directly, supplementary schools and classes, designed 
to impart instruction in subjects of immediate utility to apprentices 
and workmen in various crafts and occupations ; and above them 
all in the lectures, collections, libraries and laboratories of the uni- 
versities, and in the higher special schools of agriculture, forestry, 
and art, the student can carry his artistic, artisan, or purely scien- 
tific studies to the highest point. 

' We append the substance of the regulations recently issued for 
the government of these schools : 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. jQg 

TRADES SCHOOLS. 

The trades schools of Bavaria were originally known by the name of agricul- 
tural and industrial schools, but received their present name in the decree of 
1864. They are generally government institutions, but the municipalities or as- 
sociations contribute more or less to the support of some of them, the teachers 
being appointed by the power that supports them, although all the appoint- 
ments must be confirmed by government. 

The qualifications for admission are that the candidate shall be between the 
ages of twelve and fourteen ; shall be able to read, write and compose without 
gross blunders in spelling or language ; shall be master of the first lour rules of 
arithmetic, and possess a proper knowledge of religion. 

The plan of studies occupies three years, and is as follows : 

Hours per week. Course I. Course II. Course IIL 

Eeligion, 2 2 2 

German, 5 4 3 

Geography, 2 2 2 

History, 2 2 2 

Arithmetic, 5 

Algebra, 2 4 

Natural History, 4 4 

Physics, 4 

Drawing, 8 8 4 

Modeling and embossing, 2 6 

French, .2 2 2 

Plane geometry, ; 4 

Descriptive " : 2 

Solid geometry and plane trigonometry, . . 2 

Chemistry, .'. . . 4 

Popular mechanics, 4 

Making thirty hours a week for each class. 

In some places part of the scholars pursue a commercial or agricultural course 
of study, varying in some particulars from the above. Those in the commercial 
section omit drawing and embossing, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and me- 
chanics, devoting three hours more a week to French during the whole course, 
and studying calligraphy, arithmetic, the science, geograpliy and history of 
commerce, and in the last class, English. 

Those in the agricultural section omit natural history, physics, algebra, de- 
scriptive geometry and plane geometry, mechanics, and French, and have 
only two hours a week in drawing. They add to the course the study of hus- 
bandry and rural economy, with practical labor on the farm, nine hours in the 
first class, six in the second and third. 

Sunday, Holiday, and Evening Trades Schools. 

Connected with the district trade-schools there is a higher class of supple- 
mentary schools whose object is to impart a free education to those apprentices 
or workmen whose education has been neglected, and to offer the means of far- 
ther advance to those who have finished the course of the trade schools, in the 
buildings of which they are generally held, although in some cases they form 
separate institutions. The only requirement for admission is having attended 
the primary-schools during the six years required by law. The instructors are 
generally the teachers of the trade-schools, but practical workmen are engaged 
to teach particular handicrafts. The schools are held on Sundays, holidays, and 
two evenings in the week. The course is divided into two sections, the ele- 



106 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 

mentary, which is a continuation of the course pursued at the primary-schools, 
and the special section, dealing with matters of trade and commerce, and with 
practical trades or handicrafts. 

In the elementary section are taught religion, German, arithmetic, and draw- 
ing. Under German are included composition, commercial style, &c. 

In the special section are taught drawing, embossing, modeling, arithmetic in 
its applications to trade and commerce, geometry, natural history, the history 
of staples, me! cantile book-keeping, and practical exercises in different trades 
and handicrafts. There are fourteen of these institutions, attended by 560 
scholars. They are supported by the communes or from other local sources. 

THE REAL-GYMNASIUMS. 

The real-gymnasiums of Bavaria, sometimes called technical gymnasiums, 
have for their aim to give "the requisite preparation for entering upon the study 
of a profession which demands an intimate acquaintance with the exact sci- 
ences." They are at once literary and scientific. There are six of these schools. 

They are all government institutions, and the teachers, who must have been 
graduates of a Latin-school, a polytechnic school, and have spent at least one 
vear at a university in their special study, are considered government employes. 

Pupils are admitted between the ages of thirteen and sixteen, after having 
completed the course at a Latin-school, or passing an examination upon the 
studies there pursued. Hospitants are received only exceptionally. The aca- 
demical year begins October 1st and ends August 15th, with a fortnight's holi- 
day at Easter. The courses are all obligatory and as follows : 

Course I. — Religion, 2 hours per week ; Algebra, 4 ; Plane geometry, 3 
German, 4; Latin, 4; French, 4; Geography, 3; Drawing, 6. — Total, 30 hours, 

Course II. — Religion, 2 hours per week ; Algebra, 3 ; Plane geometry, 2 
Natural history, (zoology and botany,) 4; German, 3; Latin, 4; French, 4 
Geography, 2 ; Drawing, 6. — Total, 30 hours. 

Course III. — Rehgion, 2 hours per week ; ■ Solid geometry, 2 ; Algebra and 
trigonometry, 4 ; Physics, 5 ; Descriptive geometry, 2 ; German, 2 ; Latin, 3 ; 
French, 3; Histor}^, 2; Drawing and embossing, 6. — Total, 31 hours. 

Course IV. — Religion, 2 hours per week ; Elements of higher analysis, 2 ; 
Analytical geometry, 2 ; Descriptive geometry, 3 ; Mineralogy and chemistry, 
5 ; Latin, 3 ; French, 2 ; English, 4 ; History, 2 ; Drawing and modeling, 6. — 
Total, 31 hours. 

Annual written and oral examinations take place, and the pupil who fails 
two years in succession in one of the lower classes is excluded from the school. 
At the close of the course a pupil may demand to be specially examined for an 
absolutorium, which is in writing, and extends over three days, as follows: 

First day. — 1. A religious theme to be completed in one hour; 2. A histor- 
ical essay in German on some given subject, three hours ; 3. A problem in 
descriptive geometry, two hours ; 4. Two themes, one in zoology, one in bot- 
any, one hour. 

Second day. — 1. Solution of two problems in the lower and one in the higher 
analysis, two hours ; 2. Solution of two problems, one in elementary and one 
in analytical geometry, two hours; 3. Two themes in physics, one hour; 4. A 
French composition, two hours. 

Third day. — 1. Solution of two problems in trigonometry, two hours; 2. Two 
themes in chemistry, one to have reference to mineralogy, one hour; 3. A Latin 
CQmposition, two hours; 4. An English composition, two hours. 

Every scholar pays 20 florins annually; hospitants only half this sum if they 
attend but one course. The whole may be remitted to poor and capable students. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. iQtj 

THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. 

In the organic system of the technical institutions, the polj^technic school 
stands in immediate connection with the real gymnasium, and forms the apex 
of the system of technical instruction. 

In place of three, the lav/ designs to place at least one school on the basis of a 
broad and thorough scientific preparation, and then to provide for at least four 
leading interests by a complete course in each. 

It is divided into — 

A. A general class, and 

B. Special classes for individual branches of technical business. 

The general class or division comprises a course of two years, and its object 
is to impart instruction in the mathenaatical and natural sciences, and the art 
of drawing to the extent required to make them a general foundation for the 
commencement of separate branches of technical studies, and at the same time 
to constitute a course of general scientific culture. 

The special' classes are to impart knowledge of and skill in the particular 
sciences required in individual branches of technical business, and these studies, 
in organic connection with the studies of the general class, are to complete the 
technical professional education. 

The polytechnic school comprises four special classes or divisions : — 

A. For architecture, the course extending over two years. 
"^ B. For mechanical engineering, the course extending over two years. 

C. For technical chemistry, the course extending over two years. 

D. For trade and commerce, the course extending over one year. 

The principal object of the potytechnic school is' to treat the different profes- 
sional studies independently of each other. 

The preliminary studies lead up to these, and must therefore precede these in 
the degree prescribed and deemed necessary. 

In order that the regular gradations which are considered absolutely 
necessary may be observed, the students must strictly follow the course of 
instruction laid down. 

A. — GENERAL DIVISION. 

COURSE I. 

Lessons. Hours in the Week. Semester I. 11. 

Analytical geometry , 3 3 

Differential and integral calculus 4 4 

Analytical mechanics 5 5 

Mathematical physics 6 

Applied physics with practical exercises 6 

Elements of architectural construction 6 6 

Elements of machine construction 6 6 

Free drawing 6 6 

Elementary mechanics 5 5 

Zoology 5 

Botany 5 

Political ecomony 4 

French language 3 3 

Italian language 3 3 

History of German literature 2 2 



108 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 



COURSE n> 

Lessons. Hours in the "Week. Semester I. II. 

Applied mechanics 5 5 

Application of descriptive geometry to perspective, 

shading and stone-cutting 3 3 

General chemistry 4 

Special chemistry 4 

Oryctognosy .■ . 4 

Geology 4 

Architectural designing (construction and architectural 

forms) '..... 6 6 

Machine designing (elements of construction) 6 6 

General knowledge of machinery 6 6 

Constitutional and administrative law 4 

French language 3 3 

English language 3 3 

Italian language 3 3 

B.— SPECIAL DIVISIONS. 

I. Arc HITK CTTTRAL CLASS. 

On entering this class the pupil is supposed to be in possession of such 
knowledge of the subjoined subjects as is taught in the two courses of the 
general division. 

Analytical geometry, differential and integral calculus, analytical and applied 
mechanics, maihematical and applied physics, general and special chemistry, 
applied descriptive geometry, oryctognosy, geology, architectural and mechani- 

cal designing, drawing, (the latter studied during two hours a week,) and 
political economy. 

COT7HSE I. 

a. For architects and huilding engineers in common. 

Lessons. Hours in the week. Semester I. . IT. 

General civil engineering * 2 2 

Knowledge of building materials, and of . sanitary 

matters connected with building 4 

Estimates of cost, and conditions of contract. 4 

Plan drawing {Situations zeichnen) 4 4 ' 

(&.) Separate instruction for architects. 

Architectural styles and history of architecture 4 4 

Plans of elevation (Rochbanten) 14 14 

Figure and landscape drawing 4 4 

Separate instruction for building engineers. 

Bridge building 4 4 

Plans of bridges 8 8 

Geodesy and hygrometry 6 6 

The construction of machinery 4 4 

COURSE II. 

(a.) For architects and building engineers in common. 

Plans of architectural buildings 6 6 

Plans of engineering works of construction 6 6 

Stone cutting and modeling 4 

Constitutional and administrative law 4 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. -^qq 

(b.) Separate instrttction for architects. 

History of architecture 2 2 

Elements of the science of road building, bridge 

building, and the construction of water works 2 2 

Measurement. 4 

Plans of architectural buildings 12 8 

Separate instruction for engineers. 

Science of road making and of constructing water works. 6 6 

Historj'- of engineering 2 2 

Plans of engineering works 8 8 

II. Mechanical Enoineerino. 

On entering this division the pupil is supposed to be in possession of such 
knowledge of the subjoined subjects as is imparted in the two courses of the 
general division: 

Differential and integral calculus, analytical geometry, the apphcation of 
descriptive geometry, mathematical and applied physics, designing (architectu- 
ral and mechanical,) general knowledge of machinery, analytical and applied 
mechanics, general and special chemistry, geology. 

COURSE II. 

Lessons. Hours of the week. Semester I. 11. 

Theory of machinery (Maschinenlehre) 4 4 

Construction of machinery 4 * 4 

Exercises in designing 8 8 

Railway, canal, &c., engineering 3 

Leveling and measurements 4 

Manufacturing engineering (Fahrikbau) 3 

Metallurgy 5 

Technology (of manufactures, building trades, and 

implement making) 

Excursions: practical work in the mechanical work- 
shops . . .' 

III. Technical Chemistry. 

On entering this division the pupil is supposed to be in possession of such 
knowledge of the subjoined subjects as is imparted in the two courses of the 
general division : 

Zoology, botany, oryctognosy, geology, mathematical and applied physics, 
general and special chemistry, architectural drawing. 

COITRSE I. 

Lessons. Hours in the week. Semester L IL 

Elementary mechanics 5 5 

Technical ph3^sics (pyrotechnics) 4 

Technical chemistry 5 5 

Elements of mechanical designing 6 6 

Knowledge of building materials 4 

Political economy 4 

Work in the laboratory 



110 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 



COrRSE II. 

Lessons. Hours of the week. Semester I. II. 

General theory of machinery 6 6 

General civil engineering 2 2 

Metallurgy, including smelting and casting 5 

Physical chemistry 5 

Technology 5 5 

Work in ihe laboratory 

IV, Trade and Commerce 

SOLE COURSE. 

Lessons. Hours of the week. Semester I. II, 

Theory of coraraerce, including the sciences of the 

counting-house ,.,,...,,,, 6 6 

Commercial geography and commercial statistics 2 2 

History of commerce 2 

Laws relating to commerce and bills of exchange 3 

Political arithmetic 3 

Commercial arithmetic 3 

Knowledge of goods 3 3 

Mechanics i as applied to the means of transport) 2 

Political economy 4 

Constitutional and administrative law 4 

French language 3 3 

English 3 3 

Italian. 3 3 

Mercantile correspondence in French and English 3 

Previous to the commencement of a term of studies, the directors of the 
establishment must determine, with the aid of the masters of the various 
divisions, the programme of studies, and this must then be published. 

The institution is managed by a board of directors. 

Admission to the special divisions or schools is based on a thorough mastery 
of the two preparatory courses, and to their equivalent in mental discipline and 
knowledge obtained in a real gymnasium. 

On entering the Polytechnic School, regular pupils and hospitants, must pay 
an admission fee of five florins. 

The school honorarium is twenty florins per semester. Hospitants pay four 
or six florins, according to the number of lessons they take weekly. 

For participation in the work of the laboratory'-, pupils pay fifteen florins, and 
hospitants twenty fiorins. 

Individuals giving proof of special worth and abilities, and at the same time 
of incapacity to pay, may be absolved from payment of the above fees. 

An absolutorial examination is held at the close of each school-year, the 
subject of examination being fixed by the professors in council. 

Such are the principal provisions of the new regulations for the government 
of the Central Polytechnic School at Munich, 

Up to the reorganization of technical instruction in 1864, the three schools 
at Munich, Nuremberg and Augsburg, had the same general characteristics. 
Under the present plan, much higher scientific culture will be attainable at 
Munich, while a very thorough special course in construction and manufactures 
will be given, the first at Augsburg, and the last at Nuremberg. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. ^11 

SCHOOLS AND CLASSES FOR TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. 

Out of the many excellent institutions and classes for teelinical training in 

the arts of construction, ornamentation, and industrial production generally, of 

which we have received recent programmes or find described in the Reports of 

the French and English Commissions, we will present specimens of each grade. 

SUNDAY IMPROVEMENT-SCHOOLS. 

The Sunday-school in Germany is not, in its aim and instruction, identical 
with the institution known by that name in England and the Uuited States, the 
great leading object and characteristic of the latter being almost ignored in the 
former — we mean religious instruction. The name is sometimes applied to 
schools taught in the evening of other days, or in the morning for one or two 
hours before nine o'clock, in harvest time and on church holidays, although 
generally these last are called by the name of the day on which they are held. 
All of these schools, however called, are in the first place review or repetition 
schools, for those who have left at the age of twelve or fourteen the in- 
struction given in the regular primary-school, or they continue elementary 
instruction in the direction of the special occupation in wliich the pupils are 
already engaged, or for which they are destined. In the latter condition, they 
are frequently known as trade improvement-schools, commercial improvement- 
schools, or agricultural improvement-schools. In this view of their aim and 
i&ethods, they constitute a highly valuable part at once of the system of pop- 
ular and of technical instruction. Infrequent and sliort as the sessions are, they 
fix a large amount of valuable knowledge in the memorj' by timely repetition, 
and add to the stock just tliat kind of knowledge which in his daily avocations 
the pupil feels to be necessary and useful, and which thus passes as it were into 
the substance of the mind — his daily thinking and practice. Such educators as 
Niemeyer, with a full knowledge of the operation of these schools, expresses 
himself very favorable to this class of schools. "It would be a great gain in 
every place, large or small, city or village, if young persons, servants, appren- 
tices, clerks, could have, every week, even one or two hours of regular instruc- 
tion and mental exercise, under the care of a well-qualified teacher." Although 
the practice has been opposed, on account of its violating the usual observance 
of Sunday, and its interfering with the engagements of teachers as organists, 
and adding to their already heavily-taxed services, as well as on account of the 
very restricted range of instruction — the system continues; and Far tJier Ln- 
provement Schools, under some name, and on several hours of the week, con- 
stitute an important part of the elementary and technical education of the 
working classes of Germany. 

Sunday-schools have existed in 'Wurtemberg since 1695, (for children not yet 
confirmed, and to prepare them for confirmation,) in Baden since 1154, in Prus- 
sia since 1763, and in Bavaria since 1803. They are estabhshed by law in 
Austria, Bavaria, Coburg-Gotha, Nassau, and other States, while in Saxony 
and Hesse their institution depends on the action of the separate communities. 
When they exist bylaw, the same studies are pursued as in the regular common 
or primarj'-school, and always attended by those whose opportunities of school- 
attendance on week-day schools have been abridged. There is, however, in 



112 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 

these States frequently a class of pupils who have completed the regular course 
at fourteen years of age, and devoted two years more to additional instruction. 
With these pupils, and in schools in large commercial, mechanical, and other 
centres, the instruction is generally technical, and is given by experts, and is, 
not unfrequeutly, of the highest value. 

SUNDAY-SCHOOL AT NUREMBERG. 

The technical school founded in 1823, when on Sunday mornings the architect 
Heideloflf gave instruction in free-hand and architectural drawing ; Hermann, 
professor in the gymnasium, taught mathematics ; and Keippler, the mechan- 
ician, taught machine-drawing — has continued to the present time, with a con- 
stantly-widening range of studies in additional classes, which were provided 
for in two evenings of each week. The average attendance from 1837 to 1853 
was 700 ; in 1854 it was 1,200, and in 1856, it amounted to 1,600. 

The establishment combines the teaching of drawing, modeling, sculpture, 
and engraving, with elementary instruction in geometry, arithmetic, physics, 
and chemistry. The first and most important part of the curriculum is con- 
nected with the arts of design. The first and second courses, graduated ac- 
cording to the ciapabilities of the pupils, are devoted to free-hand drawing, 
ornaments, architectural drawing, with or without shading, figure-drawing, 
geometrical drawing, and tinting in Indian ink. The third course has four 
divisions, according to the special destination of the pupils : the first division 
comprises every thing connected with buQdings, from tlie first details of masons' 
and carpenters' work to the types and styles of architecture; the second is 
devoted to jomers' work ; the third to turners in wood or metal ; the fourth to 
divers trades. 

The second part of the curriculum teaches modeling in wax, clay, or plaster, 
engraving, and sculpture. The third is devoted to arithmetic and geometry 
applied to mensuration of superficies, solids, and to plotting. The fourth im- 
parts the rudiments of physics and mechanics, so far as applicable to local 
industries. The fifth and last treats of industrial chemistry. These courses 
were attended, in 1864, by 228 pupUs for drawing, and 1,354 hearers for the 
other courses. 

SUNDAY AND HOLIDAY SCHOOLS IN MUNICH. 

As a specimen of the city Sunday and holiday schools, we give an account 
of the large central institutions of this class in Munich, from the annual report 
of the committee for 1866-67 : 

Every ordinary parish-school has attached to it a holiday school, which is, 
therefore, called a parish holiday school, and which consists of three classes 
designated by the numbers I, II, and III. 

There is. in addition to this, a central holiday educational institution, which 
embraces the whole city, and which has also three subdivisions, viz : 

(a.) The Central Holiday School, an elementary school with three morning 
and three afternoon classes, designated by the numbers lY, V, YI. 

This central holiday school is not. however, supplementary to, or a continua- 
tion of the parish holiday schools in so far that scholars must necessarily pass 
into it from these latter. It obtains its scholars from among such as have (1) 
passed through course lY, (2) who having performed their duty in the week- 
day schools, have left these with certificate No. 1, and (3) who leaving a higher 
educational institution, after the probationary months, have returned to the 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 1J3 

Tvorkshop. Such pupils must not be admitted into the parish holiday schools, 
but must be sent to the central holiday school. 

(6.) The Journeymen's School. — This embraces four classes, and imparts, dur- 
ing one hour of the morning, elementary instruction to journeymen, who are 
eitlier still within the age fixed for attendance at school, or who, feeling the 
deficiencies of the school instruction they have previously received, voluntarily 
enter their names in this institution. This being once done, they are, like the 
othL'r scholars, bound to attend during the whole year. 

(c.) The Holiday S-hool for Handicrafts, in which instruction is given in — 1. 
Geometry and arithmetic; 2. Physics; 3. Technical chemistry; 4. Descriptive 
geometrj^, theorj^ of machinery, and mechanical designing ; 5. Practical me- 
chanics; 6. Free-hand, geometrical, and architectural drawing. 

The last branch of instruction is divided into five regularly-organized classes, 
four of which have of late years had to be subdivided into eight parallel 
classes, on account of the great number of students attending them. 

The uniformity of the instruction given, and its regularly progressive char- 
acter is insured by the supervision of a technical director, under whom rank 
also the holiday drawing-schools in the suburbs of Au, Haidhausen, and Giesing, 
which form branches of the central drawing-school. 

This central school is so regulated as to be in strict harmony with the system 
of drawing-instruction introduced into all the week-day schools. 

Sole Course. Hours in the week. Semester I. II. 

Theory of commerce, including the sciences of the counting-house, . . 6 6 

Commercial geography and commercial statistics, 2 2 

History of commerce, 2 

Laws relating to commerce and bills of exchange, 

Political arithmetic, 3 

Commercial arithmetic, 3 

'Knowledge of goods, 3 3 

Mechanics, (as applied to the means of transport,) 2 

Political economy, 4 

Constitutional and administrative law, 4 

French language, 3 3 

English, 3 3 

Italian, 3 3 

Mercantile correspondence in French and English, 3 

Previous to the commencement of a term of studies, the directors of the es- 
tablishment must determine, with the aid of the masters of the various divis- 
ions, the programme of studies, and this must then be published. 

It must be observed that in the instruction given in this institution each 
handicraft is taken into due account, so that each pupil may obtain the knowl- 
edge specially required for his trade. 

With the holiday school for handicrafts is connected a lithographic establish- 
ment, which supplies the drawing-schools with systematically-arranged models, 
and thus maintains the regularly progressive character of these. 

The schools enumerated under a, i, and c, constitute together one great 
whole, under the superintendence of a special inspector. The guidance of it is, 
however, beset by great difficulties, and demands an amount of tact and en- 
ergy which will be easily appreciated by those who know, by actual intercourse 
with them, the character of our apprentice boys. It is, therefore, the more to 
be admired that among so large a number of scholars brought into such close 
contact with each other, so few aberrations should hnve taken place. 

The female holiday schools are, like the male schools, divided into: — 

a. A central holiday school ; and 

b. Parish holiday schools. 

The first mentioned consists of three classes, which, to distinguish them from 
the lower holiday schools, are designated by the numbers IV, Y, and VI. No. 
IV is, on account of the great number of scholars, subdivided into three classes, 
viz., A, B, and C ; and instruction is given both in the morning and in the 
afternoon, in order to render it more easy for the girls to attend. 

8 



114 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 

"With this school is connected a so-called preliminary division, in which girls 
who have been unfavorabl)-- situated with regard to the attainment of education 
are enabled to obtain proper instruction. This division has been incorporated 
with the central holiday school, because, as in its object and its methods of 
teaching it holds an exceptional position, it would otherwise be q\iite isolated ; 
and because, were the pupils who frequent it to be distributed among the parish 
schools, they would fail to obtain the special attention which their case requires. 

In connection with this school there is also a class for instruction in partial 
work, which is open to girls who have already gone to service, as well as to 
others. 

The elementary instruction, which increases in 0ach class, and which in 
classes V and VI extends to practical life, was, during the last year, attended 
by 504 girls, and the working class by 125 girls. 

In all its features, both as regards the teachers and the greater number of the 
scholars, in their efforts to impart and to attain culture and dignity, this school 
offers a most attractive picture of what hoUday schools may be. 

Holiday Schools for Girls. 

h. The parish holiday schools for girls, of which there were, during the year, 
11, with 27 classes, also effect much that is good and useful, yet it can not be 
denied that their effectiveness might be far greater. The chief obstacle to their 
activity is not only the lukewarmness of the scholars themselves, but more es- 
pecially the contempt in which the schools are held by many parents and 
employers. 

Prizes, mostly consisting of money, are annually distributed in all these 
schools, and the names of the scholars who have distinguished themselves by 
steady industry are published in the yearly reports. 

During the school-year 1866-67, the number of pupils attending these various 
schools and classes has been as follows: — The Sunday and Holiday School for 
Handicrafts: — Religious classes, 208; arithmetic and geometry, 65; physics, 
64; technical chemistry, 99; descriptive geometry, 62; theory of machinery, 
79; designing, 63 ; practical mechanics, 50; embossing, 77; chasing, 22 ; arch- 
itectural drawing, 88 ; linear, 299 ; more advanced ornamental drawing, 367 ; 
free-hand drawing and elements of ornamentation, 296. T/ie Journeyman's 
School, 167. The Central Holiday School for Boys, 341. The Parish Holiday 
Schools for Boys, 1,467. The Central Holiday School for Girls, 644. The Parish 
Holiday Schools for Girls, 1,303. 

DISTRICT TRADE- SCHOOL AT NUREMBERG. 

The district trade-school at Nuremberg will serve as an example of the high- 
est grade of these schools: 1. The district trade-school; 2. The Sunday-school 
for artisans; 3. The elementary drawing-school. 

1. The district trade-school affords instruction to persons who require for 
the intelhgent pursuit of their several callings a knowledge of mathematics, of 
natural philosophy, and facility in drawing and modehng, or to such as wish to 
devote themselves to the technical service of the State. It also serves as 
preparatory to the Polytechnic School. The instruction embraces in a course 
of three j^ears: — 

Religion, German and French languages, history, geograpliy. elementary 
mathematics, phj^sics, thoretical and practical chemistry, mechanics, technology, 
geometry, plane and solid, trigonometry, natural history, free-hand and linear 
drawing, modeling in clay and wax. 

After the first year, pupils who take a commercial career devote more time 
to the French and English languages, arithmetical calculations, and geography 
in reference to the natural resources and industries of nations, and to commer- 
cial forms. Those whose destination is agriculture, pursue chemistry in refer- 
ence to soils, and the implements and processes of husbandly. 

The first instruction in drawing is according to "Wolff's principles of rational 
instruction in drawing, the more advanced from large drawings and solid 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. X16 

objects. In all the classes there are from seven to eight hours for drawing 
Vfcekly. 

2. The Sunday-school for artisans gives instruction to apprentices and 
journeymen in drawing, modeling, engraving, arithmetic, geometry, physics, 
anil chemistry. The instruction in drawing, in throe courses, begins with free- 
hand drawing according to Welti's system; then follows the drawing of orna- 
ments, vases, &c., in outline, witli reference to the trade of the pupil, geometric 
drawing, drawing from bas-reliefs; finally, in the last course, special drawing. 
This is divided into four sections: — a. For builders; b. For joiners; c. For 
turners ; d. For workers at various trades. 

3. The ebvii/iiary draw in-j -school is for those boys who are still attending the 
popular school, and who wish later to engage in a trade, after which they entei 
into the trade-school. In two courses drawing and modeling alone are 
taught. 

AH these schools in Nuremberg have a large number of pupils. In 1867 the 
first had 212, the second 1,876, and the last 228 pupils. The school-fees in the 
trade-school and the elementary school amount, at the most, to two florins an- 
nually ; on the other hand, there is for apprentices and journeymen under 
eighteen years of age, a strict compulsory school attendance. 

The annual income of the above schools from the town and the State amounts, 
exclusive of premises rent free, to 16,000 florins, to which add the amount of 
school-fees received, 1,800 florins, and we get the total cost at 17,800 florins. 
The establishments in Nuremberg possess a library, out of which works of gen- 
eral utility and belles-lettres are lent to diligent pupils. It thus gives an oppor- 
tunity of rewarding good behavior, and is also calculated to impart much in- 
formation which the school does not teach. A bad choice of books is also in 
this way prevented. 

HIGHER TRADE-SCHOOL AT PASSAU. 

The trade-school at Passau is organized with two divisions ; with 57 pupils 
in 1867 in the commercial and 44 in the industrial or mechanical division — both 
under a rector, assisted by 14 teachers. 

The special subjects included in the commercial division, besides the French 
and English languages, are thus drawn out in the programme : 

Course II. — Commercial Arithmetic. — Calculation of profits by multiplication 
and division. Compound rule of three. Simple and complex partnership ac- 
counts. Compound calculations and calculation of per centage. Calculation 
of interest, and discount. Lessons in the knowledge of coins, measures, and 
weights. Bankers' accounts. Direct and indirect reduction of bills of exchange. 
Bills of lading and invoices. 

Mercantile Science. — The most essential parts of the theory of banking, with 
explanation of the most common terms used in banking. Making out of various 
forms of bills of exchange. Invoices and calculations. Simple book-keeping. 
Elaboration of a course of business, making the necessary entries connected 
with it in the proper books, and then making up the latter. Composition of 
the most important letters for simple book-keeping. Opening and closing of 
accounts current according to various rates of interest. 

Course III. — Mercantile Science. — Arbitration. Banking commissions. Pub- 
lic .stocks. Customs and trade regulations. Commercial associations and mer- 
cantile systems. Book-keeping by double-entry ; composition of most import- 
ant letters for this. 

Commercial Geography and Commercial Hisiory. — The various States of Eu- 
rope, with reference to their commercial productions, the principal seats of their 
commerce and industry, their lines of traffic, their customs, laws, &c. 

Tite Nature of Colonies. — Synoptic history of commerce during the middle 
ages, more particularly of German commerce. Influence of geographical dis- 
coveries, and especially of the discovery of America, and of the ocean road to 
India, on the intercourse of nations. Commercial history of the European mar- 
itime powers in modern times. 



116 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 

The higher improvement-school at Paasau, opened in 1866, provides for in- 
struction on Sunday mornings and week-day evenings, and has been well at- 
tended, mostly by adult apprentices and assistants; several master-workmen 
also have attended. It h.is a rector and four teachers (masters,) and the 
branches taught are book-keeping, commercial science, geometry, natural phi- 
losophy, chemistry, technology, and drawing. Its pupils number one or two 
hundred. 

Weaving-school. — Connected with the higher trade-school at Passau is a 
weaving-school, teaching the whole art, including the history and preparation 
of the materials, hemp and flax. This is also a week-day and Sunday-school. 
There are thirty-three pupils. 

Regular conferences of weavers are held in connection with these schools. 

WEAVING-SCHOOL AT MUNDEBERG. 

The weaving-school at Miindeberg is intended to impart thorough theoretical 
and practical instruction in weaving in all its branches, and to give instruction 
not only to pupils, but to give whatever information may be demanded by any 
body already in the business. It is open to young men from fourteen to twenty- 
two years of age, from the whole province of Yoigtland, preference being 
given to natives of Miindeberg. It is a boarding-school, and is provided with 
two salaried masters and one pupil-teacher. 

The course embraces two years, during both of which are taught German, 
arithmetic, geography, drawing, and rehgion. During the first, pupils are 
taught the sim.pler processes connected with weaving, and the weaving of plain 
fabrics ; during the second, theoretical and practical instruction is given in the 
more advanced processes. Certain manufacturers in the neighborhood furnish 
the raw materials and buy the woven fabrics at the usual rates. There are six- 
teen pupils. Bavarians pay 150 florins, natives of other countries 200 florins 
annually for board, lodging, and instruction, in addition to which the school re- 
ceives their earnings. 

Connected with the school is a gratuitous Sunday-school, open from 1 to 3 
P. M., of two classes, the first of which is open to all persons engaged in in- 
dustry without exception, teaching German, compositions being written- on sub- 
jects relating to trade, arithmetic, linear and free-hand drawing. The second 
class imparts theoretical and practical instruction in their trade to weavers 
alone. 

WOOD-CARVING SCHOOL AT BERCHTESGADEN. 

At Berchtesgaden, in the Salzburg district, a technical-school has been insti- 
tuted by the government, in aid of an industry which has long been carried on 
in that mountainous region, namely, the handicraft of carving ornamented arti- 
cles in wood and bone. 

The course embraces instruction in drawing, modeling, and carving, free of 
charge to all persons domiciled in the district, and to strangers who pay a small 
tuition. 

The school is well supplied with patterns and models, and there is a reposi- 
tory in which the work of the pupils is sold for their benefit. The school-hours 
are from T to 11 A. M., and from 12 to 4 P. M. The pupils are arranged in two 
classes, and can remain four years. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 117 

ROYAL SCHOOL OP MACHINERY AT AUGSBURG. 

The Royal School of Machinery at Augsburg was formerly a Polytechnic 
school, but under the law of 1864 it lias a special organization. The conditions 
for admission are a thorough knowledge ot algebra, inclusive of logarithms and 
geometry, and a certain amount of practice in linear drawing. Pupils must be 
over fifteen. Hospitants must give proof of possessing the preliminary knowl- 
edge requisite to thoroughly understand tke subject taught. 

The curriculum consists of two courses : — First course : Mathematics, four 
hours weekly; designing, eight hours weekly in winter and ten in summer. 
Second course : Elementary mechanics, differential and integral calculus, physics, 
mechanical engineering and designing. There are for botli courses two hours 
of daily practice in the workshops, except on Saturdays. There are twenty-five 
pupils, paj'^ing each twenty florins annual school-fee. 

Prof. Koristka, in his account of the Polytechnic Schools of Bavaria, takes 
the following notice of the workshops at Augsburg : 

Although in general the establishment of machine-shops at the Polytechnic 
schools has been given up for want of success, as at Dresden, Berlin, Carlsruhe, 
Zurich, &c., we must confess that these workshops have had marked success at 
Nuremberg and Augsburg. The instructive and beautifully-made models of 
Augsburg are to be found in almost every collection of models in Germany, 
and the Principal of the Augsburg workshop (Prof. Walter) has for years de- 
voted all his energies to this branch of instruction. To give a little idea of the 
way in which this instruction is given, we add the plan, condensed as far as 
possible, as it was explained to us by Prof Walter. During the first year, two 
hours daily are spent in the workshops ; daring the second year, one hour daily ; 
in the third year three, and that from 4 to 7, after the theoretical instruction. 
The most of the scholars have never had any practical experience. The 
scholar is placed at a screw, a coarse file and a piece of (smith's) iron are given 
him. He is to practice himself in filing first planes at right angles and then 
parallel to one another. Than he is made to do the same with a finer file. 
Nothing can ba done superticially, and no pupil is allowed to go on until he has 
been thoroughl}'- saccassful. Then the scholar is practiced in boring, in cutting 
of screws, and in making faucets. Then comes the turning of round surfaces 
and of screws, the smoothing off, &c., and this is all done with simple pieces of 
iron, out of which different articles, such as paper-weights, &c., are made. The 
next tasks given are the completion of correct rulers, simple steel angles, turn- 
ers' compasses, and so on, until the pupil is able to make a pair of brass com- 
passes, with steel points soldered in. If the pupil can do all this correctly, he 
is capable of taking a simple model of some motion and working on without 
assistance. He generally reaches this point during tlie third course. This 
instruction is not obligatory, but if a scholar has once undertaken it, he is held 
strictly to all its duties. Scholars are paid for the models they complete. When 
they have finished the course they are generally far enough advanced to be aljle 
to support themselves by work in any factory. The workshops at Augsburg 
have twenty-one screws, with a perfect assortment of tools belonging to each, 
five (foot) turning-lathes, and a great lathe more than twenty feet long. Be- 
sides this, there are joiners' benches, two planing machines, a large and two 
small wheel-cutting engines, a boring machine, a smithy, &c. Many of these 
things are made here, so that it is impossible to give the cost of the whole 
machine-shop. The following prices may give a faint idea of the expense : a 
screw, with its appurtenances, $52, a turning-lathe and its belongings, $179, a 
planing-bench, with its tools, $50, The common tools used would amount to 
about $1,960. The tools for the blacksmith's shop cost $240. According to 
this we should estimate the furnishing of similar workshops at about $4,000 or 
$5,000. Beside the scholars, day-laborers also work in these shops, and are 
regularly paid. In 1860 the expenses for labor, reparations, material, salary 
of the overseer, &c., amounted to $959, the receipts to $976.80. 



118 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 

POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS AT MUNICH. 

The plan on which the Polytechnic School at Munich is now organized, and 
the distribution of subjects in the general division of mathematics and natural 
sciences, and the four special divisions or schools of architecture, mechanical 
engineering, technical chemistry, and of trade and commerce, lias been so fully 
set forth in the general exposition of the system of technical instruction as 
established by the law of 1864, that^ny further description here is unnecessary 
except to give a few particulars from the last prospectus. 

The conditions of admission are, the necessary preliminary knowledge, and 
good moral conduct. 

The pupils of the general division are bound to take part in the lessons on at 
least five subjects in each semester. 

The pupils in the special divisions are bound to take part in all the studies 
mentioned in the programme of the division. 

Admission into the Polytechnic School is only granted to those who can pro- 
duce a certificate of having passed the absolutorium of a technical gymnasium, 
or who will submit to examination in all the subjects of study pursued in those 
institutions. 

Admission to pupils or hospitants, who wish to attend only some particular 
lessons, is, however, granted on less difficult conditions. 

On entering the Polytechnic School, regular pupils and hospitante must pay 
an admission fee of 5 florins. 

The school honorarium is 20 florins per semester. Hospitants pay 4 or 6 
florins, according to the number of lessons they take weekly. 

For participation in the work of the laboratory, pupils pay 15 florins, and 
hospitants 20 florins. 

Individuals giving proof of special worth and abilities, and at the same time 
of incapacity to pay, may be absolved from payment of the above fees. 

An absolutorial examination is held at the close of each school-year, the sub- 
ject of examination being fixed by tlie professors in council. 

The premises heretofore occupied are spacious, and the equipment every way 
suitable; the lecture and class-rooms are large and well lighted, and the labora- 
tories for the chemical students afford eveiy convenience for manipulations. 
The rooms for drawing are well provided with models, and the collections of 
all kinds for iUustrations in architecture, mechanics, and engineering, are large, 
and of the most recent construction. 

To these facilities for instruction within its own premises, this great technical 
school can hold out to the student the splendid galleries of art. the vast collec- 
tions in natural history, the well-equipped and officered laboratories of the-Con- 
servatorium, and the great industrial establishments generally of Munich, which 
are now commanding a patronage fairly won by the scientific and artistic train- 
ing which the foremen and workmen generally have received. 

The General Conservatory of Scientific Collections at Munich embraces twelve 
distinct collections, viz. : the cabinet of coins ; the antiquarium ; the observa- 
tory and meteorological institutes ; the chemical laboratory ; the mineralogical, 
geological, zoological, and paleontological collections ; a botanical garden, and 
an anatomical institution. The Conservatorium has an income of 50,000 florins. 

The Academy of Sciences, originally founded by the Elector Maximilian III, 
but reorganized by King Louis and placed in immediate connection with the 
University; the Royal Library, with over 800.000 volumes, and the University 
Library of 160,000 volumes; the School of Mines, the Cameralistic studies, or 
science of flnance and public economy ; the general artistic and scientific pur- 
suits of Munich — make it desirable as a place of higher scientific study. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. jjp 

ACADEMY AND SCHOOLS OF THE FINE ARTS. 

"Within a very recent period, Bavaria has become one of the great art centres 
of Europe, and its capital, wliich has increased in popuUition from 20,000 in 
1805 to 155,000 in 1868, not only possesses in its galleries and collections valu- 
able remains of ancient art, and the modern productions of other countries, but 
is rich in specimens of architecture, painting, statuary, castings, and frescoes, 
executed by her own artists trained in her own schools and ateliers. The late 
King Louis expended on buildings and works of art in Bavaria over $80,000,- 
000. This expenditure was not confined to the fine arts, in the construction, orna- 
ment, and equipment of public buildings, and galleries for the possession and 
enjoyment of the few, but was intended and felt in its beneficence throughout , 
all the mechanical industries, and by every class of the kingdom. 

ROYAL ACADEMY OF THE FINE ARTS.* 

For the youth who has determined to embrace the career of an artist, the 
Royal Academy of the Fine Arts offers the requisite means of completing his 
education. This institution has its origin in the drawing-school founded by the 
Elector Maximilian III, in 1770, and reestablished by King Maximilian the 
First, in 1808; but its present flourishing condition is the work of King Louis, 
who gave it a new constitution in 1846. It is at once a society of artists and 
a school of art. 

The instruction given in the academy is both practical and theoretical. The 
former embraces historical painting, sculpture, architecture, and copper-engra- 
ving ; the latter, the history of art, anatomy, perspective, descriptive geometry, 
and shading. The common basis of artistical studies is considered to be draw- 
ing after the antique ; but especial attention is also directed to the drawing, 
modeling, and painting after nature. The instruction in historical painting is 
given in four separate schools, each under the direction of a distinct professor. 
There are also separate schools of sculpture, architecture, and engraving. Lec- 
tures are delivered regularly on the history of art, ancient and Christian, as 
well as on anatomy, and on the other branches of theoretical knowledge. 

The admission to the academy is free both to natives and foreigners, provided 
they are qualified by the possession of adequate elementary knowledge and 
facility in the higher branches of drawing, with a proper scholastic ediication, 
and a good moral character. The pupils destined for architecture must, if na- 
tives, have passed through the polytechnic school ; and if foreigners, produce 
certificates of their mathematical attainments. The candidates execute an ex- 
perimental performance, upon the result of which their admission depends; and 
they must, further, remain a half-year on probation before they are definitively 
enrolled as pupils. The maximum period of study in the academy is six years, 
but pupils may leave it earlier if qualified. Diligent and talented pupils, who 
are natives of Bavaria, and poor, may obtain small stipends, besides being fur- 
nished gratuitously with models for the cartoons, pictures or statues which they 
may execute within the academy. 

A general exhibition of modern works of art takes place about every three 
years, under the direction of the academy. 

* Abridged from Report of J. Ward, Secretary of the English Legation at Munich. 



126 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 

The academy has also the execution or direction of all public works within 
the sphere of painting or sculpture. It forms a kind of council to the Eang in 
all matters of art. 

The staff of the academy consists of a director, (for many years the celebrated 
Kaulbach,) five professors respectively of painting, sculpture, architecture, en- 
graving, tlie history of art, and the technics of painting, with teachers of anat- 
omy and of perspective, descriptive geometry, and shading, and a corrector of 
the pupils' performances, a teaching force of fourteen persons. It has a secre- 
tary, an inspector, and proper attendants. 

The usual number of pupils is 230, among whom are several foreigners. 

The annual expenses of the academy itself amount, in the whole, to 22,816 
• florins, or £2,281 sterling — a very moderate sum, considering the efficiency of 
the institution and the merits of the professors. The budget of the academy, 
however, in the government estimates, comprises the annual charge of the 
public galleries, &c., and stands thus for 1864: — 1. The Academy of the Fine 
Arts, 22,816 florins; 2. Galleries of Art, the property of the State, (viz., the 
Glyptothek, Pinacothek, New Pinacothek, &c.,) 20,501 ; 3. Working artists, 
1,800; 4. Allowances and pensions to artists, 6,721; 5. Cashier's department, 
500 ; 6. General Reserve Fund, 357. Total, 52,745 florins, equivalent to about 
$21,000. 

There are other institutions in Munich which the inhabitants themselves have 
formed for the furtherance of the same objects, such as the Art Union, the 
Trades' Union, and the like. The Society for the Improvement of Manufactures 
has, in particular, had a very useful tendency, by the constant communications 
which it keeps up between the class of artists and that of mechanics. It was 
founded in 1850, and the chairman is the eminent architect De Yoit. The so- 
ciety gives to its members drawings and models for all articles to be worked or 
manufactured in the department of industry, arranges occasional exhibitions, 
and publishes a journal. Whilst the artist furnishes the drawings or designs, 
the artisan is often able to give useful suggestions with respect to the materials 
best suited for the work ; and so both the one and the other is mutually im- 
proved. The progress which has been made in casting, and other branches of 
metallic work — of which the late Paris Industrial Exhibition has furnished 
evidence — is considered as in some measure attributable to this society, which 
aims at raising the character of manufacturers, by brtngmg them more closely 
into contact with the fine arts. 

The number of artists constantly residing in Munich is very large, and is- 
stated to be about eight hundred. They are chiefly Germans, but artists from 
foreign countries are also continually visiting the Bavarian capital. The daily 
'association of these persons with each other can not fail to be attended with 
beneficial results. Not only is the principle of emulation called into action, but 
ideas are exchanged in a social hitercourse which often lead to the realization 
of important works. Munich offers, in this respect, on a small scale, the same 
advantages that Rome does on a larger. Nor are the artists by any means con- 
fined to their own set. They mix pretty freely with other classes of society — 
with learned men, tradesmen, mechanics, and artisans ; and hence their ten- 
dency has become more scientific than formerly ; they have become more dis- 
posed to avail themselves of practical science in the execution of artistic works. 
Tliis improvement is partly attributable to the influence of the polytechnic 
school 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 121 

As a school of pure art, there is no pliace out of Italy which holda out so 
many attractions to the student. He finds in the Glyptothek, the Pinacothek, 
and the other Royal collections, the best opportunities of copying from the 
antique, and of forming his knowledge of the painting and sculpture of more 
modern times. He sees around him magnificent public buildings, and churches 
whose architecture is only surpassed by the beauty of their internal decorations. 

ROYAL SCHOOL OF ARTS APPLIED TO TRADES, AT NUREMBERG. 

The Ro3'al School of Arts applied to Trades {Kunstgewerlschule) at Nuremberg 
aims not only to promote art, but to improve the artistic character of industrial 
products. It receive pupils above sixteen. The curriculum is as follows : 

Division ij (12 hours a week to each study.) — 1. Drawing from ornamental 
models; 2. Practice in architectural drawing, with theoretical lectures; 3. 
Drawing from antique models; 4. Modeling and drawing ornaments and figures. 

Division II. — 1. Painting, drawing, and modehng from Hfe, for artists ; 2. 
Plastic studies for artists ; 3. Exercises in composing and executing subjects in 
figures and of an ornamental character ; 4. Embossing and sculpture; 5. Wood- 
carving, exercises in carving ornaments and figures, and execution of objects 
of industrial art ; 6. Brass-founding — exercises in forming, founding, and en- 
graving. 

Supplemental classes, (2 hours weekly to each branch.) — 1. Perspective and 
shadows; 2. Anatomy. 

The practical branches, such as architecture, sculpture, and ornamentation, 
are'^made the chief subjects of instruction, and are taught with special reference 
to the present requirements of industry. 

The general opinion of the persons who have made a study of questions con- 
nected with teaching, not only in Bavaria, but also in other parts of Germany, 
is that the Nuremberg school has contributed more than any other to the prog- 
ress of the national industry. This progress is especially manifest in the very 
decided improvement in the manufacture of children's toys, which are one of 
the staple productions of the country. For some years past, the improvement 
in the forms of the articles, whether molded in clay or sculptured in wood, with 
which the Nuremberg manufacturers supply the shops of Paris, has shown us 
that great progress must have been made in the teaching of drawing, and 
ample confirmation of this opinion may be obtained on visiting the higher 
drawing-school of this town. The Parisian manufacturers, though superior in 
other matters dependent on the arts of design, are, with regard to children's 
toys, very inferior to the Nuremberg artisans. 

SPECIAL SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL DRAWING AT NUREMBERG. 

In this town, so noted for its various manufactures, there are several draw- 
ing-schools of different degrees, according to the trade the pupils intend to 
follow. The first and most important is the higher school of industrial drawing 
conducted by M. Kroling. It is justly regarded in Germany as the one which 
has rendered most services to industry. In order that the pupils may, in a few 
years, acquire some real skill, none are admitted but those who have already 
attained considerable proficiency. The principle adopted by the professor of 
this school is that, in order to form good industrial draughtsmen, the pupils 
must pass through all the degrees of artistic drawing, so that they may be able, 



122 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION In BAVARIA. 

in the very varied and different combinations required by manufacturersj to 
blend judiciously and harmoniously all the various kinds, without there being 
any necessity, as often happens, for having recourse to one artist for the archi- 
tectural part, to another for the figures, and to a third for the ornaments, &c. 

As for the method of teaching, it is exclusively based on drawing from 
models in reliefj graduated according to the proficiency of the learners, and ad- 
vancing from the simplest models to the finest left by ancient art, and then to 
nature. The talented director expresses his antipathy to copying from litho- 
graphs, which he regards as calligraphy, not drawing. In accordance with 
these principles, he has formed for his pupils very fine and very complete col- 
lections of models. The teaching is distributed in three divisions : — 1, drawing 
of ornament; 2, drawing from the antique; 3, drawing from nature. After 
attaining proficiency in drawing, the pupils pass on to modeling and sculpture 
in wood and stone ; then, as soon as they have attained a certain degree of 
skill, they have to compose designs, and to model and carve them. 

As a preparation for the higher drawing-school, there is an elementary school 
with courses occupying two years. The first, of eight hours' lessons per week, 
is entirely devoted to free-hand drawing, beginning with exercises on straight 
lines and curves, on plane surfaces, on symmetrical and regular bodies, and on 
simple and complex ornaments, finishing with compositions. The second 
course, of six hours per week, is devoted to drawing ornaments, to drawing 
from the round, from the antique, and also to drawing furniture. 

INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 

The instructions drawn up in the Department of Commerce and Public Works,' 
for the government of the newlj^-organized technical schools, mark out a detailed 
course for drawing founded on the long experience of the famous schools of 
Nuremberg and Munich. 

PROGRAMME FOR DRAWING IN TRADE-SCHOOLS. 

Course I. — First half-year. — Exercise of eye and hand in drawing lines and 
geometrical figures ; delineation of objects of suitable size, and with plane sur- 
faces; explanations of the nature of vision, and with this the first elements of 
perspective; linear drawing without instruments should be combined with free 
drawing, [Freihandzeichnung.) 

Second half-year — Continuation of the free drawing ; delineation of simple 
ornaments from cartoons, or from plaster models, in slight relief or perforated ; 
linear drawing, with the aid of compasses and mathematical instruments; draw- 
ing, division and measurement of straight lines, right angles, and figures ; con* 
struction of scales, measurement, &c. 

Course II. — Free drawing of more elaborate ornaments from plastic models; 
the proportions of the human head and its various parts, from simple outlines; 
exercises in the construction of regular curved lines, architectural members, 
projection of simple surfaces, and of regular equilateral figures; embossing 
from simple plastic models in diflferent sizes. 

Course III. — Continuation of exercises in free drawing from the round; de- 
lineation of animals and plants, in as far as these may be applicable to orna- 
mentation, with slight indication of shades, so as to make the form distinct ; 
explanation of style ; delineation of tlie human body, and its proportions, in 
outline; linear drawing; continuation of exercises in designing simple ma- 
chines and models; the five orders of architecture ; industrial tools; profiles, 
&c., as fin- as possible in natural size, from models; sketching from nature; ex- 
ercises in drawing with Indian ink ; sliglit coloring of profiles, &c. ; embossing 
from drawings of simple classical artistic forms. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 123 

Modifications for (he Agricultural Division. 

Course I. — First half-year. — [Substantially the same as in the trade course,] 

Stcoiid half-year. — Linear drawing, with help of compasses and nuiLlicmatical 
instruments; drawing, dividing, and measuring straight lines, plane angles and 
figures, and construction of scales of measurement; exercises in drawing plans 
and elevations of simple geometrical bodies, in various positions, and in the 
rules of the theory of proportions. 

Course II. — Plxercises in drawing plans and elevations of separate architec- 
tural parts, more especially of the stationary arrangements of farm-buildings, 
from models, and also from nature ; delineation of simple agricultural imple- 
ments ; first rules of plan-drawing. 

Course III. — Exercises in drawing entire buildings from models on a differ- 
ent scale of measurement; delineation of ground-plans, elevations, and sec- 
tions; delineation of more complete agricultural tools and machines without 
models. 

PROGRAMME FOR REAL-GYMNASIUMS. 

Course I. — Free drawing ; exercises in drawing straight lines and geomet- 
rical figures formed by them ; delineation of bodies with plane surfaces, with 
explanations of the nature of vision, and of the most simple phenomena of per- 
spective, illustrated by single objects, or groups of objects, of suitable size; 
exercises in drawing curved lines and simple ornaments formed of these; out- 
line delineation of symmetrical ornaments and vessels from cartoons and plaster 
casts in slight relief, of simple antique artistic forms. 

i)ouRSE II. — Free drawing ; division and proportion of the separate parts of 
the human frame drawn from cartoons ; foreshortening of the several parts in 
different positions, then of the whole body, using the geometrical lay figure as 
a model ; more elaborate ornaments in outline from embossed and plane-models ; 
ex&rcises in the use of rules, compasses, and other instruments, by delineation 
and division of plane figures; explanation of the planes of projection; exer- 
cises in the delineation of simple bodies by means of their projections, with use 
of the prismatic compass when copying from cartoons ; measurement and pro- 
jection of solid models in different positions, and according to different scales 
of reduction. 

Course III. — Simple exercises in shading, at first from models of plane orna- 
ments, afterwards from ornaments in rehef ; drawing of heads, hands, and feet 
indifferent positions, from slightly-executed models; ornaments belonging to 
various periods of art, as much as possible in connection with architectural fea- 
tures; measurement of complex solid models with plane surfaces, and projec- 
tion of the same according to the rules of descriptive geometry, and to a given 
scale of reduction, and in a prescribed position ; modeling of ornaments in re- 
lief, first from solid models, and then from plane patterns, and on a different 
scale. 

Course IY. — Delineation of animal and vegetable forms, if possible, from 
models in relief, and with strict attention to foreshortening and bends; elucida- 
tion of styles and exercises therein ; delineation of figures from simple plane 
models; ornaments in combination with human and animal forms, from the 
plane and from the round; projection of solids with curved surfaces and their 
intersections (Durchdringungen ;) delineation of the different orders of columns 
from cartoons ; exercises in linear perspective and shading. 

DRAWING IN THE COMMON ' AND SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 

Drawing is made obligatory in all the higher classes of the popular or com- 
mon school, but it is more systematically attended to in the. Further Improve- 
ment School, and in the special drawing-schools, of which there are now 261, 
in which are employed 270 well- trained teachers, with an aggregate attendance 
of over 7,000 pupils. Of these institutions, 219 are public, and 121 inde- 
pendent; 140 united with other institutions. There is in Munich a special 
drawing-school for women. 



124 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 



PUBLIC PROVISION FOR INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC. 

Great attention is paid to musical culture, not only in the capital, and chief 
cities, but throughout the kingdom. It is made obligatory in all common 
schools, and ability and success in its instruction is secured by ample provision 
in the training of teachers, and in a rigorous examination on this point of all 
candidates. Mr. Juhus Eichberg, director of musical instruction in the Girls' 
High and Normal School in Boston, in a recent (1868) communication addressed 
to Dr. Upham, Chairman of the Committee on Music in the Boston Public 
Schools, respecting the manner and extent of popular musical instruction in 
certain European cities, remarks: "In no part of Germany does music receive 
more attention than in Bavaria and in Bavarian schools." 

MUSICAL STUDIES FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL TEACHERS. 

By royal decree, dated September 29, 1866, concerning the education of 
school teachers, their musical studies, which are continued through the three 
years of the seminary course, are fixed as follows : 

1. Primaj-y School Teachers. 
First Course. — (A) Singing. — General rules for the cultivation of the voice, 
breathing, position of mouth and body. Practice of major and minor scales, 
general musical theory, practice of intervals and singing of short songs within 
the diatonic scale. 

(B) Piano. — Knowledge of the key-board, notes and measures, five notes 
finger exercises, easy major and minor scales. 

Books to be used: — Piano Method, by Wohlfahrt, Part I; finger exercises by 
A. Schmidt; one hundred exercises by Czerny, and Enkhausen's first Beginning. 

(C) Violin Playing. — Position of the body. Practice of scales and intervals. 
Book used: — Hohmann's Yiolin School, Part I. 

Second Course. — (A) Singing. — Practice of more diflScult intervals. Use of 
accidents. Singing of two-part songs, for soprano and alto. Attention to be 
given to correct breathing. 

(B) Piano. — More difficult scales in two octaves, continuation of Czerny's 
one hundred exercises and Wohlfahrt's Piano method. Senates by Mozart and 
Haydn. 

(C) Violin. — All the scales in Hohmann II. 

(D) Harmony. — Intervals. Theory of consonances and dissonances. Major 
and minor triads and connection of the same. Playing the perfect cadences by 
heart, in every way. 

Third Course.— (A) Singing. — The preceding exercises have enabled the 
pupils (unless hindered by mutation of voice) to assist in the church choirs. 

For Catholic institutions the practice of easy Latin or German masses is re- 
quired ; for Protestant institutions the practice of easy motets by Rink or Dro- 
bisch, as also the chorals of moderate difficulty from the Bavarian Church 
Melody Book, by Zahn. 

(B) Piano. — Practice of Bertini op. 29, running passages by Czerny, sonatas 
by Haydn, Clementi, and Mozart. Four-hand exercises by Bertini. 

(C) Organ. — Explanation of the pedals and the various stops. Practice of 
simple cadences. 

Book used : — Rink's first three months on the organ. 

(D) Violin. — Progressive practice of exercises and duets. Hohmann's Book 
III. Practice of violin — parts from works by Michael Haydn, Mozart, and 
others. 

(E) Harmony. — Inversion of triads and their connection with triads. Chords 
of Seventh. Book used, Forster's Examples I. The conducting of church 
music being among the duties of school teachers, pupils of the preparing school 
should now get acquainted with the use and nature of the several stringed and 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 



125 



wind instruments, as afterwards, when in the seminary, but little time can be 
given for this purpose. Nevertheless, the study of these instruments is not 
obligatory on the pupils. 

2. Plan of lessons for the Preparing School. 

Courses I AND II. — Religious instruction, 3 hours per week; German lan- 
guage, 6 ; arithmetic. 4 ; geography, 2 ; history, 2 ; natural history, 2 ; callig- 
raphy, 2 ; drawing, 2 ; music, 6. Total, 29 hours. 

Religious instruction, the study of the German language, of arithmetic, and 
of music, arc considered the principal branches, insufficient progress in either 
of which entails with it the repetition of the course. But if insufficiency in 
music is owing to lack of talent and not of industry, no repetition of the course 
is necessary. 

3. Seminaries for Teachers. 

Course I. — (A) Singing, (a) Catholic Seminaries. — Theory of choral singing. 
Practice of psalm melodies, antiphonies, and other Church songs. Practice of 
one-part chorals, with the organ accompaniment played by the student. 

(b) Proteatant Seminaries. — Learning by heart of chorals, from the Bavarian 
Choral Book for the Protestant Church. Zahn's harmonization of chorals, for 
male voices ; also, the four-part songs, by J. Rietz. 

(B) Piano. — School of velocity, by Czerny. Organ lessons to be prepared on 
the piano. 

(C) Organ. — Review of the lessons from the preparing school. Use of ped- 
als. Preludes, by Rink and others. Protestants to practice the whole of the 
Bavarian Melody-Book, as also preludes by Herzog and Ett. 

(D) Violin. — Hohmann, Book IV. Review of previous studies. Practice in 
orchestra-playing. 

(E) Harmony. — Theory of connected chords of the seventh and their inver- 
sions. Prolongations, their inversions. Organ-point. Playing of figured 
basses. Forster's Examples B, IJ and III. 

Course II. — (A) Singing. — Protestant Seminaries. — Church Songs of the 16th _ 
and 17tli centuries, by Zahn. Yolks-Klaenge, for male voices, by Erk. Sacred ' 
choruses, for male voices, by W. Greef. 

(B) Piano. — To be considered as a preparatory study for the organ. The 
more advanced students to practice sonatas, by Beethoven, and Clementi's 
Gradus ad Parnassum. 

(C) Organ. — Protestant Seminaries. — J. S. Bach's chorals, for four mixed 
parts, as preparation for the more difficult preludes. Study of the longer pre- 
ludes and chorals, by Herzog and Ett. Extemporaneous preludes. System of 
ancient tonalities. 

(D) Violin. — Hohmann, Part Y. By dihgent practice the student ought to 
acquire the capability of playing the first violin part of orchestral works, by 
Haydn and Mozart, correctly. 

(E) Harmony. — Theory of modulations, demonstrated by the student, both in 
writing and at the piano. Four-part harmonization of chorals, or other given 
subjects. The study of the other instruments, without being obhgatory, is ad- 
visable. The most advanced students are to practice orchestra-playing once a 
week. The practice of so-called brass music is forbidden. 

Religious instruction, German language, arithmetic, mathematics, theory of 
teaching and music, are to be considered the principal branches ; the other 
branches secondary. 

The following is the division of hours in the Royal Bavarian Seminaries for 
Teachers, both courses being equal : — Religious instruction. 3 hours per week ; 
German language, 4 ; arithmetic and mathematics, 3 ; geograpliy, 1 ; history, 
2 ; natural history, 2 ; science of teaching, 5 ; natural philosophy, 2 ; drawing, 
2 ; music, 6. Total, 30 hours per week. 

The following is a schedule, to be filled up at the annual examinations : 



Jifatiiral Disposition. 


Moral Conduct. 


Industry. 


Progress. 


I. Very great. 


Very prniseworthy. 


Very great. 


Very great. 


11. Grent. 


Praiseworthy. 


Great 


Great. 


III. Sufficient. 


Satisfactory. 


Satisfactory. 


Satisfactory. 


IV. Little. 


Not free from blame. 


Unsatisfactory. 


Unsatisfactory. 



126 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 

According to section 75, students applying for situations as school teachers, 
must have received at least No. Ill, for their musical qualifications. 

PUBLIC MUSIC SCHOOL IN WURZBUEG. 

In all the Bavarian cities where school seminaries are established, there exist, 
as branch establishments, public music-schools, where the seminarists receive 
their musical instruction. These music-schools are, like the seminaries, under 
the supervision of the Minister of Public Instruction in Munich, and an annual 
sum is provided by the budget for their maintenance. The Eoyal Music School 
inT\"urzburg is the oldest of these institutions, having been, founded on the 18th 
of April, 1804, since which date it has given a sound musical instruction to 
countless school-teachers, and in consequence has vastly advanced the cause of 
music in Bavaria. Although designed at first as a branch to the Wiirzburg 
Seminary, it has long since outgrown these limits, and has become one of the 
most prominent of German musical high-schools, from which numbers of emi- 
nent men have graduated in succession. The founder and first Du'ector was 
the celebrated Dr. Joseph Frohlich, professor of aesthetics at the "Wiirzburg 
University, one of the profoundest musical theorists of the century. After his 
death, in 1862, he was succeeded by the present Director, Mr. T. G. Bratsch, to 
whose kindness I owe a host of interesting facts concerning the good work that 
is being done in the Bavarian schools. 

In these schools singing is not merely tolerated, but forms a principal part in 
the common-school education. Pupils are not permitted to show a listless, in- 
different manner at their music lessons, but are made to understand that this 
branch of education is considered by the school authorities as equally important 
with the ' three R's,' as we call them. Select voices from the public schools 
are occasionally allowed to join the seminarists in the performance of some im- 
portant musical work, such as cantatas and oratorios ; and I have before me 
the programmes of Pierson's oratorio, 'Jerusalem,' and Spohr's oratorio, ' Our 
Saviour's Last Moments,' performed solely by the seminarists and select pupils 
of the public schools, including solo parts, choruses, and the full orchestra. 

I was present, by invitation, at the musical exammation of aspirants to the 
seminary, and when it is taken into consideration that it comprised singing, 
organ-playing, vioHn, and piano, some shortcomings in any of these branches 
will not be wondered at. The choral and orchestral forces of the music-schools 
(composed, as above stated, of seminarists and pupils of the public schools,) 
meet, assisted by the music-teachers, twice a week for the practice of oratorios 
and symphonies. The public are admitted to these exercises without charge or 
any formality whatsoever. The exercises are conducted alternately by the 
most advanced students, under the supervision of Mr. Bratsch. 

No musical text-books are in use in Bavarian schools, but the teacher uses 
the blackboard for the theoretical instruction, and for choral practice in addition 
to the publications ■ of L. Erk and Greef, selections from cantatas, motets or 
masses within their reach. 

CONSERVATORY OP MUSIC. 

' The Royal Conservatorium of Music at Munich has a director and 14 teach- 
ers, with an average of over 100 pupils, and receives aid from the government 
to the amount of 8,000 florins. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 127 

INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY. 
The establishments for instruction in agriculture consisted till 1864 of three 
central schools of agriculture, forestry, and veterinary science, and an agricultu- 
ral course or special divisions in the trade schools. Of thes.' last there were 
thirty in 1864. Since then several of them have been discontinued, and the 
whole system has been reorganized as follows : 

CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL OR INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE. 

The Agricultural Institute was established in 1835, in the ro^-^al domain of 
Weihensteplian, in the old town of Feising, twenty miles north of Munich. 

The grounds include nine hundred and thirty-eight acres of arable and 
pasture land, as well as of forest, with an immense building, standing on a 
gentle elevation which overlooks a wide extent of beautiful country. The 
building forms a series of parallelograms, inclosing a great grassy court, and 
providing for the laboratory, colleciions and cabinets of various kinds, halls of 
study, dormitories, &c. Around a second court are the cattle barns, and other 
structures. 

The live stock comprises all kinds of domestic animals, and there are also: — 
Experimental fields for various cultures. A brewery and distillery. A 
nursery. A hop ground. A cheese dairy. Technological collections. A 
chemical laboratory. A collection of various seeds. A collection of the pro- 
ductions of the Bavarian soil. A cabinet of instruments for experimental 
physics. A collection of agricultural implements and models. A library. A 
plantation of mulberry trees for the study of silkworms. An anatomical col- 
lection for veterinary studies. The neighboring forests ofter opportunities for 
the study of resinous trees. 

The instruction is distributed as follows : — 

First Tear. Wiyiter Term. — Agricultural implements. Experimental 
chemistry. Arithmetic. Elements of construction. Drawing of plans and 
farm implements. Physiology of plants, agronomy, agriculture. Forest 
science. Anatomy, physiology, and dietetics of domestic animals. 

Summer Tirm. — Practical farming. P^xperiinental chemistry. Construction. 
Drawing of plans, surveying. Breeding of cattle, races, diseases. Physiology 
of plants Agronomy. Agriculture. Forest management. 

Second Year. Winter Term. — Organization of rural economy and manage- 
ment. Agricultural chemistry. Roads. Drawing of plans and form imple- 
menta Breeding of cattle. Veterinary police, warranty of cattle sold. 
Ph3'-sical geography. Meteorology. Climatology. 

Summer Term. — Valuation of farm property, and book-keeping. Agricul- 
tural chemistry. Farm buildings, meadows, and draining. Agricultural 
technology. Breeding and rearing of cattle. Veterinary police, warranty of 
cattle sold. Physical geography. Meteorology. Climatology. 

The studies last two years, and the instruction is given by nine professors 
and two assistant professors. The youths who attend this school are divided 
into two classes, ordinary pupils and free auditors. There are about twenty of 
the former and forty of the latter. To be admitted, the candidate must have 
attained sixteen years of age, have followed the studies of an agricultural 
school {Landwirthschaft Sclmle) or of a trade school; he must also know 
enough Latin to understand the value of the terms borrowed from that 
language, and be able to undergo an examination on the subjects taught in 
those schools. 



128 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 

Owing to local circumstances the pupils are, contrary to the general usage in 
Germany, received as boarders ; Bavarian subjects for one hundred and twenty- 
five florins per half year, and foreigners for one hundred and fifty florins. 
This charge includes teaching, board, and lodging; books and school neces- 
saries tlie pupils find themselves. They also have to pay two florins per half 
year for the reading room. The free pupils pay thirty-five florins per half 
year for each course they follow, and may obtain a certificate relative thereto. 
The courses begin on the 1st of October and end on the last day of August, 
with a fortnight's vacation at Easter. At the 'end of the year, examinations 
are held, and the deserving pupils receive certificates of aptitude. 

Mr. C. L. Flint, secretary of the Massachusetts board of agriculture, in a 
report of his visits to several agricultural institutions abroad m 1863, thus 
speaks of AVeihenstephan : 

I arrived there from Ratisbon on a bright summer morning, introduced 
myself to the first man I met, told him my object, and learned at what hours 
the various lectures took place, attended two or three of them and became 
acquainted with the professors, visited and examined the collections, the 
stables, the brewery, the farm and experimental field, the sheep, &c. 

The estate lying in connection with tliis institute comprises, I believe, about 
six hundred and fifty acres, of which there are usually about eighty in wheat, 
over forty in rape and root crops, about thirty-five in oats, twelve to fifteen in 
potatoes, fifteen to twenty in rye, eighteen to twenty in barley, eight to ten in 
beans, five in hopvS, about one hundred and thirty in fodder crops, such as 
lucerne, clover, vetches, &c., while about one hundred and fifl;y are in mowing 
fields and so on. The land is of excellent quality. 

The stock consists of twelve horses, twenty-two pairs of oxen, fifty-nine 
milch cows, seven young cattle, thirty swine, and five hundred and seventy 
sheep. The cows are mostly of the AUgauer and Miirzthaler breeds, w^hich are 
considered best for milk after the Dutch. The cross with the Allgauer and 
Swiss, they say, makes fine working oxen. 

The buildings form a series of parallelograms, inclosing a great grassy court, 
around which are arranged the various departments, as the chemical laboratory, 
the rooms for study, &c. Around a second court are the cattle barns, the dairy 
and stables, the granary, the brewery, the plough manufactory, &c. There 
are also various other establishments, a distillery, a flour mill, &c. 

The number of students is about seventy. The course of instruction does 
not materially differ from that at Hohenheim. 

During the summer term, for instance, there were lectures by the Director, 
on soils, their origin, the different kinds of soil, weathering, irrigation, 
drainage, division and natural classification ; the comparative value of soils for 
the production of plants; circumstances which modify this value; the soil 
differs according to the coarseness of its particles and its tenacity ; sand, loam, 
clay, marl and humus; subdivisions of soils; taxation of mowing lands, 
pastures, gardens, vineyards, swale lands, fisheries, &c.; double-entry book- 
keeping as a check upon farming operations. 

Dr. Riederer lectured upon the following topics : 

1. Introduction to agricultural practice, idea and object in general and the 
systems of Thaer, Thiinen and Liebig. 

2. The positive and negative means of a good farm management, as the 
judicious division of land, proper number of laborers, education of the farmer, 
necessary capital, &c. 

3. Advantages and disadvantages of large and small estates. Influence of 
a judicious regulation of the corn trade, at home and abroad, on the profits of 
farming. &c. 

4. The most important directions in regard to keeping animals and the 
proper estimation of their products. 

Text-books are used in connection with the lectures. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 129' 

Professor Knobloch lectured three hours a week upon — 

1. Aurricultural Chemistry. — Chemistry of fermentation, decomposition, 
formation of humus. The chemical contents of manure, excrements of birds, 
sohd and liquid excrements of man and animals, strawy materials, disinfection. 
Tiie chemical principles of the preparation of composts. Bone manuring, 
phosphorites, and koprolites, gypsum, wood and peat ashes. Manuring with 
oil-cakes, ammonia, and nitric acid salts. Fish guano. The formation of soil 
through the culture of agricultural phmts. The chemical principles of fallowing 
and rotation. Drainage. Chemical analysis of soils and kinds of manure, the 
ashes of plants, of spring and running water, and of different agricultural 
products. On Liebig ; chemistry in its application to agriculture and physi- 
ology, &c. 

In connection with these lectures, the chemical laboratory was open daily 
during the term, and the students worked industriously in it, in making 
analyses of soils, manures and aslies, milk, potatoes, feeding materials and 
cereals, sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid determinations, &c. 

2. Agricultural Teclmologj'-. — Four hours weekly. Fermentative processes 
of the beer brewery, the brandy distillery and vinegar manufactory in its whole 
range. Making of butter and cheese, making of starch, and the application of 
the latter to the production of sago. Lime and brick burning. Turf cutting. 

Technological Practice^ four half-days a week in the winter term, and one. 
half-day in the summer term. Manufacture of Bavarian normal and strong 
beer, potato, grain and maize brandy, vinegar, starch, &c. Demonstrations in 
the brand}'- distillery, the cheese dairy, the brickyard, at the limekiln, and on 
the turf or peat meadows. Investigation of various raw materials and fabrics. 
Agricultural technological mechanics. Excursions to farming estates in the 
neigliborhood. 

Professor May gave lectures in the winter term, five hours weekly, upon — 

1. The anatomy of the horse, the sheep and the swine, with demonstrations 
by skeletons and preparations. 

2. Piiysiology of domestic animals, in connection with the feeding proper 
for them. 

3. The races of the larger farm animals. Study of the different races, 
breeds and families of improved domestic animals, their form, characteristics 
and useful qualities. 

4. General principles of the production of animals. Methods and principles 
of breeding. Green, dry, root, bulb and corn fodder. Wastes of the farm. 
Loss and injury from particular feeding materials. Comparative composition of 
different materials, and their nutritive value. Preservation, economy and 
production of fodder. 

Summer Term, four hours a week — 1. Swine-breeding. Choice of animals. 
Pregnancy and care of the litter. Parturition. Treatment of the dam and 
pigs. Close confinement. Keeping at pasture. Fattening. 

2. Horse-breeding. Study of the subject from an agricultural and a 
national economical point of view. Choice of draught horses. Pairing. 
Treatment of the mare in foal. Handling of colts during the first, second, 
third and fourth years. Checks in the development. 

3. Knowledge of wool. Its normal and abnormal conditions. 

4. Importance of a knowledge of veterinary science in the treatment of 
domestic animals. 

Secontd Course. Winter Term, four hours a loeek. — 1. On wool (continu- 
ation.) Wool staple. The wool fleece. Evenness of wool. Cloth and comb- 
wools. Working of wool. 

2. Sheep-breeding. Choice of animals. Numbering and classification of 
slieep. Treatment of ewes in lamb. Time of lambing. Management of the 
young. Pasturing sheep. Washing and shearing. Sorting of wool. Treat- 
ment and sale of wool. Fattening. Valuation of the fodder used in sheep 
husbandry. 

3. Cattle-breeding. Choice and selections of animals for breeding. Devia- 
tions from the normal presentation. Suckling and artificial raising of calves, 
General management in all cases. 

y 



130 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 

4. External diseases of the larger useful farm animals. 

5. Shoeing. Treatment of the ordinary brealvs and diseases of the hoof. 
Summer Term., five hours a week. — 1. Cattle-breeding (continued.) Stall 

and pasture treatment. Use of cattle — milk, fattening and draught. Valuation 
of fodder to be used. 

2. Knowledge of the exterior of the horse. 

3. Knowledge of the exterior of cattle. 

4. Internal diseases of domestic animals. Contagious diseases and their 
origin. 

Practical exercises of judging correctly of animals, on the part of the 
students, also of wool ; the true modes of breeding and the diseases of stock 
are constantly enforced. 

Prof. Lidl lectures in the winter term, on — 

1. Cursory view of the geognostical relations of Bavaria. 

2. Agronomy. Mold and subsoil, humus, sand, clay, lime, gravel and 
alluvial soils.. Local aspects and their influence on vegetation. 

3. Agriculture. Cultivation — working of the soil by cultivation, by different 
implements. Improvement of soils. 

4. Anatomy and physiology of plants. Cells and vessels of plants. Dif- 
ference in them. Contents of cells. Plant-cells in their various relations. 
Intercellular tissue. Nourishment of plants. Motion of the sap. Production 
by seeds and spores. Diseases of vegetation. 

5. Morphology. Root, stem and leaf organs, flowers, fruits and seeds. 
Summer Ter7n. — 1. Special plant culture — grain fodder and root-plants. 
2. Economical botany. The most important weeds and poisonous plants. 
Second Course. Winter Term. — 1. Eruit culture. 

2. Cultivation of special plants, root, commercial and coloring plants. 
Summer Term.. — 1. Culture of special plants, grains, pulse and oil fruits. 
Fodder plants and tubers. 

2. "VViiie growing. 

3. Continuation of lectures on botany. 

Two botanical excursions are made each week in connection with this 
course. 

Prof. Dohlemann lectures in the winter term, on — 

. 1. Applied mathematics. Recapitulation of the most necessary principles 
of algebra, geometry and stereometry; calculation, division and alteration of 
surfaces; calculation of the cubic contents of different bodies. 

2. General architecture. Earth and foundation work. Construction of ore 
pits. Restoration . of hewn stone and brick wall work. Stone -binding for 
pillars. Gliimney flues, &c. 

3. Practice in drawing. Drawing of situations. Copying and .sketching 
of simple agricultural buildings and parts of buildings. Drawing of agricultu- 
ral implements and machines. 

Summer Term.. — 4. Continuation of general architecture. Construction of 
different kinds of vaults; ornamental works; carpenter's work; joiner's and 
locksmith's work. 

5. Surveying, with exercises in the field. Explanation of the most useful 
instruments for length and angle measuring. Solution of difi'erent problems of 
practical geometry, on the field and in practice. 

Second Course. Winter Term. — Agricultural architecture. Laying out 
and construction of houses and stables. Buildings for the preservation of 
agricultural crops,- &c. 

2. Meadow management, with practical exercises. Theory and use of 
different leveling instruments. Water measuring. Improvements of fields in 
general. Drainage. Irrigation. Practice in leveling and water measuring. 

Professor Meister lectured in the winter terra, three hours a week, on 

Physical geography, the atmosphere and climatology. The barometer, 
thermometer, hygrometer, and psych rometer. Effect of clearing oft' of forests. 
Relations of temperature to the atmosphere and the earth, and the consequent 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 131 

distribution of plants. Peculiarities of land and sea climate, and their causes. 
Winds. Warmth and moisture. Amount of rain, dew, number of rainy days, 
storms, fall of hail, and their distribution over tlie year, and the consequent 
physical characteristics of the soil. Explanation of the century calendar, and 
of the so-called rules for determining the weather. Temperature of the soil. 
Observations at different depths. Barometrical and thermometrical measure- 
ment of heights. Construction of sun-dials. 

Judge Schleisinger lectures in the second course twice a week, in both terms, 
on the general German agricultural law in regard to the more important private 
rights and later laws in regard to cultivation. 

This course was comprehensive, embracing the general principles of rights, 
persons and things, and the laws affecting property, real and personal. 

The royal master of forests, Bierdimpfel, lectured in the winter term on the 
introduction to the management of forests, the structure of woods, plants, and 
their relation to the air, climate and soil, and on the definition of the technical 
forest expressions. 

Summer Term. — On forest cultivation, protection of forests. These courses 
wer^ illustrated by excursions into the neighboring forests. 

In addition to the short and frequent botanical and other excursions in the 
neighborhood, long excursions are made, from time to time, to various parts of 
the kingdom, the students being accompanied on them by one or more profes- 
sors. Special subjects are assigned to some one or more of the class on which 
to write out a detailed report. As an example, the last great excursion which 
took place previous to my visit was made to Northern Bavaria^ to Niirnberg, 
and"%o round to Augsburg, to visit the wool market in that city. In the former 
city, there was at that time a great meeting of Bavarian farmers, for the dis- 
cussion of agricultural topics; an agricultural convention, in other words. 
That was taken into the trip. That part of the kingdom, as well as Franconia, 
through which the direction lay, is largely devoted to the culture of hop?. 
Now two of the students were appointed to write out an account of the 
journey in general ; three to write on the culture of the hop ; two on fruit 
culture, as seen in the excursion; another on irrigation; another on garlic- 
land ; another on the art of manuring ; four others on cattle ; two others on the 
visit to Lichtenhof Agricultural School; another on bees; two others on the 
wool market, &c. A full report of the excursion, mostly written by the students 
themselves, is printed in connection with the annual report of the school. 

The nurseries on the farm are extensive and the sales from them profitable ; 
but probably the brewery is the most profitable branch of the establishment. 
Here are used more than ten thousand bushels of malt a year. In the year 
ending with July 1st, 1863, it used 3,668 Bavarian schefifel, or about 11,000 
bushels. In the same year over a thousand bushels of potatoes were used in 
the distillery. There were sold from the nursery, 8,520 trees. 

Just before I was there a terribly destructive hailstorm had occurred, and I 
never saw such magnificent fields of wheat and other grain so completely 
riddled and ruined. It was painful to look upon. It had given promise of an 
extraordinary yield up to the time of the hail, but it was very nearly a dead 
loss when I saw it. A committee of appraisers from the insurance company 
for crops was on to estimate the damages. The wide-spread system of 
insurance, of which the institute had fortunately availed itself, saved it from 
very great loss, which otherwise would have fallen very heavily upon it. 



132 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 



I should add that much instruction is given in the field and the nurseries, in 
the barn and other parts of the establishment, by practical demonstrations. 
There is a reading-room, a library, and extensive collections and other appliances. 

AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT LICHTENHOP. 

At Lichtenhof, in the neighborhood of Nuremberg, there is a school of 
agriculture, established by Dr. Weidenkeller, in 1832, as a trade-school with 
two sections, the other section being devoted to the mechanical arts, with a 
preparatory course common to both. 

The school of agriculture comprises : — 1. A preparatory school. 2. A school 
of husbandry. 3. A school of agricultural science. 

1. The preparatory school is intended to receive lads whose education hag 
been neglected, and in it they are taught the following subjects: — Religion, 
two hours per week; principles of theoretical agriculture, two; practical 
agriculture, four ; arithmetic, four ; reading, one ; calhgraphy, four ; German lan- 
guage, 'four ; geography, two ; natural history, two ; drawing, eight. Total, 33. 

2. The school of husbandry is intended to educate farmers, -bailiffs, and 
managers. The instruction occupies a year, and embraces the following 
subjects: — Religion, two hours per week; German language, four; chemistry, 
two; arithmetic, four; geography, two; drawing; three; calligraphy, four; 
theoretical agriculture, six; practical agriculture, four. Total, 31 hours. 

3. The school of agricultural science is intended to render young men 
capable: — 1, of managing and cultivating farms of moderate size; 2, of being 
admitted into a central school of agriculture, or into the Munich Veterinary 
School. The instruction occupies three years, and there were in 1862-63, 
thirty-nine pupils of the first, eighteen of the second, and fifteen of the third 
year; in all seventy-two pupils. 

These numbers show that less than one-half of the pupils go through the 
whole course of studies. The school of husbandry had only two pupils, the 
preparatory school eight, which makes a total of eighty-two pupils, for whom 
there are tliirteen professors and three masters. 

The programme of the school of agricultural science is as follows: — 



SUBJECTS TAUGHT. 



Religion, 

Theory of agriculture, ... ^ 

Practical agriculture,. . 

Zoology, 

General and special botany, 

Pure mineralogy, 

Applied mineralogy, 

Physics, 

Chemistry, 

Arithmetic, 

Geometry, 

German language, 

Geography, 

Free hand and linear drawing, 

Calligraphy, ,, 

Anatomy and treatment of domestic animals. 





Hours per week. 


1st year. 


3d year. 


2d year. 


2 


2 


. 2 


5 


7 


4 * 


12 to 30 
2 
2 


12 to 20 


12 to 30 
1 


4 


3 

2 
4 


• 4 





2 


3 


4 
4 
6 
4 


4 


3 


4 


4 




— 


2 



Mr. 0. L. Flint thus speaks of his visit to this school: — 

This institute is about a mile from Niirnberg towards the south. It was. 
founded in 1832, by Dr. "Weidenkeller. The farm, originally composed of sand 
and gravel, almost barren, was gradually changed into a good soil, now 
apparently fertile and productive, by the students. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 133 

The stately buildings of the institute stand at the right of the entrance, and 
on the left the botanic garden. The buildings are in a modern style, contrast- 
ing strangely with the antique structures in the neighborhood. The dwelling 
of the inspector is within the college inclosure, as also that of Mrs. Weidenkel- 
ler, and just beyond, the dormitories for eighty students, the lecture-rooms, the 
laboratory, a spacious eating-saloon, which serves also as a work-room, a 
library and wash-room. 

The botanical garden contains all, or nearly all, the agricultural plants, 
arranged in the Linntean order, besides many of the more common forest trees. 
The garden of the institute for the growth of vegetables and fruits also joins 
the botanical gard n. Among the fruit trees stands the monument to Dr. 
Weidenkeller, the founder. A httle way beyond lies the experimental field. 
The improved grounds near by contain a good nurserj'- of trees. In a little 
grove on a knoll, a monument is erected to his majesty, King Max. A broad 
space is devoted to prnamental plants and farm crops. The experimental held 
is about two acres in extent. There is also a hop-garden on a piece of 
reclaimed swamp. This piece was improved by the pupils without much cost. 

Near the main building stands a second, which contains the collections. 
Tliey consist of skeletons and anatomical preparations, a crocodile, birds, 
domestic game and some malformations, several models of systems of irrigation, 
collections of insects, minerals, &c. 

The stocks of bees were presented by Dzierzon, and are therefore of special 
interest. The mode of operation is easily seen from the arrangement of the 
hives. 

The farm buildings consist of cow and horse stalls, shed and coach-house. 
There were about thirty cows, consisting of Allgiiuers and Simraenthalers, a 
iew Ansbachers and Ellingers. The roof of the cow-house is built of wood, 
the sides of stone. 

The instruction at this institute is not strictly agricultural. Much of it, in 
fact, has no more bearing on agricultural than on any other calling. Religion, 
the German language, geography, arithmetic, zoology and drawing are 
prescribed studies in the first year. Agriculture and practical agricultural 
exercises come in for a share of attention, but they don't seem to be especially 
prominent in the programme. 

The second year is a continuation of the first, with a little botany, geometry, 
mineralogy and history added, while in the third year, agricultural chemistry, 
farm accounts, rural architecture, machinery, the anatomy and physiology of 
animals, veterinary medicine, drawing, riding, fencing, and other practical 
exercises, come in and add variety. 

This institute ranks as intermediate in the list of Bavarian agricultural 
schools. 

AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT SCHLEISSHEIM. 

The school of practical farming at Schleissheim was founded in 1822 as an 
institute for theoretical as well as practical agriculture, after the model of 
Hohenheim, but the plan was more fully carried out at Weihenstephan, and 
this institution has been carried on apparently to illustrate the pursuit of 
agriculture under difficulties. 

Mr. Flint thus describes his visit in 1863 : — 

The estate consists of about six thousand five hundred acres, and like many 
Other establishments of the kind, it possesses a fine old royal residence or 
chateau tlie whole lying in an immense, but not very fertile valley. I have 
seen it intimated that the lands were so decidedly inferior and unproductive 
that the intention of the government in giving it over to the school to be 
managed by scientific men was to put the value of scientific principles in agri- 
culture to the severest possible test. I believe, if such was the case, that there 
has been little reason to exult in the triumphs gained over such powerful 
natural obstacles as a poor soil and an ungenial climate, aq^ I think it may be 
taken to be as great a mistake to select land for a model farm, or an agricultu- 
ral college farm, that is much below the average of natural fertility, aa it 



134 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 

would be to select one very much above it. In the first case even scientific 
management can hardly be charged with the responsibility of a failure to 
produce high crops, and in the latter, it would not get the credit of whatever it 
did produce. Neither would be a fair test of the skill and science applied 
to it. 

The character of the soil led to the early adoption of a twenty years rotation, 
in which wheat came in but once, oats five times, rye and barley one year 
each, grass occupying six years, and one year being given over to an idle 
fiUlow. 

The buildings are old and immense in extent, arraiiged in the form of paral- 
lelograms, with broad open courts or yards between. The whole has an air of 
majestic desolation. I do not think palaces especiallj- well adapted for the 
purposes of agricultural schools. The endless stables were partially occupied 
by horses belonging to the Bavarian cavalry. 

The course of instruction is more practical than theoretical, that is, of the 
time devoted to study and training, two-thirds is given to practical work and 
one-tliird to theoretical. 

The theoretical instruction, which comes mostly in winter and on rainy days 
in summer, when it becomes impracticable to work out doors, embraces — 

1. Rehgion. A brief survey of the history of religion and biblical history. 

2. Elementary studies, arithmetic, orthography. In arithmetic, the funda- 
mental rules and fractions, exercises in reducing common currencies, weights 
and measures, and measurements of sj)ace. It is especially mathematics 
applied to agriculture. As large a proportion as possible is mental. 

About an hour a week is devoted to orthography, to teach correct writing 
and language, and to develop facilitj' in writing. It includes examples of 
receipts, bills, notices, &c. 

3. Agriculture. On climate, atmosphere, knowledge and estimation of 
kinds of soil and their cultivation or working. On maclnnes and implements, 
their manufacture and repair, the parts of which they are composed and their 
use, the handling and management of sowing, threshing and cutting machines, 
to guard against accidents. On the formation of manure heaps and the 
manufacture of manure, the application of different sorts of manure. On the 
knowledge of seeds, and the different methods of sowing and planting. The 
treatment of plants during the period of growth. The reduction of different 
feeding substances to the hay value. Estimation of the necei^sary requirements 
of manure. On the various methods of harvesting, threshing, preservation and 
drying. On the valuation of fruits. On the arrangement and keeping of simple 
farm registers. Plan and model drawing from measurement. 

Technical Employments. — On milk and the products of milk. On the 
erection and management of brandy distilleries, and the suitable materials to 
use. 

Culture of Mowing Lands. — Preliminary instruction. 1. Leveling by the 
application of the level and other instrument.'^. 2. Measuring of level surfaces, 
lines, angles, and figures ; triangles, quadrangles, right angles, the circle, prac- 
tical exercises in these operations. 3. Laying out trenches and dams for 
water or irrigated meadows, calculation of bodies of water, and the require- 
ments of water for irrigated meadows. 4. Tools for field culture 

The practical management of meadows. Study of meadow or field plants. 
Requirements of seed and time of sowing. Seed raising. Manuring mowings 
with barn and compost manures, with hquid and artificial manures ; the hay 
harvast and its yield. Preparation of brown hay ; care and improvement of 
meadows other than irrigation. 

Drainage. — When and how to be applied. The work preparatory to 
draining. 

C.A.TTLE Breeding. — Application of anatomy to horse, cattle, sheep, and 
swine breeding. The various breeds and their characteristics. Explanation of 
particular methods of improving the breeds of cattle, through the introduction 
of foreign males, and through in and in breeding, &c. 

1. Explanation of characteristics according to the kind of use required, 
feeding for beef, milk and draught. 

2. Choice of animals for breeding, according to age, use, special points. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. I35 

■3, Treatment of the breeding animal, feeding and care. 

4. Parturition. Treatment immediately after. 

5. Maiwgenient of the calf Methods of raising. Quantity and quality of 
milk for its nourishment. 

6. Feeding, management and care of the young animal up to the period of 
Use. 

7. The same of the full-grown animal. Quantity and quality of food for 
milking, fattening, and working animals. Housing of sheep, product of wool, 
and the cleansing of it. 

8. Adaptation to work. 

9. Purcliase and sale of animals, especially the horse. 

The students are instructed in veterinary manipulations, which as far as pos- 
sible are applied to practice. Bleeding at several points in different animals. 
Treatment of wounds, &c. Shoeing of horses and oxen. 

The proper management of forests in all its branches, also forms a part of the 
instruction, as well as that of fruit trees. 

Excursions are also made to neighboring estates for the purposes of observa- 
tion, the results of which are written out by the pupils. Money is sometimes 
appropriated by the government to defray the expenses of long excursions. 

Experiments are conducted in the making of implements, the application 
of manures, and the cultivation of plants. 

There is a collection of models, a herbarium, a library, and tools and work- 
shops for repairing the smaller agricultural implements, and the preparation of 
models. The students are held to a pretty strict line of conduct; neatness, 
order and industry are inculcated and required. An examination takes place 
at the close of the course, and prizes are awarded according to merit. 

The number of cows kept is ninety; the number of yokes of oxen, thirty- 
six. They make cheese and butter. The age of the students varies from 
sixteen to twenty. The tuition, board, &c., amounts to about eighty florins, or 
about thirty-three dollars. Each student costs the government about one 
hundred and twenty-five florins, but the balance is made up from the public 
treasury. 

The young men are certainly not liable to acquire luxurious habits here. I 
visited them, by invitation of Professor Anselm, teacher of agriculture, while 
they were at supper, and had various opportunities for conversation with 
several of them. Their fare appeared to be what, in our reformatory and 
correctional institutions, would be called " very hard," and yet they seemed to 
be quite contented and happy. 

I should think the institution well calculated to send out a hardy, frugal, 
intelligent, industrious class of young men, who might testify with regard to 
their training as Socrates did with regard to Xantippe, " being firmly convinced 
that in case I should be able to endure her, I should be able to endure all 
others." 

There is nothing imposing in the buildings or their arrangement. They are 
substantial!}^ built of stone, in low, long ranges surrounding a large yard or 
open space. There is a blacksmith's and a wheelwright's shop in a part of the 
range, and many agricultural implements are turned out here by the slow 
processes of hand labor, some of them excellent, but all rather more remark- 
able for strength than elegance. 

INSTRUCTION IN FORESTRY AND HORTICULTURE. 

1. In addition to the instruction given in the agricultural section of the real 
gymnasium and the trade schools, there are arranged courses of lectures in the 
university at Munich, and another special course of two years in the royal 
forestry school at Aschaffenberg. 

2. The lectures on botany and vegetable physiology in the university, the 
practical work of the botanical garden, and the plantations of the pubhc parks 
and grounds, afford rare opportunity for horticultural study as well as land- 
scape gardening. 



136 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BAVARIA. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS FOR WOMEN. 

Besides the numerous schools of the usual grades for girls and young ladies 
in Munich, there are several institutions of a pecuhar character to prepare them 
for profitable occupations. Under the lead of several noble women, among 
whom are Mrs. Maria Von Weber, Eugenia Dollman, daughter of the celebrated 
architect Klentze, Mrs. Maria Volk, daughter of Kolbach, Caroline Hay, and 
others, an Art School for Young Women has been instituted— one of the first 
of its kind in Germany. Beginning in a smaU hired apartment, they bought 
models, procured the services of an experienced teacher of drawing — a pupil of 
Leutze before he came to this country, and opened the school ; and before the 
close of the first year numbered twenty-four eager pupils. The second year 
opened with a class in painting, under the instruction of an eminent artist — 
and during the following winter, lectures were delivered to the school on Es- 
thetics and the History of Art, by a Professor of the Royal Academy of Arts — 
the object of the school being to train its pupils to become themselves teachers 
of drawing and painting, and designers of patterns for various textile fabrics, 
household furniture and ornamentation. 

There is also another institution for training girls between the ages of thir- 
teen and sixteen for commercial business. It has been supported for several 
years at the expense of Mr. Adolph Remenschmied, a philanthropic merchant 
of Munich. The branches taught are such as are usually required in Schools of 
Commerce for Young Men, and are designed to fit young women to judge of 
the quality of goods, efiect sales, keep accounts for others, and for independent 
business for themselves, if they should have the talent and opportunity. 

Graduates of this school are already in responsible situations as book-keepers 
and managers of business for themselves and others. 

The success of the school has led to the establishment of similar institutions 
in other commercial cities of Germany. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTIOiN IN DUCHY OF BRUNSWICK. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The Durhy of Brunswick, on an area of 1,526 square miles, com- 
prised in two portions widely separated, had in 1861, 282,400 inhab- 
itants. 

The governmental supervision of public schools belongs to a divis- 
ion in the department of the Interior, in which the consistory of the 
Lutheran church is largely represented. The system* and statistics 
of public schools and education in 1867, were as follows: 

1. Elementary Schools : 579 parish schools in rural districts, with 
406 teachers and 33,700 pupils ; 41 village and city public schools, 
with 255 teachers and 12,000 pupils. 

2. S*econdary Schools : 5 Classical Gymnasium, (including 1 real 
school and 1 progymnasium,) with 67 teachers, 871 pupils, besides 
2i latin classes in other schools. 

3. Superior School: Collegium Carolinum, with a classical, tech- 
nical, and commercial department, with 25 professors and 180 pupils, 
including the technical division, which has an independent course. 

4. Special and Professional Schools : The technical department of 
the Collegium Carolinum with eight special schools ; 1 carpenters 
school ; 1 agricultural school ; 3 secondary and every-trade schools ; 
1 theological seminary ; 2 normal schools for common school teachers ; 
5 young ladies' seminaries ; 1 institute for deaf mutes ; 1 scliool for 
the blind ; 5 orphan asylums ; 2 rescue and reform schools ; 5 infant 
gardens and schools ; 3 parish schools for Catholic children ; 1 Jewish 
institution with an endowment of $100,000. 

TECHNICAL COLLEGE AT BRUNSWICK.! 

The Collegium Carolinum, in the city of Brunswick, prepares 
young men by a scientific and technical education, for the special 
careers of — mechanicians, civil engineers, architects, metallurgists 
for mining and salt works, manufacturing or dispensing chemists, 
forest engineers, agriculturists, officers for raUway-s and roads, and 
surveyors. 

*For an account of the system of Public Instruction in Duchy of Brunswick, see Special Re- 
port on National Education, Part I, German States. 

tThe details of the Technical College are taken from the report of the French Commission, 
and the Programmes of the Iiutitutiou. 



138 SPECIAriNSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 

From the comprehensive curriculum, each pupil chooses the sub- 
jects required for his future destination. But when the pupil has 
entered his name for a particular line of studies, and he wishes to 
obtain irom the College a certificate of proficiency, he is obliged to 
follow all the courses taught in that technical branch. 

Besides these special studies there are college courses of litera- 
ture, living languages, history, general ^ and political geogra] hy, sta- 
tistics, political economy, which the pupils are encouraged to follow 
as useful adjuncts to the scientific teaching. 

The duration of the complete studies of the nine technical divis- 
ions is fixed as follows : 

1. Construction of machines, - - - - 3 years. 

2. Civil engineering, construction and architecture, - - 4 " 

3. Metal works and salt mines, - - - - 3 " 

4. Manufacturing chemistry, - - - - - 3 " 

5. Dispensing- chemistry, - - - - - 1 " 

6. Forest economy, - - - - - -2" 

7. Agricultural economy, - - - • - 2 " 

8. Service of railways and posts, - - - - 1 " 

9. Government survey, - - - - - 2 " 

The teaching elementary mathematics, experimental physics, gen- 
eral chemistry, the rudiments of the natural sciences and of free- 
hand drawing, is common to all the divisions. Proof of sufficient 
preparatory instruction is required for admission to each division. 

At the end of every year's studies, the Director and professors 
decide as to the passing of the pupils to the upper class of their 
division. Those whose proficiency is doubtful have to undergo, on 
their return after the vacation, a special examination, after which the 
decision is given. A pupil who has followed the complete courses 
of his division receives on leaving a certificate of proficiency. 

Besides the pupils regularly matriculated for the technical divisions, 
free students are admitted to certain courses, as well as to the lessons 
in drawing, painting, and sculpture ; young men are at all times 
admitted to the class-rooms and studies. 

Numerous and well arranged collections and a good library are 
placed at the disposal of the professors and the use of pupils. 

The following tables show the number of hours alloted weekly to 
each branch of instruction for the special divisions for a half-year. 

The pupils who do not follow the plan of studies indicated for any 
special branch, do not receive the certificate relating thereto. 

. First Technical Division. — Mechanicians, Constructors, S^c, 
In order to shorten the length of the studies, the pupils begin to 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 139 

attend the special courses before their instruction in the higher 
mathematics is completely terminated. The courses of coiisti-uction 
of machines are to follow simultaneously and in connexion with those 
of mechanics, the study of machines, or projects, and exercises of 
construction. 

Hours per week 
First Year. — 1st Term. 

Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - - - 5 

Gconietry and tri<^ononictry, - - - - - - 5 

Knowledge of instruments, ---.-. 2 

Experimental pliysies, - - - -- - -5 

Inorganic chemistry, -------5 

Free-liand drawing, - - - - - -- — 

2d Term. * 

Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, - - - - - 5 

Equations, - - - - - - - - 2 

Analytical geometry, - - - - - - .5 

Practical geometry*, - - - - ... . 5 

Experimental chemistry, second course, - . • - - 5 
Drawing of plans*, --._.___. 

Free-hand drawing, - - - - - - - — 

Second Year. — 3d Term. 
Differential calculus, 1 st course, - - - - - - 5 

Descriptive geometry, 1st course, - ... - 4 

Mineralogy, -----..-5 

Technical chemistry, 1st course, - .... 5 

Drawing of machines, - - - - -,_ - — 

4th Term. 

Differential calculus, 2d course, - - - - - 5 

Descriptive geometry, 2d course, - - - - - 4 

Geology, - -' - - . - - - .5 

Mechanics, 1st course, --.-._ 4 

Elements of building construction, - - - - - 4 

Drawing of machines, - - . . . . — 

Second Technical Division. — Construction of Buildings, 
The divisions for the construction of buildings, for civil eno-ineer- 
ing, and for architecture have nearly all the preparatory studies in 
common ; they have also several points in common with the special 
studies. So, when the pupils have decided for one or other of the 
eight subdivisions, it is only in the exercises of drawing, projects and 
the applications relating thereto, that their teaching differs from that 
of the other two subdivisions. 

Hours per week. 

First Year. — 1st Term. 

Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - - - - 5 

Geometry and trigonometry, - - - - - - 5 

Knowledge of instruments, - - - - - - 2 

*These courses are not compulsory ; but the pupils are earnestly recommended to follow 
punctually the courses comprised ia their studies, and not to neglect those which tend to the 
general culture of the mind. 



140 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 

Hours per -weak. 
Experimental physics, 1st course, ----- 5 

Inorganic chemistry, - - - » - - -5 

Free-haud dj-awing, ...... — 

2d Term. 

Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, - - . - 5 

Theory of equations, ----.--2 

Analytical geometry, - - - - - - -5 

Practical geometry, - - - - - - - 5 

Experimental physics, - - -- - - -5 

Drawing of plans, - - -- - - - — 

Free-hand drawing, - - - - - - - — 

Second Year. — 3d Term. 

Differential calculus, 1st course, - - - - - - 5 

Descriptive geometry, 1st course, - - - * - 4 

Land surveying*, - - - - - - -2 

Technical chemistry, - - - - -- - 5 

Mineralogy, - - - -•-_ . .5 

History of architecture, 1st course, - - - _ . 2 

Drawing of ornaments, - - - - - - - — 

4th Term. 

Differential calculus, 2d course, - - - - - 5 

Descriptive geometry, 2d course, - - ... 4 

Higher land surveying*, - - - - - - - 3 

Geology, - - - - - -'- - 5 

Mechanics, 1st course, - - - - - .-4 

Elements of building construction, 1st course, - - * - 1 

Drawing of ornaments, - - - - - -- — 

Architectural drawing, - - - - - - — 

Third Year. — 5th Term. 

Differential calculus, 3d course, - - - - - - 2 

Descriptive geometry, 3d course, - - - - - 4 

Technical physics, 1st course, - - - - - - 2 

Mechanics, 2d course, - - - - - - 5 

Elements of building construction, 2d course, - - - -.4 

Architectural drawing and construction, - - - - — 

6th Term. 

Technical physics, 2d course, - - - - - - 2 

Mathematical physics, 2d course, . - * - - 2 

Mechanics, 3d course, - -..--.4 

Elements of building construction, 3d course, > - . 4 

History of architecture, 2d course, - - - - - 4 

Building materials, - - - - - - -2 

Architectual drawing and construction, - - - - - — 

Founh Year.— 7th Term. 

Analytical mechanics, -- - - - - -4 

Mechanics of building, - * - _ - - 2 

Roads and railways, - - - - - - -4 

Building of Bridges, - -- - - - - 4« 

Civil law, ---------3 

Drawing of buildings, ••••--- — 

Architectural projects, .• • • -.- - - — 

Landscape drawing, ••••--- — 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 141 

Hours per week. 
8th Term. 

Hydraulic constructions, -----.. 4 

Study otinachiucs, - - - - - . .4 

Law relating to the erection of buildings, - - - - - 2 

Drawing- of constructions, ------ — 

Arcriitectiiral projects, - - - - - - - — 

Landscape drawing, -----.. — 

Third Technical Division — Salt Mines and MetaUur^cal Works, 
These two subdivisions require the same preparatory studies. 
For the salt-mines a sound knowledge of geology and fossils is re- 
quired, and for metallurgical works great proficiency in chemistry 
and mineralogy. 

Hours per week 
First Year. — 1st Term. 

Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - - - -5 

Geometry and ti-igonometry, ------ 5 

Knowledge of instruments*, -' - - - - -2 

Experimental physics, 1st course, - - - - . 5 

Inorganic chemistry, --- .. . -5 

Free-hand drawing, ------- — 

2d Term. 

Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, - - - - - 5 

Theory and equations, ------- 2 

Analytical geometry, - - - -- _ -5 

Practical geometry*, -------5 

Experimental physics, 2d course, ^ - - - - - 5 

Drawing of plans*, ------- 

Free-hand drawing, - - - - - - . 

Second Year. — 3d Term. 
Differential calculus, 1st course, - - - - - - 5 

Descriptive geometry, 1st course, ----- 4 

Technical physics, 1st course, - - - - - .2 

Chemical physics, -------2 

Mineralogy, ------.-5 

Drawing of machines, -----_ 

Manipulations in the laboratory, - - - . 

4th Term. 

Differential calculus, 2d course, - - - . - - 5 

Descriptive geometri', 2d course, - - - - . 4 

Technical physics, 2d course, - - - - - - 2 

Geology, 5 

Mechanics, 1st course, - - - - - - -4 

Elements of construction, ------» 4 

Drawing of machines and constructions ; manipulations, - - 

Third Year. — 5th Term. 

Mechanics, 2d course, - - - - - - -5 

Mineralogical exercises, .-.-.. 2 

Elements of construction, 2d course, - - - - - 4 

Projects of metallurgical works, ----- — 

Manipulations in the laboratory, - - - - - - — 

6th Term. 
Mechanics, 3d course, - - - - - -4 or 5 

Metallurgy, - • - - - ; , 2 or 3 



142 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 



Geological exercises, - 
Elements of construction, 3d course, 
Projects of metallurgical works, 
Manipulations in the laboratory, 



Hours per week. 
2 
- 4 



Fourth Technical Division. — Technical Chemistry. 

Besides a profound acquaintance with chemistry, the pupils of this 
division must know something about the construction of machines and 
buildings. An acquaintance with descriptive geometry is consequent- 
ly necessary for them. 

lu the third year they are almost exclusively occupied with manip« 
ulatious in the laboratorj^ 

Hours per week. 
First Year. — 1st Term. 

Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - 

Geometry and trigonometry, - • - - 

Experimental physics, 1st course, - - 

Inorganic chemistry, ----- 
Free-hand di'awing, - - 



2d Term. — 

Stereometry and trigonometry ; physics, - - - - . « 5 

Experimental physics, 2d course, - - - • - 5 

Organic chemistry, - - - -- - -5 

Botany, - - - - - - - -5 

Free-hand drawing, - - 

Second Year. — 3d Term. 
Dccriptive geometry, 1st course, - - - . - -4 

Chemical phyS'ics, - - - - - - - 2 

Technical chemistry, 1st course, - - - - - - 5 

Technical physics, 1st course, - - - - -2 

Mineralogy, ..... 

Drawing of machines and laboratory manipulations, 

4th Term. 

Descriptive geometry, 2d course, - - - - - 4 

Technical chemistry, 2d course, - - - - - 5 

Technical physics, "2d course, - - • - - -3 

Geology, - - ... . . . . 5 

Drawing of machines and laboratory manipulations. 

Third Year. — .5th Term. 
Elements of machinery, -----.-4 

Statistics, .... .... 3 

Projects of manufactories and working in the laboratory, 

6th Term. 
Political economy, ' - 
Projects of manufactories atid working in the laboratory, - - — 

Fifth Technical Division. — Pharmaceutical Chemists. 

The pharmaceutical studies must have been preceded by a practical 
apprenticeship. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 1 43 

Hours per week. 

First Year. — 1st Term. 

Arithmetic and algebra, -- - - - - -5 

Geometry and trigonometry, - - - - - - 5 

Experimental physics, 1st course, - - - - - 5 

Inorganic chemistry, - - - - - - - 5' 

iVlanipnlation in the laboratory, - - - - - - — 

2d Term. 
Experimental physics, 2d course, - - - - - 5 

(_)rganic chemistry, .----.-5 

Boiuny, ......... f) 

Pharmacy, .-.--.--5 

Chemical jurisprudence, - - - - - - 2 

Manipulation in the laboratory, .... - — 

Second Year. — 3d Term. 
Mineralogy, - - - - -- - -5 

Zoology, ..--.-.-5 

Pharmacognosy, - ------.4 

Chemical physics, ....... 2 

Manipulation in the laboratory, - - - - - - — 

Sixth Technical Division. — Forest Economy. 
The plan of studies here sepaiates the special from the prepara- 
tory studies. The pupils in the forest service of the country are 
advised to follow the first year of this division immediately on leav- 
ing the primary or other elementary schools, and then to have a 
year's practical apprenticeship in the forests, before they come to fol- 
low the special course of the second year. 

Hours per week. 
First Year. — 1st Term. • 

Arithmetic and algebra, - - -- - - -5 

Geometry and trigonometry, ------ 5 

Experimental physics, 1st course, - - - - - .5 

Inorganic chemistry, -------5 

Zoology, - -- - - - - - -5 

Mineralogy, -.-.-..-5 

2d Term. 
Stereometiy and spherical trigonometry, - - - -5 

Practical geometry, ...-..^5 
Experimental physics, 2d course, - • - - - - 5 

Organic chemistry, ------.5 

Botany, - - - ... - - -5 

Geology, - - -'- - - - - 5 

Second Year, — 3d Term. . 

Mathematical exercises, -- - - - - 2 to 4 

Climatology and knowledge of soils, ----- 2 

Physiology of forest plants, - - - - - - 4 

Forest botany and culture of forests, . - - - 6 
Valuations of forests, --.....3 

Forest history and statistics, --.--- 2 

Civil Law, - - -- - - • - -3 

4th Term. 
Mathematical exercises, - - - - - - 2 to 4 

Organization of labor, .-..,, 4 



144 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 



Protection of forests. — Forest insects, 

Forest economy and police, 

Utilization of forests, 

Elements of the chase, 

Forest laws, . . - 



Hours per week 

- 4 
4 

- 3 
2 

- 2 



Seventh Technical Division. — Rural Economy. 
The pupils are advised to separate their studies in the same man- 



ner as in the preceding division. 



First Year — IsT Term. 
Aritliraetic and algebra, - - - - 

(Geometry and trigonometry, - - - 

Experimental physics, 1st course, 

Inorganic chemistry, - - - - . 

Zoology, - - - - - - 

Mineralogy, - - - 

2d Term. 

Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, - 
Practical geometry, . - - . 

Experimental physics, 2d course. 
Organic chemistry, - - - - 

Botany, ------ 

Geology, 

Drawing of plans, . - » - 

Second Year. — 3d Term. 

Agricultural economy, . - - - 
Anatomy of domestic animals, 

K earing of cattle, - - - • 

Rearing of horses, - - - - 

Technical chemistry, - - - - 
General knowledge of machines*, 

Agricultural book-keeping, . - - 

4th Term. 

Theory of agriculture proper, 

Culture of plants, - - - - 

Diseases of domestic animals, - - - 

Elements of sxirgery and medicine. 

Valuation of farm property, . _ - 

Elements of agricultural building construction, 

Manipulations in the laboratory. 

Third Year. — 5th Term. 
Differential calculus, 3d course. 
Descriptive geometry, 3d course. 
Technical physics*, . - - - 

Mechanics, 2d course, . - - 

Construction of machines, 1st course. 
Elements of building construction, 2d course, 
Construction of machines (exercises,) 



6th Term. 



Technical physics, 2d course. 
Mathematical physics, - 
Mechanics, 3d course. 



Hours per week. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 145 

Hours per week. 
Construction of machines, 2(1 course, . - - . 2 

Study ofniju-hincs, 2d course , - - - - - - 4 

Klcmcnts of Ijuildinj^ construction, 3d course, - - - 4 

Construction of machines (exercises,) - - - - - — 

Fourth Year. — 7th Term. 

Analytical mechanics*, - -.- - - - -4 

Mechanics of building, . - . - - _ 2 

Construction of machines, 3d course, - - - - - 2 

Study of nuichines, - - - - - - - 4 

Civil engineering;*, - - - - - - -4 

Construction of machines (exercises), . . . - — 

Eighth Technical Division. — Railways and Roads. 
The knowledge necessary for admission into this division are ele- 
mentary mathematics, geography, statistics, the history of modern 
languages and literature. 

Hours per week. 
First Year. — 1st Term. 

Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - - - -5 

Geometry and trigonometry, ------ 5 

Experimental physics, - - - - -- -5 

Geography and statistics, - . - - - - - 6 

French language, --------6 

EngUsh language, - - -- - - - 6 

2d Term. 
Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, - - - - - 5 

Political economy, -------3 

History, ....-_. .5 

German literature, -------3 

French language and literature, - - ' - - - - 3 

English language and literature, ----- g 

Second Year — 3d Term. 
Mathematical exercises*, -- - - - - 2 to 4 

Technical physics, .--.-..2 
History, ---.----- 2 

Gernian literature, ------- 2 

French language and literature, - - - - - - 2 

English language and literature, - ... - 2 

Civil law, ---------2 

Ninth Technical Division. — Officers of the Government Survey. 
The young men who intend to enter this service must follow a 
course of two years composed nearly as follows : 

Hours per week. 

First Year. — 1st Term. 

Arithmetic and algebra, - - - - - - -5 

Geometry and trigonometry, ------ 5 

Mathematical exercises, - - - - - - 4 to 6 

Knowledge of instruments, - - - - . - 2 

Experimental physics, -- . , . . -5 

2d Term. 

Stereometry and spherical trigonometry, - - - • .5 

Theory of equations, - - - - - . • 2 

10 



146 SPEJIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 

, Hours per week. 

Analytical i^eometry, -.>--.. 5 

Practical jreometry, -----..5 

Mathematical exercises, - - - - - --4 

Experimental phrsic, .-..-. 5 

Drawing of plans, . •- . . - . _ — 

Second Year. — 3d Teem. 
Differential calculus, 1st course, - - - - - - 5 

Descriptive geometry, 1st course, ----- 4 

Spherical astronomy, - - - - - - - 3 

Mathematical exercises, - - - -■- -2 to 4 

Technical physics, --------2 

Drawing of plans, ------- — 

4th Term. 

Differential calculus, 2d course, - - - - - - 5 

Dcscri])tive geometry, -------4 

Higher land surveying, - - -- - - -3 

Geology, ------__5 

Management. — The direction is entrusted to a committee of three 
members, the oldest of whom is chairman. This committee is under 
the immediate control of the Minister of State. The college or 
council of professors is consulted with regard to the general interest, 
or for any change of the existing arrangements. It comprises all 
the principal professors, and is convoked by the chairman, or at the 
instance of one of the members of the managing committee. The 
conference of the professors is composed of all the professors and 
tutors. It is convoked to discuss the business of the school. 

School Fees. — The young men matriculated as regular pupils pay 
18 thalers for the half-yearly term, and if they take part in the man- 
ipulations an additional sum of 6 thalers. They also give the labor- 
atory attendant 20 gros. 

The young men who do not matriculate for the six months' term 
pay three thalers for a course of three hours a week, six thalers for 
one of five hours; the maximum paid is 18 thalers, whatever num- 
ber of courses may be fol'owed. For the laboratory, these pupils 
pay 10 thalers, and to the a'tendant 20 gros. 

For daily pai-ticipation in the lessons in arts, from eight in the 
morning till two in the afternoon, the fee is three thalers per quarter, 
and half that sum for three days a week. 

The matriculation fee is two thalers, with 20 gros. to the apparitor 
and 10 gros. for the admission card. 

Discipline.- -Through all the pupils live outside the college, disci- 
pline is maintained in-doo's and in the classes by the professors, each 
for his own course, and by tb.e managing committee for general order 
and conduct out of college - 

The Polytechnic Institution of Brunswick has no less than twenty- 
five professors for the different branches of instruciion there given. 



SPECIAL INSTUUCTIOX IN BUUNSWlCK. 147 



In the small town of Holzmiiiden, there is an establishment for 
special insii uction, which, by a remarkable exception to the general 
rule in Germany, receives boarders. It is devoted to the class of 
artisans designated in France under the general term of the build- 
ing trade; masons, stone-cutters, carpenters, joiners, smiths, slaters, 
glaziers, painters, cabinet makers, &c. 

The instruction is chiefly given during the winter half year, when 
work is generally suspended ; but it is continued during the fine 
season also for those pupils who are disposed to attend. To be ad- 
mitted, a young man must have already entered one of the trades 
connected with building, and must supply the necessary information 
as to his age, his parents, his residence, the master for whom he has 
worked, and as to his moral character ; he must also submit to a 
medical examination with regard to his health. During their stay 
at the school, the pupils wear a uniform, which facilitates discipline. 
On entering ihey must bring linen, a few other articles, and a case 
of mathematical instruments. 

The establishment supplies during the usual term of residence, 
which is twenty weeks for the winter half-year : 

Lodging and board for the sum of - - - 27 thalers. 

Teaching, firing, lighting, necessaries for writing and 
drawing, the uniform, medical attendance and wash- 
ing, for ------- 45 thalerS. 



Total ------ 72 thalers. 



Thus, during this period of one hundred and forty days, a young 
man can be boarded, lodged, taught, and supplied with every neces- 
sary for less than two francs per day. 

The pupils are divided according to their proficiency, into three 
classes. In the two lower classes, the pupils are improved in ordin- 
ary and commercial arithmetic, writing, and composition. At the 
same time in all the classes they are taught free hand drawing details 
of construction, of ornament, of line drawings relative to their difFe: ent 
trades, the objects and models being chosen according lo the capaci- 
ties of the pupils. 

The discipline is nearly the same as in a college. They rise at six 
in the morning, wash themselves and perform other necessary duties 
till half-past eight, and the studies continue till half-past nine in the 
evening, except the intervals for meals and recreation. They go to 



146 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BRUNSWICK. 

bed at ten. The school can accommodate five hundred and fifty 
pupils. 

At the close of each complete period of instruction, the pupils who 
are found deserving, and have attended long enough, receive a cer- 
tificate stating their degree of proficiency in the studies bearing on 
their profession. The pupils who have not completed their studies 
receive a certificate of their conduct and application during the time 
passed at the school. This certificate must be countersigned by their 
parents or masters when they return for the next half year. 

The general curriculum of the school comprises calligraphy, orthog- 
raphy, composition, ordinary and commercial arithmetic, the elements 
of algebra, book-keeping, elementary geometry, descriptive geometry, 
projections, stereometry, elementary and technical physics, the details 
of the construction of machines and buildings ; joining of stone, wood, 
and iron ; technical chemistry, the knowledge of building materials, 
drawing* up of estimates, laws affecting buildings, free-hand drawing, 
architectural drawing, studies of forms and orders, drawing of ma- 
chines, drawing up of projects, modeling. The pupils are expected 
during the summer half-year, to visit works in course of execution, 
and write reports of their excursions. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN THE FREE CITIES OF GERMANY. 

I. HAMBURG. 



The small republic of Hamburg had, in 1869, a population of 
315,000, of which there are in the city and its suburbs 225,000, and 
in the outlying districts, 90,000. 

Besides being a great commercial emporium, and the centre of a 
very extensive business in marine insurance, it has important branches 
of home industry ; shipbuilding on a large scale, with sail-cloth, ropes, 
sugar refining, distilling and dyeing, manufacture of cigars, &c. 

The total expenditure for educational purposes amounted, in 
1869, to about 800,000 thalers, of which 109,302 were borne by the 
State, to which last item is to be added 12,640 thalers for special 
schools, and about 5,500 for the city library, botanic garden, and 
similar establishments. 

The educational institutions of Hamburg number 437, with 2,521 
instructors and 39,098 pupils, and are, in the official report, divided 
into the following classes : 

(1.) Public Schools. City and Parish schools 64, with 183 teach- 
ers and 8,135 pupils. Schools for the poor {Armen Oschulen) 20, 
with 142 teachers, and 5,079 pupils. Foundation schools {Stiftungs- 
schulen) 21, with 131 teachers and 2,376 pupils. Church Schools 
(Kirchenschulen) 27, with 130 teachers and 4,235 pupils. 

(2.) Private Schools. Elementary schools 49, with 127 teachers 
and 1,922 pupils. Middle schools 108, with 562 teachers and 8,212 
pupils. Higher schools 89, with 1,046 teachers and 7,686 pupils. 

There are, besides, 29 Kindergarten, of which 7 are in connection 
with other schools, with 68 teachers and 973 children attending. 
Also 30 private courses, with 132 instructors and 480 pupils. 

Elementary Schools. — Nearly all the schools included in the above 
official statement as Public Schools, may be classed as elementary. 

Secondary Schools. — The gymnasium has eight classes, with 11 
professors, and 7 assistants. The Model School has a Real depart- 
ment, and Female High School. 

Superior Education. — The Gymnasial Academy, founded in 1 632, 
is a connecting link between the classical schools and the University. 
(149) 



250 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG. 

There are four professors ; one of classical philology, who is also city- 
librarian ; one of chemistry, one of biblical philology and philosophy, 
and one of natural history, who is also director of the botanic gar- 
den. There is also a teacher of mathematics. 

Professional and Special Schools. There are four special schools 
for teachers, — one for gymnasiums and real schools, two for elementary 
schools, one for males and one for females, and one for the Kindergar- 
ten ; — one evening trade school for males with 29 teachers and 809 
pupils; one trade school for females with 77 pupils ; one trade school 
in the suburb St. Paul with 4 teachers and 36 pupils ; a winter day 
school for the building trades, with 106 pupils; the evening school 
of the educational union, with about 200 pupils ; one polytechnic 
preparatory school with 16 teachers and 3d pupils; a navigation 
school with 3 teachers and 85 pupils ; a private seamen's school with 
6 teachers and 43 pupils. 

PUBLIC TRADE SCHOOL AXD SCHOOL FOR THE BUILDING TRADES. 

The public trade, and the building school ( Gewerhe Schule, und Sclmlefi'ir Bau- 
handioerker,) at Hamburg, have for their object to give to all men engaged in any 
-trade, but especially apprentices and workmen connected with the building 
trades, such instruction as shall be of use to them in their occupations. They 
are held in the same rooms and under the same director. 

The hours of instruction in the trade school are two to sixteen weekly, in the 
evening, and the branches are German with business writings in German, book- 
keeping, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, physics, free hand dra-\ving, and drawing 
with the compass, drawings as applied to the trades of building, ship-building, 
metal working, and those trades in which some knowledge of art is required, 
modeling and elementary instruction in drawing for boys. 

The hours for instruction in the building trade schools are fifty-four, weekly, 
during the winter, and three winters are required to finish the course. .The num- 
ber of pupils in the trade school is (1868) 809, in the building school 1.06. 

The number of scholars (186y) is, in the trade school about 500 in winter, and 
600 in summer; in the architectural school, held only in the winter, 106. ' 

The director is paid about 1,500 thalers per annum; the teachers (28 in all) 
thirty thalers per week during the course. Tuition in trade school, 2 to 4 
thalers the course ; in the building schools, 30 thalers the half year. 

We add a brief notice of the common method of teaching drawing : 

Free drawing without instnmients begins -with drawing from wooden models, 
according to Heimerdinger's method, in which simple objects, such as tools used 
by joiners, engineers, &c., are included; attention being paid to the vocation of 
the pupil in the choice of the models. Ornamental drawing from plaster casts, in 
outline, and in respect to. shading, then follows Those pupils who devote them- 
selves to building or ornamental trades, study the figure from casts and anatomy. 
The metal workers draw freely, without instruments, portions of machinery, &c. 
The mode of execution (which is with lead pencil, pen, brush, and nibber,) is 
always the most suitable to the branch of technical art to which the pupil intends 
to devote himself. In close connection with this style of drawing, arc the exei*- 
cises in ornamental design. Plants, flowers, and leaves are drawn from life, and 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG 151 

these drawings arc used in designing. By these exercises the pupils hecome very 
soon iudOjjcudent of all help. Geometrical drawings are executed from large 
copies. The teachers explain the perfect principles of construction, and pay 
special attention to exactness in execution. When the pupil has jic(iuired conti- 
dence in the use of his instruments, and has mastered the es.sential principles, 
the measuring and drawing of some simple and more complicated bodies follows. 
This chi?s is attcndi.^d by metal-workers, joiners, builders, and carpenters, car- 
riage-l)uilders, ship-builders, &c. The instruction is imparted by measuring and 
drawing real objects, such as parts of machinery, tools, furniture, doors, windows, 
carriages, &c., according to fixed rules and specified plans. 

Instruction in free-hand drawing can only be of use to the pupils when they 
use real objects, and not drawings. By the method pursued here, the hand 
needs no particular preparation, because the nearest model offers an example by 
which the hand and eye are both alike exercised. No particular introduction to 
the rules of perspective is needed, the scholar learns to see correctly, and his 
attention is directed to the principles of perspective by the teacher. 

From the specimens of free-hand drawing which were exhibited at Paris this 
year, it would ap])car that no method can compare with that here referred to, for 
producing a satisfactory result in a short time. The results of several other 
industrial schools are in this respect far behind those of the Hamburg school. 
DraAving from specimens should be entirely avoided in industrial schools, in free- 
hand as well as in geometrical aiid technical drawing. In the instruction of 
teachers, this method has be.ou followed for a number of years in Mr. Jessen's 
Polytechnic Institute, and also for the last two years in the Hamburg Trade 
School, with most satisfjictory results. The pupils of both show great applica- 
tion and zeal, and make good progress. There are no workshops connected 
with the trade school. 

PLAN OF A TRADE SCHOOL. 

-In 1862-63, the Hamburg Patriotic Society, established for the 
promotion of art and industry, appointed a committee to visit dif- 
ferent countries in which attention had been paid to institutions 
of science and art, especially in reference to the advancement of 
national industries, and report a plan for the re-organization of exist- 
ing institutions of this kind in Hamburg, or the establishment of 
new. The committee, after visiting the polytechnic and trade schools 
of Bremen, Frankfort, Brunswick, Stuttgart, Carlsruhe, Munich, 
and other cities, as the result of their inquiries, recommended the 
following 

Plan for a Trade School for Hamhirg. 

The aim of the Trade School shall be to give those employed in trades an 
opportunity of acquiring such knowledge and attainments as they stand in need 
of for an intelligent prosecution of their callings. 

In order to carry out this object in a comprehensive manner, a complete trade 
school should be divided into three quite different departments : 

1. A Sunday and evening school for such pupils as can take advantage of the 
instruction during the few hours of the week which they have at liberty from 
their other school time or from being otherwise engaged. 

2. A wintei- school of architecture for those engaged in the building trades, and 
Avho will be able to give their time exclusively during the winter months to the 
attainment of theoretical knowledge and skill. 

3. A chill trade school for young pei'sons Avho have already left the primary 
school, and are in a position to be able to devote the whole of their time for a 
year to their industrial education before they are appenticed to a trade. 

Although the education of artisans is the end which these departments have 
in view, and this can be attained, for the most part, by the same subjects of study, 
yet there must be a difference between them according to the requirements of the 
Duyils attending the different establishments ; and especially as to the time to 



152 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG. 



he given to separate subjects, as well as regards the subjects taught, as also as 
regards the extent to which they are taught. 

Whilst in all three departments the instruction will be, as far as possible, the 
same, especial regard will be paid, in all the subjects taught, to the profession 
which the pupils may have already embraced, or for which they may be destined. 



I. SUNDAY AND EVENING SCHOOL. 

The subjects taught comprise : 

1. Commercial composition and book-keeping, (orthography, the formation of 
words and sentences, the composition of letters, invoices, agreements, &c.) 

2. Mathematics, a. Arithmetic and algebra, (fractions, algebraic notation, 
equations, 1st and 2d degree.) h. Geometry, (plane and solid geometry.) 

3. Physics, (elements of physics in general, the science of heat, elements of 
acoustics, optics, electricity, and magnetism. 

4. Mechanics, (elementary mechanics, gravity, motion, friction, pressure of 
water, water power, pressure of air, steam engines.) 

5. Chemistry, (elements of inorganic chemistry, special important branches of 
organic chemistry.) 

6. Technology and knowledge of implements. 

7. Political economy. 

8. Free-hand drawing, (from simple objects, from ornamental objects, figures, 
parts of machinery, &c.) 

9. Geometric drawing, (drawing by compass,) and geometric figures, (geomet- 
rical constructions, measuring and drawing by rule, perspective.) 

10. Special drawing with practice in design and construction, (in 5 classes, 
for building, for manufactures, for workers in metal, for workers in wood, for 
ship-building.) 

11. Modeling in clay, wood, and wax. 

The course of study is for three years, and the regular entrance of the pupils 
takes place at Easter. Young persons are received as pupils who have completed 
their fourteenth year and possess a competent knowledge of the usual branches 
of school education. To each pupil is prescribed by the superior which classes 
he is to attend ; of course, as far as possible, in this matter the wishes of the 
pupil or of his relations are taken into consideration. 

The school is intended for 600 pupils, and the committee think they may with 
certainty reckon upon this number, Avhen it is considered that towns such as Nu- 
remberg and Chemnitz have trade schools which are attended by 1,800 pupils. 

The average number for each class is to be reckoned at 35 pupils. 

The school is under the superintendence of a director, subordinate to him are 
masters for the various subjects. 

The number of lessons weekly, amounts, for each pupil, to from 6 to 8. 

Weekly Plan of the Lessons. 



LESSONS. 


COCRSE OF THE YEAK. 


I. 


II. 


III. 


1. Commercial knowledge, &c., - 

2. Mathematics, 

3. Physics, 

4. Mechanics, - - - - 

5. Chemistry, . - - - 

6. Technology, 

7. Political economy, - . - 

8. Free-hand drawing, 

9. Geometric drawing, &c., - 

10. Special drawing, - - - 

11. Modeling, - - - - 


Classes. Hours. 
4 of 2 
4 of 2 

4 of 4 
2 of 4 


Classes. Hours. 

4 of 2 

2 of 2 

2 'of 4 
4 of 4 


Classes. Hours. 
1* * of' ' 1 

Voir" 2 

2 of 2 
1 of 2 

1 of 1 

'e' of' 4 

2 of 4 




40 hours. 


36 hours. 


48 hours. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG. 153 

Thus, altogetlier 124 hours of study weekly. 
- To the S inula V and evening seliool there is also a preparatory class annexed, 
for those who are* not yet sufficiently acquainted with the ordinary branches of 
school knowledge. This preparatory class comprises the loUowing subjects : 

1. German language. 

2. Arithmetic. 

3. Geometry. 

4. Free-hand drawing. 

And the arrangement of the classes is as follows : 

1 . German languiige, - - - 2 classes of 2 hours. 

2. Arithmetic, - - - - 2 " 2 " 

3. Geometry, - - - . 2 " 2 " 

4. Free-hand drawing, - . - 2 " 2 " 

Total, - - - - 16 hours weekly. 

The yearly expenditure for the Sunday and evening school, and for the pre- 
paratory class, is estimated altogether at 25,000 marks current, according to the 
following table : 

Mks. ct. 
For the director, including a salary for 10 hours lessons a week, - 4,000 
Salary for 130 hours lessons a week at 100 mks. ct. each per year, 13,000 
Rent of premises, ------- 5,000 

School apparatus, ------- 500 

Servants, -------- 200 

Warming, lighting, and cleansing, ----- 2,000 

Total, 25,000 

To meet this we may reckon upon a yearly income of 18,000 marks current, 
viz : 600 pupils, at 30 marks school fees per year, so that a yearly grant is requi- 
site of 7,000 marks current. 



II. WINTER SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE. 

The subjects taught are : 

1 . Commercial composition and hook-keeping. 

2. Mathematics. 

a. Arithmetic and algebra. 
h. Geometry. 

3. Physics. 

4. Mechanics. 

5. Free-hand drawing. 

6. Geometric drawing. 

7. Applied geometry. 

8. Architectural drawing, and plans of buildings. 

9. The art of building, the knowledge of construction, and estimating the cost 
of buildings. 

10. Constructive modeling. 

The course of study is for three years, and the instruction is given during the 
five winter months, (November to March ) in 48 weekly lessons; besides these, 
written exercises are prepared under the superintendence of a teacher in 12 
weekly lessons. 

Such persons are accepted as pupils as are engaged in construction, and who 
are acquainted with the ordinary school knowledge; those who are deficient in 
the latter are referred to the Sunday and evening school. 

The school is intended for 100 pupils; it is placed under the superintendence 
of the director of the trade school. There are masters who teach under and in 
addition to him. 



154 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG. 
Plan of the Lessons. 



LESSONS 


COURSE OP THE TRAR. 




I. 


II. 


III. 


1. Commercial knowledge, &c., - 

2. Mathematics : 

Arithmetic and algebra, - 
Geometry, - - - - 

3. Physics, - - - - 

4. Mechanics, - - . - 

5. Free-hand drawing, 

6. Geometric drawing, 

7. Applied geometry, 

8. Drawing of buildings, - 

9. Art of building, &c., - 
10. Constructive modeling, - 


Hours. 
2 

6 
6 
2 

8 
8 

16 


Hours. 
2 

3 
3 

1 

8 

8 
16 

7 


Hours. 
2 

\ ; 

4 
6 

20 
7 
8 




48 


48 


48 



Besides this, 13 hours are set apart weekly for the preparation of written exer- 
cises, under the superintendence of a teacher for all the classes in common, at 
the same time, participation in this instruction is not obligatory for those who 
undertake this work at home. The yearly expenditure is estimated at 8,300 
marks current, viz : 

Mks. ct. 
For superintendence, including salary for 6 lessons per week, - 1 ,000 

Salary for 150 lessons per week, for 5 months, at 40 marks per lesson, 6,000 
School apparatus, - - - - - - - 300 

Servants, - - - - - - - - 150 

Premises, (those of the Sunday and evening schools,) - - .... 

Warming, lighting, and cleansing, - - - - 850 



Total, 



8,300 



Against this we may reckon upon a yearly receipt of 5,000 marks current, 
viz: 100 pupils at 50 marks, so that an annual addition of 3,300 marks cur- 
rent will be necessary. 

III. THE DAY TRADE SCHOOL. 

The subjects taught comprise : - 

1 . German and composition. 

2. Mathematics. 

a. Arithmetic and algebra. (Fractions, algebraic notation, equations of the 
first and second degree, powers and roots, logarithms.) 

b. Geometry. (Plane and solid geometry.) 

c. Trigonometry. (Plane trigonometry.) 

3. Physics. (Physics in general, science of heat, principles of the remaining 
branches.) 

4. Chemistry. (Inorganic, and some sections of organic chemistry.) 

5. Free-hand drawing. 

6. Geometric drawing. 

The course of lessons is for one year, and the regular entrance of pupils takes 
place at Easter. 

Such young persons are accepted as pupils as have completed their fourteenth 
year, and who show proof of the requisite capacity to comprehend the above- 
named subjects. 

The school is primarily intended for a class of 35 pupils ; it is placed under 
the director of the trade scliool. A master insti-ucts in the head branches, 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG. 155 

assisted by teachers. The annual expenditure is estimated at 5,200 marks cur- 
rent, viz : 

Salary of the head-master, who gives '24 lessons per week, 3,000 marks ; sahiry 
for 18 lessons per week, 1,800 ; premises (those of the Sunday seliool and even- 
ing school) ; school apparatus, 200; servant, 50; Marming-, 150; total, 5,200. 

Against this we may reckon upoa an annual income oi' 3,500 nuirks, viz : 35 
pupils at 100 marks, which will require an annual addition of 1,700 marks 
current. 

A trade educational establishment, (comprising : a. A Sunday and evening 
Bchool ; b. A winter school of construction ; c. A day trade school ;) would, there- 
fore, re(piire an annual expenditure of 38,500 marks current ; deducting from this 
the estimated annual receipt of 26,500, there will remain to be asked an annual 
grant of 12,000 marks cun-ent from the municipality. 

IV. INDUSTRIAL MUSEUM. 

As a second means towards the su])port and promotion of the industry of the 
city, the committee recommend the establishment of an industrial musnun icith 
erhihitims of products, after the model of those in other states, especially in Wur- 
temburg, England, and France. 

Although for years past the importance of education througli the eyes has been 
recognized as essential for the completion of instruction pro]jtr in industry, still 
a long time elapsed before the example of France, who in 1783, founded the Con- 
servatoire des Arts et Metiers, has been followed in other countries. 

It Avas only in 1850 that an exhibition was opened at Stuttgart, under the 
'direction of the Royal Academy, for industry and commerce, and it was first the 
great universal exhibition in London, in the year 1851, which induced the Eng- 
lish to found their richly endowed Kensington Museum. Since that time, iu 
many places, efforts have been made to supply this deficiency, and at this time 
\v^ hear of even small towns which are occupied in the establishment of indus- 
trial museums. The special experience of Wurtemburg is most favorable as to 
the utility of such an establishment. 

In addition, the foundation in Hamburg of an industrial museum is to l>e 
recommended on commercial considerations. Hamburg despatches daily to the 
interior, raw materials ; travelers from Hamburg range through the interior iu 
order to find out objects of export. Might not in many cases the manufacture 
of these materials be carried on here ? In the second place, might not many 
Hamburg manufiictures, which have already obtained a good reputation abroad, 
attain still greater success if the manufacturers, profiting by the beautiful forms 
brought under their eyes in a museum, Avere to employ these in their fabrics. 

The aim of such an institution as the committee proposes, is to promote exist- 
ing trades, to call forth new ones, and to increase the sale of manufactured goods. 
This aim is to be reached by the exhibition of raw materials, of the process of 
manufacture of improved implements, and of superior products of industry with 
special regard to the formation of taste. 

The arrangement of an industrial museum will be as follows : 

1. A Technical Section. — This contains raw materials, manufactures in process, 
implements, models, &c. 

TJie collection of raw materials, and of manufactures in the different stages 
of their ])reparation should have in view an exact knowledge of their origin and 
price as well as of their uses, and at the same time should point out new uses. 
The collection of implements, utensils, and machinery should indicate means to 
the artisan of working better and at less cost. 

2. A Section for Art Mannfartures. — This comprises casts, engravings, draw- 
mgs, ])hotographs, &c., which ought to serve especially in the formation and im- 
provement of taste in industrial drawing and design. 

3 The Exhibition of Products. — This section contains especially good or useful 
new products of industry. The artisan should here be made acquainted, from 
seeing the fabric itself, with new combinations, beautiful forms, and new employ- 
ment of materials, &c., in order that he may perceive clearly the ])ossil)i]ity of 
a juofitable new or improved manufacture. The commercial interest will also 
find here new fabrics, and be made acquainted with their origin. Every object 
should have attached to it the price, and the name and residence of the m.inu- 
factuier. 



J56 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HAMBURG, 

The whole establishment is under the superintendence of a director, who should 
pay close attention to home and foreign industry, in order to develop the former 
from the experience of the latter. To this end he must place himself in corres- 
jiondeuce with foreign exhibitions and industrial societies, &c., as also with the 
consuls for Hamburg, and with the home manufacturers. 

Entrance to the museum should, as far as possible, be facilitated, and there- 
fore the committee think it desirable on four days in the w^eek to give admittance 
to all gratis, and on the other days to charge a moderate price of admission, in 
order in this way to gain a contribution towards the yearly cost. 

The use of the museum must always under regulations be open to the trades 
schools, as they have a free claim to the use of the drawings and models therein 
contained, as means of instruction. 

The committee think it necessary to give a right to the manufacturers of the 
city, not only to study the fabrics in the different sections in the locality of the 
exhibition, but if they desire it, to take these home with them for closer study. 

NAVIGATION SCHOOLS. 

1. The Navigation School, opened m 1826, by the Chamber of Commerce, con- 
tains two classes : one for lads who are pursuing the usual primary studies; and 
the other for seamen, who are qualifying themselves by a study of arithmetic, 
trigonometry, surveying, navigation, nautical astronomy, drawing, with special 
reference to charts ; code of signals, theory of winds, tides, and currents, mer- 
cantile laws and usages, practical use of instruments used at sea, book-keeping, 
and correspondence. Steam and mechanics have been recently added. 

. No one can be employed as a master or under officer in a steam or sailing veS' 
sel belonging to Hamburg, without a certificate of proficiency in the studies of 
this school, which is managed by a committee of the Chamber of Commerce. 

2. The Seamen's School, a private enterprise, receives as boarders 43 lads, 
under 15 years of age, for a two years' course in naWgation. It employs three 
teachers, and charges 210 thalers a year for board and instruction. 

MUSIC IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

Music is a regular subject of instruction in the public schools of Hamburg, 
but the method is left with each school and teacher. Mr. Eichberg, in his com- 
munication to the Boston School Committee on musical iustraction in the prin- 
cipal cities of Germany, says : 

Music is not taught uniformly in the Hamburg public schools, but the several 
teachers instruct independently of system. Two music lessons of one hour each 
are given to the pupils, either by their regular, or, in the higher schools, by an 
appointed special teacher. In the Latin school, four part songs, motets and 
chorals, are sung, the lower classes singing soprano and alto, while the higher 
classes take the tenor and basso parts. Pupils are not allowed to sing during 
the mutation of the voice, but have to be present at the music lessons. Great 
care is taken to avoid choruses requiring great extent of vocal compass. I found 
here Mr. Benedict Widmann's different publications well spoken of. They are 
named " Little Singing School, for the Three Divisions of Boys' and Girls' 
Schools," and "Prefatory Instruction in Singing." These two little works, 
(sixty-four and eighty-two pages respectively, in 12mo,) contain many novel 
ideas on class teaching. . The author strongly advocates musical instruction in 
the primary schools, and maintains that the imitative faculties of the child render 
the teaching of singing far easier at an early age than it would be when the vocal 
organs iiave passed the period of their elastic softness. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANKFORT. 157 

11. SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANKFORT. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The Free City of Frankfort, (now a portion of the new province 
of Nassau, in the kingdom of Prussia,) to which our school statistics 
refer, on a territory of 43 square miles, had in 1861 a poj)ulation 
of 87,518, of which 70,000 belonged to the city proper. Besides its 
vast banking interests, there are large mechanical industries, in which 
beauty of form and nicety of execution are required, and which have 
been secured by the appropriate training of artists and artisans. 

The public educational establishments are adminislered by five co- 
ordinate authorities, in which the city and the four religious denom- 
inations are represented, each by one commissioner. The expendi- 
tures for" teachers (salaries and pensions), buildings, apparatus, and 
equipment generally by the city, are very liberal, but would be more 
eifective by a simpler administration. The schools, except the gym- 
nasium and the special schools, are mainly denominational in their 
management, and may be classified as follows : 

I. Elementary Schools. — Eight country schools of a higher char- 
acter, with 2.820 pupils ; 4 Protestant burgher schools, with 2,230 
pupils ; 4 Catholic schools, with 950 pupils ; 2 Jewish burgher schools, 
with 940 pupils. Total elementary pupils, 6,940. 

II. Secondary and Sri'perior Schools. — One gymnasium, with 20 
teachers, a ten years' course, and an average of 160 pupils; 4 real- 
schools, with a Latin class in each, and about 900 pupils in all ; 3 
higher burgher schools, (Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish,) with a 
total of 1,350 pupils, male and female; and 3 female high schools, 
with 840 pupils, besides a large number (forty-four in 1863,) of pri- 
vate institutions with elementary and secondary classes. 

III. Special Schools and Institutions. — One normal school, with 
30 pupils ; 1 gallery of architecture, painting, and sculpture, with a 
school of fine arts ; 1 high school of arts and trades, with a prepara- 
tory school, and a total of 260 pupils ; 1 school of commerce, with a 
preparatory school, and public lectures; 1 institute for deaf mutes, 
with 20 pupils ; 1 orphan home, with 46 inmates ; 2 infant asylums, 
with 60 inmates ; 1 school of gymnastics ; 1 house of refuge, with 
24 inmates ; the Senkenberg museum of natural history ; public 
library of 70,000 volumes, &c. In addition, we may mention the 
Sunday, and evening industrial school of the Society of Public Wel- 
fare, which receives subventions from the government ; a private acad- 
emy of commerce ; a permanent museum for the exhibition of ma- 
chinery ; a school for medical gymnastics. 



159 SPECLiL INSTRUCTION IN FRANKFORT. 

SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, AND ACADEMY OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY. 

The Schsol of Commerce at Frankfort includes : (1.) An improvement school 
for clerks ; (2.) A regular commercial school; (3.) An academy of commerce 
and industry. The school, like that at Leipsic, belongs to the chamber of com- 
merce, and its direction is confided to a committee chosen by it, which com- 
mittee renders a monthly report. 

(1.) The Improvement School is open to pupils after they leave the primary 
schools. They m.ust undergo an examination before being admitted. If they 
fail in this, they enter into a supplementary school annexed to the establishment, 
where they remain until they receive the necessary preparation, or fail in a second 
examination, in which last case they are advised not to pursue their studies. 

The course lasts two years. The term begins after Easter and continues until 
Michaelmas ; there are two lessons daily, one in the morning, and one in the 
afternoon, the hours varying according to the season and the press of business, 
being fixed by the chamber of commerce. 

The studies pursued are German, French, English, commercial correspondence, 
the arithmetic, geography, and history of commerce, book-keeping, and callig- 
raphy. The school is well attended, and the teaching is successful. 

(2.) The Commercial Division is open to all who have finished the burgher school, 
or all but one of the classes of a gymnasium, or can pass an examination show- 
ing an equivalent grade of cultivation. By these means, pupils with a fair de- 
gree of secondary, general, and classical instruction are secured. 

The course includes two classes of one semester each, and the branches taught 
are as follows, the hours being three hours in the morning and three in the after- 
noon : German, French, English, the arithmetic, correspondence, geography, and 
history of commerce, book-keeping, physics, chemistry, articles of commerce, 
calligraphy, and political economy applied to German commerce. 

The following branches are optional, given at extra hours, and for a var}'ing 
fee, according to special agreement : Italian, Spanish, and stenography. 

(3. ) The Academy for Commerce, open to all who desire to attend, on payment of a 
fee, is a course of lectures or conferences, which may be considered an additional 
semester to the last. The plan was boiTowed from Faraday's lectures in the 
Royal Institution in London. Its aim is to give a high commercial education to 
the burgher class. It is administered by a committee of eight, chosen by ballot. 

The course commences after Easter ; the lectures occupy two or three hours 
in the morning and two or three in the afternoon. There are coTirses upon the 
languages, ethics, commerce, and science. The course upon the languages ex- 
plains the principles of comparative grammar, illustrating with English, French, 
and German. It also includes remarks upon the literary styles of these tongues, 
and extracts from the best authors are repeated. That upon ethics embraces re- 
marks upon the principal systems of philosophy, ancient and modem, the pro- 
gress of material and moral civilization, and the influence of literature, and the 
growth of the arts upon social manners throughout the world. The course upon 
commerce embraces commercial law and convention, political economy, particu- 
larly in regard to the comriierce of Gennany, commercial geography and histor}--, 
and the universal history of the industrial arts. That on science treats of t!ie 
present condition of science, of the most recent discoveries in physics, and of 
chemistry applied to the knowledge of merchandise. There is also an afternoon 
course of Italian and Spanish, the fee, which varies according to the number of 
courses, being from ten to thirty francs the semester. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANKFORT. log 

TRADES' SCHOOLS. 

The Frankfort Trades' Schools were founded by a society, formed in 1816, 
and'called the " Society for the Promotion of useful Arts and Allied Sciences." 

They include: (1.) A Sunday school for artisans; (2.) An evening school; 
(3.) A higher trades' school. The first aims at the completion of elementary 
education for such young persons as have already left the popular school. The 
second offers exclusive instruction in industrial technical drawing. 

The Hi(jher Trades' School imparts general and special instruction to those 
about to enter a trade, and prepares those about to devote themselves to some 
branch of technical industry for the special classes of higher institutions and the 
polytechnic school. Each class is complete in itself, every pupil leaving Aviien 
fitted for his futui-e business. For instance, those intended for the building trade 
leave after the second class ; those who wish to devote thems-clves to architecture 
or engineering go on through the first. 

The branches taught are mathematics, (including algebra, geometry, trigo- 
nometry, analytical and practical geometry, analysis,) natural philosophy, pbysics, 
chemistry, mechanics and machinery, descriptive geometiy, architectural and 
machine drawing, topographical and free-hand drawing, German, French, history, 
literature, geography, and calligraphy. 

Free-hand drawing is begun from copies, and goes on, as soon as possible, to 
drawing from casts. Particular attention is paid to ornamental drawing. Only 
the best pupils are allowed to undertake shading, and then only with the stump. 
Linear drawing begins Avith the construction of geometrical figures by which the 
pupil is practiced in the use of the rule, the compass, and the drawing pen, after 
which comes drawing from simple implements, then from wooden models, and 
finally the pupil is exei'cised in construction. 

The fees for the evening school are six florins annually. There are none for the 
Sunday school, but a moderate entrance money is charged. In the higher trades' 
schools the fees vary from 30 to 50 florins, according to the class, of which there 
are four. 

These fees, together with the contributions of the society, pay the expenses 
of the trades' schools. The cost of the Sunday and the evening schools is de- 
frayed by the monthly fees, by contributions from the treasury of the society, and 
by the interest from a special school fund which is in the trusteeship qf the society, 
and is increased by donations, by entrance fees to the Sunday school, and the 
interest of that portion of the fund which is less than 1 ,000 florins complete. 

The administration of these schools is in the hands of a board of directors, 
consisting of nine members chosen by the society, of which three go out annually. 
They choose among themselves a director Avho presides, a vice-director, a secre- 
tary, a treasurer, a manager, and an assistant librarian. The immediate direc- 
tion of the school, the maintenance of the fixed plan of studies, the care for the 
health and conduct of the pupils, and the conduct of the masters, and the execu- 
tion of the orders of the board, is in the hands of the head-master, who has a 
seat in the board. The director conducts all business matters, and represents the 
school at the meetings of the society. The board has for its duties, to arrange 
the plan of studies, and to name the books, to provide apparatus, to appoint 
and dismiss teachers, to an*ange prize competitions and holidays, and to manage 
the funds. They must consult the teachers in forming the plan of studies, and 
m.ust attend the recitations from time to time. 



160 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN LCBECK. 



IV. LUBECK. 

The free city and State of Lubeck, the nominal capital of the 
Hanse towns, on several isolated ponions of territory, had a total 
population of 44,357, of which 31,898 were in the city and immediate 
suburbs. It has considerable commercial activity, but no special 
school calculated to prepare young men for it. 

The public schools, although numerous enough for the poor, are inef- 
ciently organized, and administered by conflicting authorities, civil, ec- 
clesiastical, and corporate; the statistics may be classified as follows : 

I. Elementary School. — 1 city school for 700 poor children ; 15 
schools of educational societies with an aggregate of 4,800 pupils. 
There are numerous private schools, both elementary and secondary, 
which absorb the interest of the educated and wealthy families. 

II. Secondary and Superior Schools. — 1 gymnasium, founded in 
1163, and known as Catharineum, \\\\h. 128 classical scholars, 111 
real scholars, and a preparatory section with 82 scholars, — a total of 
321 scholars, and 19 teachers; 3 endowed schools, with Latin classes, 
and 450 pupils. The public library has upward of 50,000 volumes. 

III. Special Schools. — There are several institutions for orphan 
and neglected children ; and for special classes, but of these we ha\ e 
no information except the 

TRADE SCHOOL AT LUBECK. 

The trade school, at Lubeck, dates from 1841, and owes its origin and support 
to the Lubeck Society for the "Promotion of objects of Public Utility." Its plan 
is to give such theoretical instruction to apprentices as may be usefiil to them in 
their several trades, but it is open to all lads above the age of twelve Avho intend 
to enter upon some mechanical occupation, or wish to fit themselves for the agri- 
cultural and polytechnic schools, &c. They must be acquainted with the first 
four rules of arithmetic and write readily from dictation. Most are, in reality, 
farther advaifced than this. 

The present head teacher was educated at the Hanover Polytechnic, the others 
in teachers' seminaries, after having attended the trade school. Their ability to 
teach is ascertained by examinations and testimonials. They are engaged per- 
manently, but may be dismissed at six months' notice. 

No special mode of instruction is prescribed, it being thought that diflFerent 
matters require different methods, and that the individual action of the teachers, 
in this regard, ought not to be interfered with. The endeavor is to stimulate con- 
tinually the minds of the pupils, and cultivate independence of thought. All 
subjects, however, are illustrated by experiments, for which purpose there is a 
large and increasing stock of apparatus, models, plans, and chemical prepara- 
tions. 

The total number of pupils, in 1867, was 200. The expenses of the school are 
discharged by the tuition fees, at the rate of about $5.00 per head, the annual 
cost of the whole, not including the rent, being $1,250. Orphans are received 
free of charge, and the fees for apprentices are sometimes discharged by the mas- 
ters. The institution has proved itself to be useful, and is well patronized. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BREMEN. 161 

IV. BREMEN. 

The free city of Bremen had in 1864 a population of 98,575, on a 
territory of 106 square miles. Of the entire population, 31,358 live 
without the city. The city has extensive commercial interests. 

The superior administration of the schools is in the hands of the 
Scholarchat, of four members of the senate, each school having a 
municipal commission or a school delegation. 

I. Public Primary Schools, a. Nine parish schools, v^ith 2,939 
pupils, in four classes, both sexes being mingled in the three lower. 
Each is governed by the Bauherren or representatives of the com- 
m'uie, presided over by the pastor. h, Nine free schools, with 
2,062 pupils, all state institutions, school materials being supplied gra- 
tuitouslvs c. Twenty-four private schools, Avith 2,118 pupils, opened 
after special permission, and directed by females, who receive half 
their rent from the state if their annual pay is under 1 2 thalers. 
d. Two schools of the women's societies, or industrial schools, with 
78 pupils, e. Asylums for children. 

The masters of the parish schools receive from 175 to 500 thalers, 
with lodging; of the free schools, 180 to 485 thalers. The first 
masters receive 20 thalers additional every five years, until the whole 
salary reaches 550. The masters of the free schools are pensioned 
by the state ; of the parish schools, from a special fund. There is 
also a fund formed by contributions of four thalers from each teacher, 
which is for the widows and orphans. 

/. Twenty-four rural schools, mostly over crowded, with an insuffi- 
cient number of teachers. They receive an annual subvention of 
8,740 thalers 

II. Higher and Private Schools, a. Gymnasium, 11 teachers, 
117 scholars, b. Preparatory school, 12 teachers, 278 scholars. 
c. Six private schools, preparatory to gymnasium and burgher 
schools, 366 scholars. cL Four private burgher and real schools, 
555 scholars, e. Nine higher female schools, private institutions, 
648 scholars, f. Fifteen elementary schools for children of the 
wealthier classes, 627 pupils. 

III. Special and Professional Schools, a. Commercial school 
15 teachers, 227 scholars, h. Teachers' seminary, 30 pupils. 

11 



162 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN AUSTRIA. 

SCHOOLS FOR THE MIHTAKY AND COMMERCIAL MARINE. 

1. Military Marine. 
There are in Austria several kinds of naval schools, as follows : One each 
for sailor lx)ys, for marines, for quartermasters, for naval pupils of the first class, 
for naval pupils of the second class, a theoretical school for naval cadets, and a 
superior establishment for naval officers. 

1. The school for sailor boys is intended to train, as petty officers for the navy, 
young men from the Slave and German provinces, admitted between 12 and 14 
years of age into the naval service. The instruction lasts until the pupil has 
attained the age for the conscription ; he is then entered as a sailor and becomes 
a petty officer as soon as he gets sufficiently used to the sea. The highest post 
he can attain is that of upper boatswain {Hochbootsmann.) 

2. The schools for marines [Zeugscorps) receive men drawn from different 
corps of the army. They are trained as petty officers, and a part receive the 
uniform. Those who are fit to become officers receive their promotion when they 
leave their corps to enter the school, 

3- The school for naval cadets of the first class is kept on board a war vessel 
selected for the purpose. The object is to prepare for the naval sei-vice youths 
of 16 or 18 years of age, who, on entering the school have already received a 
complete civil technical education. The teaching here consists, therefore, chiefly 
of pi'actical seamanship, and also of the application of previously acquired scien- 
tific knowledge to navigation and nautical astronomy. The course occupies a 
year ; on leaving, the pupil is received as a naval cadet. After passing two or 
three years at sea these cadets enter the theoretical school for naval cadets. 

4. The school for naval cadets of the second class is intended solely to prepare 
them to become officers. In this school, beside the pupils placed there at the 
cost of the State, there are others maintained by cndoAvmcnts, and also others 
who pay for their instruction. The sons of officers and State functionaries are 
entitled to enter this school at the public expense, and any Austrian subject who 
has the necessary qualifications is admitted on payment. Foreigners are also 
admissible as paying pupils, provided they can obtain authorization from their 
own government to enter the Austrian service. To be- admitted, candidates 
must be between 12 and 14 years of age, of sound health without bodily defect, 
and able to pass a previous examination. The instruction is given in accordance 
with a determined plan, on board a vessel prepared expressly to receive thepupils. 
After three years' instruction the pupils leave the school as naval cadets and are 
sent to sea. At the end of two or three years' active service the cadets are ad- 
mitted to the theoretical school. This school receives from 40 to 50 pupils. The 
chaplain on board is charged with the religious instruction ; the other teaching 
is given by professors from the hj'drographic schools. The naval officers of the 
school-ship give the instruction in practical seamanship. 

5. The theoretical school for .naval cadets is on shore, and its course occupies 
a year, after which the pupil undergoes the examination prescribed for his com- 
mission as an officer. On leaving this theoretical school the pupils are still naval 
cadets, but become officers when appointed to a ship. 

6. The superior school for naval officers is intended for the further improve- 
ment in mathematical and hydrogi-aphic studies, of such young men as have 
shown decided talent and taste for those sciences. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER. 



INTKODUCTION. 

. The kingdom of Hanover, before its absorption into Prussia, on an 
area of 14,846 English square miles, in 1864 had 1,888,070 iirhab- 
itants. In the Hartz mountahis extensive mining operations are 
carried on, and the total annual produce is valued at 5,523,b85 
thalers. Agriculture and the raising of cattle, form, however, the 
most important sources of income. On the coast, in the rivers, and in 
2,0 00 fish-ponds, a large amount of fish is caught every year. The 
number of manufactories, mostly linen, was in 1861, 7,141, employ- 
ing 41,855 people. The trade is largely absorbed by Hamburg and 
Bremen. 

The total annual expenditure in 1864, amounted to 20,066,011 
thalers, of which sum 184,000 thalers were expended on public in- 
struction — 116,000 thalers on primary, and 68,000 thalers on second- 
ary schools. The institutions of public instruction are administered 
by the minister of education and ecclesiastical affairs, and embrace : 

1, Primary Instruction. There are 3,584 primary schools, with 281,348 schol- 
ars, and 3,812 teachers. 

•2. Secondary Instniction. There are 8 real schools, with 965 scholars, and 
39 teachers; 11 higher burgher schools, with 2,181 scholars, and 112 teachers; 
17 gymnasia, with 5,192 scholars, and 205 teachers ; 3 progymnasia, with 272 
scholars, and 23 teachers; 11 higher girls' schools, with 1,862 scholars, and 
107 teachers ; making a total of 44 secondary schools, with 10,472 scholars, and 
486 teachers. 

3. Superior Tnfitruction. The University at Gottingen, with 4 faculties, had in 
1868, 809 students, and 119 professors. 

4. Special and Professional Instruction. Eleven teachers' seminaries, with 254 
pupils, viz: 1 (preparatory institute) at Hanover, Avith 32 pupils; 1 (head semi- 
nary) at Hanover, with 24 pupils ; 1 (after-training) at Hanover, with 1.2 pupils; 
1 (city and county teachers) at Alfeld, with 50 pupils ; 1 (boarding seminary) at 
Liineburg, with 32 pupils; 1 at Aurich, with 26 pupils; 1 at Stade, A\dth 20 
pupils; 1 at Neuenhaus, with 10 pupils; 1 (catholic) at Osnabriick, with 12 
pupils; 1 (protestant) at Osnabriick, with 24 pupils; 1 (catholic) at llildcsheim, 
with 12 pupils. 3 navigation schools; 3 commercial academies; 1 agricultural 
school ; 1 polytechnic school, at Hanover ; I mining school ; 1 school of forestry ; 
1 military academy; 3 theological seminaries ; 1 asylum for the blind, at Hano- 
ver, with 75 pupils; 1 institution for the deaf mutes, at Ilildosheini, with 120 
pupils; 1 do. at Emden, with 25 pupils; 2 with normal schools, at Stade and 
Osnabriick, with 48 pupils ; 1 for imbeciles ; 3 rescue houses ; 1 Pestalozzi home 
and refuge ; 5 orphan houses ; 20 infant schools and gardens. 

Since 1866 Hanover forms part of the kingdom of Pnissia, constituting the 
province of Hanover. 

(163) 



164 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER. 



SYSTEM AND SCHOOLS OF SPECIAL INSTRUCTION. 

Of the educational institutions of Hanover designed or used to prepare young 
persons for their special career, and to meet the demands of the public service 
or of particular industries or special classes, we select a few for brief notice. 

IMPROVEMENT SCHOOLS FOR APPRENTICES. 

An apprentice can not become a member of his trade without the approba- 
tion of a committee of the guild, over which presides a member of the municipal 
council. One of the conditions imposed by the^committee is evidence of regu- 
lar attendance on the evening and the Sunday classes estabhshed at the expense 
of the town, and under the supervision of a government board. These im- 
provement classes include drawing and geometry, besides a review of the pri- 
mary studies. Of these schools there were 37 in 1863, with ItO teachers, 4,077 
apprentices, and 3,763 journeymen. 

artisans' school at HANOVER. 

Besides the apprentice improvement schools, there exists in the capital a 
trade or artisan school, with a preparatory class. In the latter, tliere is an 
average attendance of 234 pupils, and in the school proper over 600 workmen 
GVQ^y year. Drawing constitutes the principal subject of instruction, and in 
1864, out of 344 attending to it, 102 were classed as free-hand; 149 special, 67 
geometrical and architectural ; and 26 from the cast. 

woEKiyrEx's societies' classes. 
Connected with societies of workmen, which exist in the chief towns, there 
are classes (taught by paid professors) which in Hanover were attended in 1864 
by 814 members, of whom more than one-half were taught in different classes 
of drawing, modeling, and wood-carving. 

REAL AND COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS IN HANOVER. 

The real-school was originally established in 1835 for young men whose 
parents intended them to follow a trade, but it was deemed best to exclude all 
matters special and technical, and the municipality instituted an independent 
course of commercial instruction, book-keeping, and kindred subjects, distrib- 
uted through two years, of four terms of six months each, held four evenings 
in the week. The merchants' guild selects the pupils who apply, and their mas- 
ters are bound to give them the necessary time, and to enforce their regular 
attendance. 

BUILDING TRADE SCHOOL AT NIENBERG. 

In Nienberg there . is a special school for workmen in the building trades — 
open in the winter from October 21 to the end of March, and divided into three 
classes, in which sixty hours a week are devoted by practical masons, joiners, 
and those pursuing other trades, mainly to technical studies. 
- Lowest Class. — Compositions in the German language, 8 hours per week ; 
Arithmetic and algebra, 9 ; Plane geometry, calculation of areas, 7 ; Linear 
drawing and descriptive geometry. — jointing roofe, framing, &c., 15 ; Element^ 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER. Ig5 

of physics, 4; Architectural drawing, 5; Free-hand drawing, and ornament, 12 
— ^.i totiil of 60 hours for live raoiiUis. 

Stcond Class. — Syntax, punctuation, business letters in German, 4 hours ; Al- 
gebra, 6 ; Plane and solid geometry. — Bimiliiude, polygons, the circle, planes, 
cubature, 4 hours per week ; Descriptive geometry. — framing of roofs, vaults, 
staircases, compound apparatus, parts ol machines, shadows, perspective,. 8 ; 
Technical physics. — Ibrces, eflects, centre of j^raviiy, simple machines, 4; Les- 
sons on buildings for stone-cutters, masons, carpenters, slaters, with drawing of 
plans, sections, elevations, orders, enUiblatures, details, 21; Lessons on building 
materials, 3 ; Drawing of ornaments, from models, 6 ; Modeling in clay or 
plaster, wood or stone, 4. Total, 60 hours per week. 

Fi7-d doss. — German language. — Written and oral compositions, 2 hours ; 
Manufacturers' book-keeping, 2 ; Algebra, geometv}', plane and solid, (repeti- 
tions and exercises.) 4; Practical geometry. — Surveying of land, roads, parts of 
towns, leveling, plotting, 4; Technical physics. — Machines employed in build- 
ing, resistance of materials, pressure of water, hoisting machines — Mechanics 
connected with building, 6; Course on building. — Erection of houses. &c. — 
Study of ground — Foundations — Establishment of comi)]ete projects with esti- 
mates — Design of building — Laws affecting buildings. 80 ; Drawing of orna- 
ment, 6 : Modeling in plaster and clay, stone and wood, 6 to 12. Total, 60 to 
66 lessons per week. 

This school, in 1863-64, had 14 professors and 195 pupils, of whom there 
were 89 masons, 87 joiners, 2 tilers, 9 millwrights and fitters, 7 cabinet-makers, 
1 locksmith. 

The majority of the pupils were from 17 to 25 years of age ; the youngest 
was 15, and the eldest 37. 



POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT HANOTER. 

The first impulse towards the erecting of this institution was given by the 
old Industrial Club in Hanover, which urged upon the ministers of state (in 
1830) the necessity of a technical school. The. ministry entered into the idea, 
caused means to be furnished, and appointed the distinguished Karmarsch, still 
at its head, to take immediate charge of the school, under the Eoyal Commis- 
sioners of Technical Schools. The first terra of the higher industrial school, 
which name it took, commenced October 3d. 1S31. In 1834 the hired buildings 
proved insufficient, and a new building was begun for its accommodation and 
completed in 1837, at an expense of $80,000. A careful choice of teachers, 
watchful superintendence of the instruction, and a marked progress in the ex- 
tension of the latter, made this school soon famous, and won confidence, espe- 
cially in foreign lands. Ifext to Carlsruhe it has the greatest number of 
foreigners. In 1847 it received the name of Polytechnic school, which it had 
really been for a long time. 

The aim of the school is in general the same as that of other institutions of 
the kind, viz , a preparation for technical State service in architecture, railway 
building, and the making of machinery, as well as to give a scientific education 
and special studies to those who wish to fit themselves for carrying out scien- 
tific and industrial undertakings. The instruction is divided into a preparatory 
course, and the school proper, which includes the higher special studies. 

A comparison can not be instituted between this preparatory course and the 
general mathematical classes of other schools, since differential and integral 
calculus is not taught here. In hke manner, the school proper is not, as else- 
where, divided into special departments, but tlie whole course is given in single 
subjects, more or less of which, according to circumstances, form the scientific 
education of the pupils for any particular department. To prevent pupils from 



166 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER. 

taking an unsuitable course of study, certain acquirements are necessary for 
entering each class, whereby, in an indirect way, a definite course is secured. 

To meet the increasing demands for special instruction, additional studies 
have from time to time been added to the printed announcements, and in these, 
certain fixed courses are recommended to students for special technical depart- 
ments. 

The chief subdivisions of the teaching are regulated with a view to giving 
tlie instruction necessary: 1. For manufacturing chemists; 2. For agricul- 
turists; 3. For surveyors; 4. For mechanicians and constructors of machines; 
5. For architects ; 6. For hydraulic, railway, and road engineers. 

To be admitted as a pupil in the preparatory school, candidates must be six- 
teen years of age, and seventeen for the upper school or for special divisions. 
The instruction required for the preparatory school comprises the German lan- 
guage and the habit of composition therein, the use of decimal fractions, the 
rules of three and of proportions, the elements of algebra, plane geometry, and 
general notions of geography and history. As for the special courses of the 
superior school, candidates must be masters of the matters taught in the pre- 
paratory school, of which we give the details below. However, the pupils who 
intend to follow only the courses of natural history, are not obliged to undergo 
an examination in mathematics. No examination is imposed on those who 
mean to attend only the lessons on drawing and modehng. 

Programme of the Preparatory School. — Elementary mathematics: algebra 
as far as equations of the third and fourth degrees ; elements of geology and 
botany; elements of mineralogy ; free-hand drawing ; linear drawing; elements 
of descriptive geometry. 

Programme of the Polytechnic School. — Pure mathematics, in two courses, as far 
as the calculus of variations ; descriptive geometry ; practical geometry ; me- 
chanics ; higher mechanics, theoretical and applied; construction of machines; 
study of machines ; study of prime movers and other machines ; building con- 
struction, in three courses; roads and railways; bridges and hydraulic con- 
structions ; geology, mineralogy, and physical geography ; pure physics ; applied 
physics ; chemistry, theoretical and applied with manipulation ; manual labor, 
including instruction in working in metals and in wood, spinning and weaving, 
modeling, and the construction of small models. 

To enable the pupils to select the courses which they may attend, and to pre- 
clude numerous inquiries, the general regulations state that the preparatory 
school comprises, in the course of a year, the following subjects: zoology, bot- 
any, mineralogy, elementary mathematics, free-hand and hnear drawing. 

The order of the studies, after leaving the preparatory school and for special 
branches, is shown by the following programme : 

For Chemists. — First Year. — Preparatory school. 

Second Ytar. — Theoretical chemistry, technology, theoretical and apphed 
physics and meclianics. 

Third Year. — Geology and physical geography, or instead, general knowledge 
of machines and applied chemistry. 

Fourth Year. — Chemical manipulation. 

For Agriculturists. — First Year. — Preparatory school. 

Second Year. — Theoretical chemistry, technology, physics, mechanics. 

Tiiird Year. — General knowledge of machines, first course of building con- 
struction, practical geometry and drawing of plans, or else chemical manipula- 
tion, practical chemistry. 

For Surveyors. — First Year. — Preparatory school. 

Second. Year. — First course of higher mathematics ; theoretical and applied 
physics; descriptive geometry. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER. 167 

Taird Year. — Practical geometry with drawing of plans. Geology and phy- 
sical geography. 

Foii Mechanicians and Machine-makers. — First Year. — Preparatory 
school. 

Second Year. — First course of higlier mathematics; mechanics, technology, 
descriptiv.e geometry, theoretical physics. 

Till id ^''mr.— Knowledge of machines, construction of machines, first course 
of construction, higlier meclianics. 

Fourth Year. — Knowledge of special machines ; second course of higher 
mathematics, pure chemistry, applied physics. 

For Architects. — First Year. — Preparatory school. 

Second Year. — First course of higher mathematics ; technology, descriptive 
geometry, mechanics, tlieoretical physica 

Third Year. — First course of construction and ornamentation, practical geom- 
etry and drawing of plans, general knowledge of machines, modelmg, drawing 
from the cast. 

Fourth Year. — Second course of construction and ornamentation, physical 
geography, construction of roads and railways, modehug and drawing from the 
cast. 

Fifth Year. — Third course of construction and ornamentation, bridges and 
hydraulic constructions, theoretical chemistry. 

For Civil Engineers. — First Year. — Preparatory school. 

Second Year. — First course of higher mathematics; technology, descriptive 
geometr}^ theoretical physics, and mechanics. 

TJiird Year. — Second course of higher mathematics; first course of building 
construction; practical geometry and drawing of plans, construction of ma- 
chines. 

Fourth Year. — Road and railways ; second course of building construction ; 
higlier mechanics, pliysical geography, and applied physics. 

Fifth Year. — Hydraulics and construction of bridges, third course of building 
construction ; special machines, and theoretical chemistry. 

The French Commission submit the following observations on the above 
courses : 

The details which have been given show that the order of the teaching is so 
regulated that, for certain important divisions, such as those of mechanicians 
and architects, pupils may receive a very serviceable amount of technical in- 
struction, with the aid of elementary mathematics, and enter upon the practice 
of their professions without going through the whole course of studies. Such 
an arrangement is very suitable for many young men, and in no way injurious 
to the soundness of their education. 

Thiis, to enable them to attend the first course of mechanics, the course of 
construction of machines, those of hydraulics, prime movers, and of the prin- 
cipal machine-tools, and for the drawing up of projects relative to these ma- 
chines, the meclianical engineers do not require more than the elementary and 
fundamental principles of geometry, algebra, trigonometry, and descriptive 
geometry. Tliere is no necessity for them to study the higher pure mathe- 
matics, which, notwithstanding their utility, present considerable diflBculties to 
certain minds, and require no little time and effort. The same may be said of 
the instruction given to architects ; for, after attending the first two courses of 
construction, the pupils may have acquired the knowledge necessary for ordi- 
nary buildings. 

This gradation of instruction greatly diminishes the inconvenience, above 
mentioned, of the high reading in the second course of pure mathematics. 
Moreover, the table showing the distribution of the students among the different 
branches of learning, which we are about to give, justifies our observations ; 
for it will thereby he seen that whilst 89 pupils are inscribed for elementary 
mathematics, and 83 for the first course of higher mathematics, there are only 
1-4 for the second course of the same studies. It is therefore more than prob- 
able that a small proportion of the 83 pupils of the first course really profit by 
those lessons. 



168 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HANOVER. 

The pupils were distributed among the diflFerent branches as follows: 

Elementary mathematics, 89 Mineralogy, 57 

Pure mathematics, P^* course, 83 Geolojry. , 40 

' p^d course 14 Hieoretical physics, ,24 

Mechanics 93 Technicul physics, 10 

Higher mechanics, 60 Theoretical chemistry 50 

Practical geometry .'i? Technical chemistry, 27 

Descriptive geometry 73 Practical chemistry, 29 

Study of machines, H^y^omse, 86 Technology,. 82 

■' ^ 'J(l course, .ii Lmenr drawing, /9 

Construction of machines, 65 Free-hand drawing 96, 

1st course,. 79 Drawing from the round and reliefs, .'. . 10 

Construction of buildings, >^ 2d course, . 45 Modeling 5 



I 1st 

s, ^ 2d ( 
(Mi 



course,. 27 French langunge, 11 

History of the (irt of building, ( „q English language, 21 

Construction of roads and bridges, ji * " ' H istory 16 

Hydrnulic constructions, 30 Law and police of buildings, 20 

Zobiogy and botany, 52 

This table clearly shows what courses best suit the requirements of the class 
of persons who attend institutions of this kind. 

They are in the order of the preceding tab!e : — Elementary mathematics ; 
first course of pure mathematics (which might be simplified;) elementary me- 
chanics (which might be extended;) practical geometry; descriptive geometry; 
the study of machines, first course (which might be made more elementary;) 
tlie construction of machines; building construction; zoology and botany; 
theoretical chemistry ; technology ; linear drawing ; free-hand drawing. 

It would seem therefore that attention ought to be directed principally to 
these ditlerent branches of learning, and every effort made to facilitate their 
study by the adoption of the simplest methods. It seems clear that the teach- 
ing of the sciences of a high order has a repellant effect on the pupils. That 
physics should be among the number of the studies least followed is remarkable 
and much to be regretted.' There are, perhaps, particular causes for this, but, 
in anj^ case, that science ought to hold a higher rank in the programme and to 
have greater facihties for experimenting. 

The number of pupils for the last three years has averaged about 440, of 
whom 380 were regular — the age ranges from eleven to twenty, a majority 
being under sixteen years. 

There are 21 regular professors, 3 tutors, and several special teachers. 

The State pays all expenses over the receipts from tuition, (w'hich amount to 
about $6,500 a year,) and supplies the building and equipment. 

Prof Koristka, in his account of the Higher Polytechnic Institutions' of Ger- 
many, speaks of this school: 

The school at Hanover rightly enjoys great reputation in foreign lands.. It 
stands firm by its first organization, which followed closely that of Austria. It 
is not divided into separate schools, but its whole course is given in single sub- 
jects, which are, however, combined in such a waj'- as to give most of the 
advantages of special schools. Its experience is proof that success depends 
as mucli on the excellence and cooperation of the teachers as on organization 
and courses of study. All the teachers (twenty-four, of whom six have the 
title of professors and three of assistant-professors) constitute a board, which 
meets once a month in council and decides on all general rules as to studies 
and discipline. All submit to tlie "directory," which is lodged in two persons 
appointed by the government — one, the principal, is responsible for the finances 
and the collections, and the other, for the discipline. The general supervision 
belongs to a royal commission, consisting of the two directors, and four other 
members. This commission appoints the professors and must visit the class and 
lecture-rooms, and report annually. Terms in the preparatory school, $24; 
and in the Polytechnic there is a fee for each coursC; which varies according to 
the length from $3 to $16. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HESSE-CASSEL. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The Electorate of Hesse- Cassel, on an area of 4,430 English 
square miles, in 1804 had 74o,0G3 inhabitants. . It is chiefly an agri- 
cultural and cattle-producing country ; factories are only to be found 
in the larger towns, and these chiefly devoted to linen, and of late 
years also to cotton fabrics. There are also some paper, glass, iron, 
and other workshops, and 338 distilleries. 

The total annual expenditure of the government of Hesse-Cassel 
in 1865, amounted to 4,897,680 thalers, of which 90,330 thalers were 
expended for general instruction. The amount of school-fees is 
estimated at 60,000 thalers annually. 

The institutions of public instruction are administered by the 
minister of the interior, and under him by the provincial and district 
autjiorities, and include : 

1. Primary or Common Schools ( Volksschulen). Of these there 
were in 1865, about 1,300, of which 117 are burgher and city 
schools, with about 126,000 scholars, and 1,163 teachers. 

2. Secondary Schools. 2 Latin schools, with 89 scholars, and 5 
teachers ; 2 progymnasia, with 128 scholars, and 13 teachers ; 6 gym- 
nasia, with 1,333 scholars, and 92 teachers ; 10 real schools and higher 
burgher schools, with 2,254 scholars, and 110 teachers; making a 
total of 20 secondary schools, with 3,804 scholars, and 220 teachers. 

3. Superior Schools. The University at Marburg, with four facul- 
ties (theology, law, medicine, philosophy), had 50 professors, and 
310 students. 

4. Special and Professional Schools, 
3 Teachers' seminaries. 

1 Higher industrial school. 

1 School of forestry. 

1 School of agriculture. 

A catholic seminary at Fulda. 

A cadet school at Cassel. 

An academy of arts at Cassel. 
After the war of 1866, the Elector was deposed, and the whole 
country annexed to Prussia, of which kingdom it now forms, together 
with Nassau and Frankfort, the province of Hesse and Franken. 

(169) 



SPECIAL mSTRUCTIOJf U HESSE-DARMSTADT. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The Grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on an area of 3,240 Eng- 
lish square miles, in 1864 had 816,902 inhabitants. Hesse-Darm- 
stadt is chiefly an agricultural country ; on the Rhine the vine is 
extensively cultivated, and the region of the Odenwald and the Wet- 
terau are famous for excellent fruit. 

The total annual expenditure of the government of Hesse- Darm- 
stadt in 1866, amounted to 9,372,962 florins, of which 44,463 florins 
were extended for primary instruction, and 28,040 florins for second- 
ary instruction. 

The institutions of public instruction, administered by the minis- 
ter of the interior, embrace : 

1. Primary Schools. Of these there are 1,756, with 150,568 
scholars, and 1,382 teachers. 

2. Secondary Schools. 6 gymnasia, with 1,171 scholars, and 81 
teachers; 10 real schools, with 1,818 scholars, and 110 teachers; 3 
higher burgher schools, with 646 scholars, and 29 teachers; making 
a total of 19 secondary schools, with 3,635 scholars, and 220 teachers. 

3. Superior Schools. The University at Giessen, with four facul- 
ties (theology, law, medicine, ,and philosophy), had in 186§-9, 45 
professors, and 326 students^. 

4. Special and Professional Schools, 
2 Teachers' seminaries. 

1 School of forestry. 
1 Commercial academy. 

1 Military academy. 

2 Schools of agriculture. 

1 School of veterinary surgery. 

2 Polytechnic schools. 

2 Deaf and dumb asylums. 
1 Institution for the blind. 



(170) 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN MECKLENBURG. 



I. MECKLENBURG-SCIIWERIN. 

The Grand Ducliy of Meckleriburg-Scluverin, on an area of 4,834 English 
square miles, in 1864, had 552,612 inliabitants, entirely agricultural, the rural 
population being little removed from the condition of serfs. The trade in corn, 
cattle, butter, &c., is chiefly carried on by the two ports of Wismar and Rostock. 

The total annual expenditure in 1865 was 3,430,028 thalers, of which sum 
about 30,000 was expended for public instruction. 

The institutions of public instruction are administered by the Minister of 
Education, who at the same time is Minister of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs. 

1. Primary Schools. — There are 1,334 elementary schools and 45 burgher- 
schools. The exact number of scholars and teachers is not given officially, but 
by estimation there were in 1864 about 69,000 pupils, under 1,517 teachers. 

2. Secondary Schools. — There are 5 gymnasia, with 2,083 scholars and 91 
teachers; and 8 real-schools and higher burgher-schools, with 1,429 scholars 
and 62 teachers; making a total of 13 secondary schools, with 3,512 scholars 
and 153 teachers. 

% S'rperior Schools. — There is 1 university at Eostock, with 4 faculties (the- 
ology, law, medicine, and pliilosophy,) with 38 professors and 171 students. 
4. Special and Professional Schools : 

2 Teachers' seminaries, one at Neukloster with 64 pupils, and a second 

at Dobberau with 10 pupils. 
1 Deaf and dumb institution at Ludwigslust, with 58 pupils. 
1 Couimercial academy. 
1 Military adademy. 
1 School of agriculture. 

3 Nautical schools (Wustrow, Eostock, and Wismar.) with an aggregate 

of 200 pupils. That at Wustrow has a three years' course, and a 

preparatory class. 
1 School of veterinary surgery. 
1 Polytechnic school. 
40 Evening trade-schools, for apprentices and journeymen. 

II. MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ. 

The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, on an area of 997 English square 
miles, in 1861, had 99,060 inhabitants, who are mainly engaged in agriculture 
as tenants. 

There is only one "Minister of State," who manages all the affairs of the 
Grand Duchy, including the public schools, viz. : 

1. Primary Schools. — There are 231 primary schools. The number of schol- 
ars and teachers can not be ascertained from official documents, but it is esti- 
mated that there were in 1864 about 13,000 pupils, under 250 teachers. 

2. Secondary Schooh. — There are 3 gymnasia, with 814 scholars and 33 
teachers; and 4 real and higher burgher-schools, with 1,162 scholars and 33 
teachers, making a total of 7 secondary schools, with 1,976 scholars and 66 
teachers. 

3. Special and Professional Schools. — 1 Teachers' seminary at Mirow, with 16 
pupils : 3 institutions for neglected children, with 65 pupils ; 5 industrial 
schools for girls (teach sewing, &c.,) with 95 pupils. 



SPECIAL I^^STRUCTIOX IN MSSAU. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The Duchy of Nassau, on an area of 1,802 English square miles, 
in 1865 had 465,636 inhabitants. There are considerable iron, lead, 
and copper, as also a few silver mines, employing about 10,000 men ; 
but more than mining, agriculture employs a large proportion of the 
population. The vine is cultivated on the banks of the Rhine, and 
the wines raised in Nassau, (Riidesheimer, johannisberger, Hock- 
heimer, &c.,) are considered the best in Germany. 

The total annual expenditure of the government of Nassau in 
1862, amounted to 5,117,831 florins. 

The institutions of public instruction are administered by the min- 
ister of state, and embrace : 

1. Primary Schools. Of these there are 716, with 1,059 teach- 
ers, and 72,296 scholars. 

2. Secondary Schools. There are 3 gymnasia, with 50 teachers, 
and 711 scholars; 4 progymnasia, with 26 teachers, and 274 schol- 
ars ; 13 real schools, with 109 teachers, and 1,345 scholars ; making 
a total of 20 secondary schools, with 2,330 scholars, and 185 teachers. 

3. Special and Professional Schools. Of these there are the 
following: 

2 Teachers' seminaries, 1 for catholic teachers (62), at Monta- 

baur, and another at Usinglen, for protestant teachers (7^9). 
2 Theological seminaries. 
1 Military school. 
1 Commercial academy. 

1 Agricultural school, at Geisberg, with 35 pupils. 
27 Mechanical, or trade schools. 
1 Institute for the deaf and dumb. 
Since 1866, Nassau has formed part of the kingdom of Prussia, to- 
gether with Hesse Cassel and Frankfort, constituting the province of 
Hesse and Franken, 



(172) 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN NASSAU. IY3 

SCHOOLS AND LABORS OF THE GEWERBE-VEREIN. 

One of the most important steps of this Society, has been the establishing in 
various parts of the Duchy, of what are called Gewerbe-schulen, or industrial 
schools, consisting of — 

Firstii/, Evening classes, (Apend-schulen^) held in winter time for the purpose 
of giving young Artizans and others an useful complement to their elementary 
education, in such branches as commercial reckoning and correspondence, and 
practical geometry. 

Secondly^ Sunday Classes, (Suntag-schulen,) intended for departments of 
study y.h\(ih are not so well taught in the evening as by daylight, and held 011 
Sundays for the benefit of young men, chiefly apprentices, whose occupations 
would not allow them to attend conveniently during the week. They comprise 
the various branches of drawing required for the industrial trades, and geometry 
applied to the arts of design. 

According to the annual Report, read at the General Meeting of the Gewerbe- 
Verein, on the 11th of May, 1853, by the able Secretary, Dr. Casselmann, the 
number of Industrial Schools in activity in various parts of the Duchy, is at pres- 
ent twenty -five, with an aggregate number of about two thousand students. 

A MoJeling School has also been established at Weisbaden, and is attended at 
present by between thirty-five and forty students. 

The Report gives 7419 florins, or about 6l8i. sterling, as the amount expen- 
ded in the last financial year, for founding and maintaining the above schools, 
whereof about two thousand florins were furnished by the Society, and ^our 
thousand florins were covered by a government grant 5 the remainder was sup- 
plied by the localities. 

To secure a proper degree of intelligence and practical skill in all 
who parsue any trade, there is a legalized system of apprenticeship, 
which Mr. Twining thus describes. 

The would-be Artizan must be able to exhibit proof of having concluded his 
attendance at school, (which as I have mentioned elsewhere, is obligatory from 
the sixth to the fourteenth year,) by satisfactorily passing his final examination; 
he must also have passed his confirmation, which takes place about the same 
time ; it is pi*eceded for a considerable period, by strict religious instruction, and 
is solemnized by both Protestants and Catholics in a veiy impressive manner. 

If a lad is quite a dunce, and especially if he can not satisfactorily get through 
his Catechism, he may be retained under tuition another year ; or if his vicious 
propensities are found incorrigible by ordinary means, he may be sent off* to a dis- 
ciplinarian school, called Rettungs-haus. One of these establishments was 
founded in 1851, near the little town of Nassau, by the Countess von Gieeh, and 
now contains about ten boys; another has just been erected near Weisbaden by 
a pious Evangelical Society. 

If all is tolerably right, the lad receives in due form his educational certificate, 
and he and his friends set about looking out for the right sort of shop, and a 
comfortable master ; but before a definite agreement is come to, German prudence 
steps in very appropriately, and prescribes two weeks' preliminary trial. If this 
turns out to mutual satisfaction, a contract is drawn up, of which the legalization 
is obtained with very little expense, or none at all, if the parties are poor. 

For ordinary trades, such as those of the shoemaker, tailor, joiner, baker, <fcc., 
the usual term is three years, and the total sum to be paid to the master varies 
from thirty to sixty florins, (Si 2 to $20 ; ) or a term of four years is agreed upoUj 
without payment, the work of the apprentice in the last year being expected to 
form an equivalent. 

With respect to more difficult trades, such as those of the watchmaker, mech- 
anician, lithographer, &c., the term is usually three or four years, with a payment 
of eighty to two hundred florins, ($33 to $40.) Some few trades, requiring lit- 
tle or no technical training, are exceptional with regard to payments ; thus ap- 
prentices engaged in the operations of building, whitewashing, &c., not only have 
nothing to pay, but i*eceive at once a daily remuneration of a few kreuzers. 

In no case does an apprenticeship last longer than four years ; serious disagree 



174 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN DUCHY OF NASSAU. 

ments between masters and apprentices are in some measure obviatfd by the ex- 
amination which must be undergone before an artizan can settle anywhere as mas- 
ter ; but in all cases redress is facilitated by the practice of paying the stipulated 
sum by installments, so that one-third or one-half the amount sfcmds over to the 
conclusion of the term. If an apprentice has just cause for complaint, he is 
releasjd by the local authorities from further obligations towards his master, and 
his friends from further payment. 

At the expiration of his term, the apprentice must furnish proof of the extent 
of his acquirements, by executing some appropriate piece of handiwork, in the 
presence of the official judges of the trade, forming a kind of jury, which, from 
its usefulness, deserves some attention. 

Every three years the masters in each trade residing in a district, or in a^ group 
of districts if the trade is a scarce one, assemble to elect, or re-elect, three repre- 
sentatives for the purpose of ex-.imining the certificates, and of testing and record- 
ing the abilities of industrial candidates. 

If the examiners are not satisfied with the j^oung man's performance, he must 
find means of improving himself, within half-a-year, against another trial ; if, on 
thci conti-ary, they are well pleased, he obtains his certificate as Gesell^ or jour- 
neyman, and sets out for his travels. 

When the Gesell arrives at a town, he goes forthwith to the Herberge^ or spe- 
ciMlly appointed inn of his trade, where the Herberge Vater, (inn father,) from 
whom he is entitled to receive paternal attentions and advice, shows him a regis- 
ter, in the form of a slate, or blackboard, on which is inscribed the name of any 
master wanting a hand. If the register is a blank, and the Gesell has no cash 
in purse from previous savings, he may claim his Viaticum, or traveling money, 
which is either paid from the treasury of the town, or from a subscription purse 
of the trade, or made up by small donations which he gets at the several work- 
shops of his calling, where he applies in succession for that purpose ; in so doing, 
he generally makes good his claim to brotherly assistance by some token which he 
b 'ars, or by mysteriously symbolicalical signs and passwords, analogous to those 
usei in freemasonry. 

At Frankfort, where trade affairs are reckoned to be on a more liberal, or more 
antiquated footing than elsewhere, an itinerant servant of the proud company of 
hiir-eutters receives from a special purse as much as thirty-six kreuzers, (one 
shilling ; ) but Jhis may be accounted exceptional, and in the generality of cases, 
the total amount which a common journeyman obtains by legitimate means, is no 
more than a few pence. At all events, the sum is definitive ; except in case of ill- 
ness, no further sum can be claimed, and it will be w^ell if the next morning's 
dawn sees our wanderer trudging contentedly onward, his knapsack on his back, 
with a boot sticking out at each end of it, and his faithful pipe dangling at the 
side of his mouth, whilst he sings some classical ditty of the brotherhood. . 

There was a time when the industrial vocabulary construed the word fechten 
as a justifiable kind of begging, which did not disgrace a needy journeyman, but 
now it is inscribed in the bl ick-book of the police 5 and if a poor fellow, com- 
pelled by sheer necessity, extends an unwilling hand toward a stranger, and a 
gend'arme espies him in the act, he is not only punished with arrest, but this fact 
is noted down in his pass-book, and subjects him, wherever he goes, to be 
watched with a suspicious eye, and to increased severity in case of a repetition 
of the offence. 

Before the journeyman can become a master in his art, or profession, and fix his 
aboie as such in a place of his choice, a few important steps remain to be taken. If a 
native of another state, he must obtain the freedom of the one of which he wishes 
to become a denizen ; if merely of anoth.-r parish, he must still get admission to 
parochial rights, wh'ch are sometimes expensive: in every case, he is required to 
accomplish single-handed, for strict inspection by the Prufungs Coimnission, 
some model piece of workmanship, sufficient to show, not merely a moderate 
amount of skill, as when he was a candidate for a journeymanship, but his thor- 
ough knowledge of the arcana majora of his calling. If he can follow up 
the display orally, with theoretical evidence, he is entitled to be admitted forthwith 
to -the Honorable Company of the Masters of the Trade. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN NASSAU. 175 



AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE AT GEISBERG.' 

The agricultural institute at Geisberg, near Wiesbaden, stands on an elevated 
plateau, overlooking a most enchanting region of country, witli the fashionable 
invalid resort of Wiesbaden close by, while at a little distance rolls tlie winding 
Rhino betwerjn its vine-clad hills. Tlie celebrated vineyard of Johannisberg is 
not far down the river. This school differs from most others in giving instruc- 
tion only in winter. 

It is on the isolated and independent plan, and is designed for the instruction 
of practical farmers, without teaching practice on the place. Apphcants niu.st 
be sixteen years old, possess a good elementary education, and a good 
"character." Tliey have to bring a written certitlcate of willingness on the 
part of the parent or guardian that they should enter the sethool, and it is 
expected that the pupils shall have spent one or more sumnurs in work on the 
farm, before thay enter. If the requisite certificate of profieienc}^ in tlie 
elementary studies cannot be produced, or if it is not satisfactory, the applicmt 
is examined, and either rejected or accepted with conditions, not unlike the 
practice in entering Harvard College, where comparatively few gel in without 
"conditions." Each pupil is required to attend all the lectures; but they liave 
a class of pupils, as they have at Hohenheim, called huspitante7i, or students who 
take only the partial course. 

The theoretical instruction is given in a regular course of two winters, the 
term beginning on the 15th of October of each year, and ending on the 31st 
of March. During the intervening sunmier they are either at home, at work on 
the farm, or if they desire it, the director of the institute procures them suitable 
places with skillful practical farmers. 

Natives of Nassau pay no tuition. Outsiders pay forty-four florins, or about 
eighteen dollars a year. All the pupils board in the town of Wiesbaden. The 
instruction is by lectures and written and verbal questions on the studies. 
After the return of the students from their summer's work on the farm, they 
are required within six weeks to present a full written detail of operations, 
which, after suitable corrections, are returned to the writer. 

The parents or guardians are informed, from time to time, of the industry and 
conduct of the pupil. G-ambling, so fashionable and exciting at Weisbaden, is 
forbidden, and no student is allowed to smoke or to keep a dog. 

The institute possesses a library, which appeared to be tolerably well stocked, 
very good collections and fine lecture and study rooms. It is on ratlier a small 
scale as^ compared with some others, though it may be called one of the 
superior class. It was founded in 1835, and as may be inferred from what has 
been said above, on the principle that it is of no use to try to teach theory 
and practice at the same school. There is a small farm connected with the 
school, but, judging from the helter-skelter, or generally mixed-up condition of 
every thing about the premises, I should think they were quite right in not 
attempting to teach practice there. Old ploughs, drags, carts, harrows and 
every thing else lay around the buildings in no small confusion. When I drove 
into the yard I felt sure we had made some mistake, and had got upon the 
premises of a very slovenly farmer, but the driver was sure he was right, and. 
the result justified his topographical knowledge. 

The farm buildings are irregular and crowded, not large or imposing, but 
rather oidinary in every respect, though the building used by the students and 
tlie collections was better. 

These collections consisted of minerals, birds, quadrupeds, seeds, grains, and 
grasses, and a fine collection of wax fruits. 

The instruction embraces, in the first term or winter, the German language, 
arithmetic, botany, mineralogy, physics, general agriculture, cultivation of 
meadow-:, rural architecture, and veterinary science. In the second winter 
the boys take up zoology, physics, farm accounts, special agriculture, special 
zojteclmy, horticulture, technology, veterinary medicine and composition. 

The price of farm labor there, I learned, was thirty-six kreutzers, or twenty- 
four cents a day, the men boarding themselves. 
— — ^ _ — ___ ___ 

' * Report of C. L. Flint on Agricultural Schools, &c. 



SPECIAL Ii\STRiJCTION IN OLDENBURG. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The Grand-duchy of Oldenburg, on an area of 2,417 English 
square miles, in 1864 had 314,416 inhabitants, chiefly engaged in 
agriculture, with very few engaged in manufactories and other forms 
of industry. Though favorably situated for maritime commerce, it 
has but a small seafaring population, and its trade is principally 
confined to coasting traffic. 

The total annual expenditure of the government of Oldenburg in 
1865, amounted to 2,386,110 thalers, of which 70,900 thalers were 
expended for public instruction (46,200 for primary, and 24,700 for 
secondary instruction). 

The institutions of public instruction are administered by the min- 
ister of education, who at the same time is minister of the grand- 
ducal house, of justice, and of foreign affairs. 

1. Primary Schools. There were in 1865, 490 elementary schools, 
with 43,174 scholars, and 630 teachers. 

2. Secondary Schools. There are 10 higher burgher schools, with 
1,395 scholars, and 58 teachers ; 4 gymnasia, with 644 scholars, and 
47 teachers ; 1 progymnasia, with 65 scholars, and 10 teachers ; 
making a total of 15 secondary schools, with 2,104 scholars," and 115 
teachers. 

3. Special and Professional Schools. 

2 Teachers' seminaries for evangelical teachers, at Oldenburg, 

with 30 pupils, and another at Vechta, with 20 pupils. 
1 Deaf and dumb institute. 
1 Military academy. 
1 Nautical school, with 30 pupils. 
1 Trade school, with 30 pupils. 
1 Agricultural school, with 44 pupils. 
1 Orphan home, at Varel, with 30 inmates. 
7 Infant schools and gardens. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The kingdom of Prussia, on an area of 107,757 English square 
miles in 1864, (before its recent accession of territory and people,) 
had a population of 19,269,563, of which number 8,395,418 were 
engaged in agriculture, 178,903 in mining, 1,067,593 in mechanical 
and manufacturing pursuits, and 215,078 in commerce. 

The total annual expenditure of the government of Prussia in 
1865 amounted to 169,243,365 thalers, of which sum 1,865,309 
thalers were expended for public instruction, art, and science, in ad- 
dition to communal and provincial appropriations. 

The institutions of public instruction are administered by the 
Minister of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Afiairs ; the mili- 
tary ^schools are under the Minister of War ; and the special schools 
of trade, mines, and agriculture, are under the control of the several 
ministers charged severally with the administration of those interests. 

1. Primary or Common Schools. — Of these there were in 1864: 

25,056 elementary schools, with 36,157 teachers and 2,825,322 scholars. 
.271 burgher-schools for boys, with 1,171 teachers and 43,731 scholars. 
906 licensed private schools, with 1,683 teachers and 52,692 scholars. 
2.^5 private schools for boys, with 515 teachers and 8,421 scholars. 
239 licensed private schools for girls, with 1,456 teachers and 47,321 

scholars. 
396 private schools for girls, with 2,161 teachers and 27,593 scholars. 
Making a total of 27,073 primary schools, with 43,143 teachers and 3,005,080 
scholars. 

2. Secondary Schools. — There were in 1864: 

117 Hitfher burgher and real-schools, with 1,210 teachers and 27,189 
scholars. 
28 Progymnasia, with 223 teachers and 3,058 scholars. 
147 Gymnasia, with 2,117 teachers and 49,331 scholars. 
Making a total of 292 secondary schools, with 3,550 teachers and 79,578 
scholars. 

3. Superior Schools. — In 1864 there were 6 universities [Berlin, Bonn, Bres- 
lau, Halle, Kcinigsberg, Greifswald.] each with four faculties, viz., theology, 
law, medicine, and pliilosophy, and 1 Catholic academy at Miinster with two 
f leulies, viz., tl)eology and philosophy. These 7 institutions have a total of 389 
professors and 170 private professors \privat docenien,] and 6,077 students. Be- 
sides these there were 2 Catholic theological seminaries [Paderborn and Brauns- 
berg.] 1 Protestant theological seminary [Prussian State-church] at Witten- 
berg, and 1 Moravian theological seminary at Gnadenfeld, Silesia. There are 
large scientific collections and libraries connected with most of these institu- 
tions, and the Royal Library at Berlin numbers upwards of 500,000 volumes 
and 10,000 manuscripts. The two chemical 'laboratories at Bonn and Berlin 
recently erected are the most complete in Europe. 

12 



118 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 



4. Special cmd Professional Schools. 

60 Teachers' seminaries, [19 Catholic and 41 Protestant] with about 
3,800 students; besides 44 small institutions and classes, which 
are not recognized as government seminaries. 
•? Seminaries for secondary school teachers and professors. 

3 Academies of art [Berlin, Dusseldorf, and KiJnigsberg.] 

1 Academy of architecture. 

5 Art and building {baugewerk) schools. 

2 Technical academies or institutes (at Berlin and Cologne.) 
27 Provincial technical schools, with 2,600 pupils. 

2 Superior weaving-schools. 
1 Weaving and pattern-drawing school. 
265 Industrial schools for mechanics. 
1 Royal military academy. 
1 Artillery and engineer-school. 
5 Cadet-scliools. 

1 Militarj'^ academy of surgery and medicine. 
1 Military school of surgery. 
1 School of veterinary surgery. 
1 Military school of veterinary surgery. 
1 Central school of gymnastics. 

4 Military schools. 

16 Garrison schools (for soldiers' children.) 

5 Nautical schools. 

14 Schools of midwifery. 
26 Schools for deaf-mutes. 
10 Schools for the blind. 

1 Conservatorium and 6 schools of music. 
34 Schools of agriculture. 

1 Mining academy (Berlin.) 

8 Schools of practical mining. 

6 Schools of commerce. 
4 Schools of forestry. 

The only statistics of Prussian schools since the accession of ter- 
ritory and population in 1866, are for the Secondary Schools, which 
we give from Dr. Wiese's Report on High Schools for 1869. 

STUDENTS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 



1863. 

Sold Provinces. 
I. Gymnasinms. 

RegulnT Classes 42.973 

Preparatory Classes, 4,046 

Total of both, .* . 47,019 

n. Pro-Gymnaaia. 

Regular OInsses 2,430 

Preparatory Classes, 167 

Totalofbnth, 2,597 

ni. Real Schools. 

Resnlar Classes, 18,741 

Preparatory Classes, 3,362 

Total of both 22,103 

rV. Higher Burgher Schools. 

Regular (^hisses 1,991 

Preparatory Classes, 4.52 

Totalofbnth 2,443 

V. Secondary Schools of all kinds. 

Regular Cbisses .66,135 

Preparatory Classes, 8,027 

Total ofboth 74,162 





1868. 




old Provinces. 


3 new Provinces 


Total. 


48,977 
5,945 


7,136 
1,192 


56,113 
7,137 


54,922 


8,328 


63,250 


2,227 
205 


190 


2,417 
205 


2,432 


190 


2,622 


20,741 
3,678 


2,455 
839 


23,196 
4,517 


24,419 


3,294 


27,713 


4,547 
1,172 


4,010 
1,307 


8,557 
2,479 


5,719 


5,317 


11,036 


76,492 

ij,ono 


13.791 
3,338 


90,283 
14.338 



87,492 17,129 



104,621 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PIIUSSIA. IJQ 

SYSTEM AND INSTITUTIONS OF SPECIAL INSTRUCTION. 

SUNDAY SCHOOLS. 

Sunday schools, for instructing the young people of a parisli in 
the catechism, and biblical and church history, existed in Prussia and 
throughout Germany, certainly as early as the sixteenth century, but 
their recognition as part of the public school system dates from 17G3, 
when Frederick 11, in his General Regulations of Schools (section G), 
ordains that " on Sundays, besides the lesson of the catechism or repe- 
tition school given by the minister in the church, the school-master 
shall give in the school recapitulary lessons to the unmarried people 
of the township. They shall there practice reading and writing.'* 
In the General regulations for the Catholic schools in Silesia, opened 
in 1765, "the older children are required to attend the Sunday in- 
struction in Christianity every Sunday afternoon, and after that to 
participate for two hours in the lessons in reading and writing given 
in the school, which lessons the teachers shall give under the direc- 
tion of the pastor, that they may become useful to the young. Those 
also who have left school, and are not yet twenty years of age, 
myst attend these lessons, and their employers are bound to send 
them to school at such time, that they may review what they learned 
before, and acquire necessary knowledge." On this basis of law and 
habit, by degrees the instruction of the Sunday school was extended 
and systematized, and became an important portion of the elementary 
education of the people. In the large villages and cities, drawing, 
and the firs* principles of natural history and mechanics, composition 
in the form of business correspondence, and other branches bearing 
on the occupations of the pupils, were gradually introduced into this 
class of schools, which were also held on Monday mornings, in the 
evening of other days, as well as on the half-holidays of Wednesday 
and Saturday, and on holidays. They were also connected with the 
real schools and trade institutes, and got the name of Further Im- 
provement Schools. In Prussia in 1854, there were 220 such schools, 
with 18,000 pupils; and in BerhA, the trade improvement schools are 
taught on Sunday by the teachers of the higher schools, and consti- 
tute an important agency in the technical instruction of apprentices 
and workingmen. 

REAL SCHOOLS AND BURGHER SCHOOLS. 

The real school, which in Prussia now occupies a well-defined place 
in the system of general education, had originally a direct technical 
aim, in the plan of Francke in 1698, and of Semler in 1706 and 



I^Q SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

1738, and of Hecker in 1747.* Francke projected a special pedago- 
g:iim for children, who wished to become " secretaries, clerks, mer- 
chants, administrators of estates, or learn useful arts." Semler calls his 
school " a mathematical trades school," and in the mathematical, me- 
chanical, and economical real school," opened by him in Berlin in 
1738, the instruction given was "in connection with models and real 
objects," — things^ as he designates them. 

Rev. J. J. Hecker, in the programme of his " Economical Mathe- 
matical School," opened in the schools of Trinity church in 1 747, he 
pledges to all his pupils " a preparation to facilitate their entry into 
any trade they may choose." Among his classes was one of " archi- 
tecture and building," another of " manufacture, commerce and trade," 
and another of " agriculture ; " moreover, " drawing shall be prac- 
ticed." The views of Hecker were encouraged by Frederick II, who 
named his institution the " Royal Real School." This school became 
the normal school for teachers of schools on the crown domains ; and 
to it, Felbinger sent a number of pupil-teachers, who became the or- 
ganizers of improved schools in Austria, in which realistic studies and 
methods were prominent. 

In connection with the real school should be mentioned the Higher 
Burgher School — the high school of the primary system in all large 
towns, and which received its earliest and highest development in 
Leipsic, but which in Ka3nigsberg, Dantzig, and other large provincial 
centres, aimed to fit their pupils for practical careers. Both the real 
school and the higher burgher schools, although they no longer aim 
to bo technical or professional schools, even for a commeftial career, 
do give a scientific preparation for such higher vocations of 4:he 
State as do not require an academic career, and they also prepare 
students for the special and purely technical schools. Without them, 
the subordinate departments of the public service would not be, so 
well filled, and the special schools of trade, commerce, agriculture, 
and forestry could not attain their present high development. 

SPECIAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. 

The immense strides made in mechanical, manufacturing, and com- 
mercial industry, and the gigantic works in engineering and construc- 
tion which the public service in peace and in war have required in , 
the last half century, have made necessary the establishment of spe- 
cial schools, in which architects, builders, machinists, engineers, artil- 
lerists, and technical chemists could be taught and trained. Hence 

* For an account of the educational labors and views of Francke and Hecker, see Barnard's 
Educational Reformers of Germany. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. Jg^l 

in every State we find government schools for these purposes, and in 
all the great centres of population and special industries, these insti- 
tutions are as varied in their independent organization or associated 
classes, as are the industries and wants to be supplied. Prussia has 
felt deeply these necessities, and side by side with the thorough re- 
organization and extension of her general system of education — the 
multiplication and improvement of primary, secondary, and superior 
scliools — has grown up a system of special instruction — schools of ag- 
riculture, forestry, commerce, navigation, architecture, engineering, 
construction in wood and metal, and trades of all sorts, which will 
compare favorably with the best in other countries of Europe. Al- 
though not as early in the field as some of the smaller States, and 
not acting with such entire disregard of the general system as some 
others, in which the manufacturing and mechanical establishments are 
relatively more numerous and important, this class of institutions in 
Prussia are worthy of particular study on account of the superior 
system of general education on which they all rest. 

• TRADE SCHOOLS. 

^The earliest Trade Schools, ( Gewerhe Sclmlen, as they are called, 
the word gewerhe being used in its restricted meaning, equivalent to 
the improvement of material for the purposes of gain,) in Prussia, 
were organized by Beuth in 1817-18, at Berlin and at Aix la Cha- 
pelle, to meet a want of government for better workmen in building 
operations. The school at the latter place was expressly founded to 
improve the general and special education of carpenters, mill-wrights, 
masons, stone-cutters, cabinet-makers, locksmiths, house-painters, bra- 
ziers, pewterers, and other handicrafts. They were first connected 
with the Sunday schools. 

Those established at that time were called Handiuerher forfhildunq 
schulen, and belonged to the class of "improvement schools," being 
planned to add to the knowledge of the local handicraftsmen and 
their apprentices. Schools for special trades or industries did not 
rise until a few years later. The whole system underwent a reorgan- 
ization in IS'JO, when all the establishments of this character were 
assigned to the Department of the Minister of Commerce. 

There are now not far from 500 giving instruction in almost all 
branches of industrial activity, and all being exclusively devoted to 
technological studies. The real and burgher schools, (of which there 
were in 1868, over 190,) through which those pupils who are intend- 
ing to enter the higher technical institutions generally pass, and 



182 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

which, moreover, give some instruction in commerce, are not included 
in this Hst. 

The technical schools may be divided into those imparting general 
industrial instruction, and those devoted to special branches. 

I. — The class giving general instruction embraces the following : 

(1.) Establishments corresponding to Improvement Schools. — There 
are a number of varieties of these : the evening, Sunday, and finish- 
ing schools ; societies for apprentices to which improvement schools 
are added ; journeymen's schools, and workmen's societies, which also 
make provision for technical instruction. 

This class does not carry technical studies very far, except in draw- 
ing, the general aim being to extend the knowledge gained in the ele- 
mentary schools, and nothing more than this is required at admission. 

(2.) Foremen's Schools. — These aim to train foremen for various 
mechanical occupations. The institution at Koenigsberg has 7 teach- 
ers and 69 scholars, (1867) ; tlie fees are about six thalers per half 
year. The requirements for admission are the studies of the primary 
schools. 

(3.) The Provincial and Municipal Trade SclTools. — These two 
classes of establishments form the next grade in technical instruction, 
and prepare pupils to enter the central academy at Berlin. They re- 
ceive those who have had a partial course in the gymnasiums, real 
schools, or burgher schools. There are in Prussia about 30 of these, 
averaging four or five teachers, with 2,600 scholars in all. The fees 
vary exceedingly. There is a journeyman's improvement school con- 
nected with each. 

(4.) Central Trade Academies. — The highest grade of education 
for mechanicians, chemists, and ship-builders is obtained at these- estab- 
lishments, which approaches the character of a polytechnic univer- 
sity. There are now two — the Academy, {Gewerhe Acadeinie, form- 
erly called Gewerhe Institut.) is at Berlin; another, recently organ- 
ized (1867), at Aix la Chapelle. The Berlin Academy receives 
scholars who have completed the course at the provincial trade 
schools, real schools, or the gymnasiums. Of this institution, J. 
Scott Russell, in his elaborate treatise on systematic technical educa- 
tion for the English people, thus speaks : 

Here in Berlin, I found a large and handsome building, close by the king's 
palace, in one of the best parts of the town, and this was called, at that time, a 
•' Gewerhe Schule," or royal school for trade teaching This very humble desig- 
nation did not lead me to expect the high scientific education and training which 
was there provided for the young professional men of Berlin. The truth is, that 
in Berlin, everything but the three learned professions, law, medicine, and theol- 
ogy, were still called trades, and not yet admitted to the rank of professions, just 
as, in our country, the time was when Brindley, the canal engineer, was still 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 1 83 

reckoned a sort of superior ditcli-dioger, and Georcre Stephenson a sort of superior 
engine-driver. The tradition had still enough influence in Berlin to call a tech- 
nical university for the modern professions a " trade school." 

Since that time, the dignity of the " Gewerbe Schulc " has been recognized. 
Its buildings, its cndownieuts, the rank and salaries of its professors, the number 
and preliminary qualifications of its pupils, have all been raised. It has now 
the recognized rank of a technical university, with professors of equal dignity, 
and degrees of equal weight. 

Berlin being the first technical university with which I became acquainted, and 
also one of the earliest, I should naturally quote, as an example of a " technical 
university abroad," this Gewerbe Institut, or Gewerbe Academie, of Berlin. I 
recommend those of my countrymen who care for such things, to visit that insti- 
tution, which is admirably conducted, systematically organized, and a great boon 
to the professional men of Prussia. Tliey will find that it in every way lends 
itself, by means of evening as well as morning lectures, by trade associations con- 
nected with it, by free libraries and museums, to the education not merely of the 
higher professional men, but also of the working men who have leisure and dis- 
position to desire high trade knowledge. 

In very many respects, therefore, I consider Berlin a model technical university. 
I do not quote it, however, as my type of what such a university might be, be- 
cause it laboi-s under some traditional and local disadvantages, which somewhat 
narrow its sphere, derange its symmetry, and cramp its development. It is not 
symmetrical in the highest degree, because in Berlin there had already existed, 
before it attained its present growth, surrounding institutions, which had monop- 
olized a portion of its ground. 

I^ndred academies, institutions, or universities, had already provided educa- 
tion and training for some of the arts and professions which a more isolated uni- 
versity would have systematically included in its curriculum ; and which it was, 
therefore, unwise, unnecessary, or inconvenient to include in the new organization, 
Preeisely, therefore, because the Berlin Geioerbe Academie fits its place, and an- 
swers its special purpose, it is less fitted to serve as a type of a symmetrical insti- 
tution than some others of more recent growth, more remote from the overshad- 
owing influence of rival and more ancient institutions. 

II. — Listitiitions giving instruction in special professions, include : 

1. Building Professions: {I.) Building Schools. — There are 
many of these open to all building artisans who have received an 
elementary education, and imparting theoretical and practical instruc- 
tion in their special departments. They rank w^ith " improvement 
schools." The fees are about six thalers per half-year. 

(2.) Building Academy, — This academy at Berlin educates archi- 
tects and engineers of the highest grade. 

2. Mining Pursuits : (1.) Mining Schools. — These correspond 
in grade to the provincial industrial schoolsj and educate foremen and 
master workmen in the mines. 

(2.) Mining Academy at Berlin, which gives the highest education 
in mining and in metal working, and prepares mining engineers. 

3. Weaving AND Dyeing: (1.) Weaver's Schools. — The weav- 
ing schools belong to the grade of improvement schools. There are 
3 of them in Prussia, with 12 teachers and 9G pupils in all. The 
fees are 20 thalers per half-year. 

(2.) Superior Weaving Schools. — There are 5 superior weaving 
schools, with 12 teachers. They require the same qualifications as 



184 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

the provincial industrial schools. The fees are about 20 thalers per 
half-year. 

(3.) Industrial Drawing School. — The industrial drawing school 
at Berlin gives a3sthetic and practical instruction to designers for va- 
rious tissues and to weavers. It is a distinct institution. 

4. Commerce. — Commercial instruction is given to some extent 
in schools of a general literary aim. Of the special institutions . of 
this class, the school of commerce for young women, at Berlin, de- 
serves attention. 

0. Navigation. — There are six schools intended to train young 
men to be pilots and captains of merchant vessels. These are at 
Memel, Dantzig, Pillau, Grabow, Stettin, and Stralsund. 

6. Agriculture. — There are thirty-two institutions, in which 
both the theory and practice of agriculture, and kindred occupations, 
are taught, and several of them, in the range and thoroughness of in- 
struction, are not surpassed in any country of the world. The work 
of the school is carried home to neighborhoods by itinerant teachers 
paid by the government, who go from village to village, and the re- 
sults of improved methods are seen and disseminated by the action 
of upwards of five hundred agricultural associations, which by con- 
ferences, exhibitions, and prizes, keep up a lively interest in agricul- 
tural improvement. 

7. The new laboratories, as well for original research as for higher 
instruction, may be regarded not only as " arsenals '* of science, but 
as mighty engines of industrial development. 

The teachers of the lower and middle grades of technical schools 
become prepared by giving instruction in a gymnasium or real school, 
and afterwards studying in the Berlin trade academy for three years. 
Teachers from other schools are also employed, and, in the lowest 
grades of technical schools, instruction is often given gratis by private 
manufacturers. 

To all of these institutions are attached libraries, and to many be- 
long collections of models, and other aids of instruction ; especially 
full is the collections of the central academy at Berlin. 

The result of the system has been to convert workmen into refined 
and thinking men, and to develop rapidly the industrial resources 
of the country, as was shown in the late international exhibition at 
Paris. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 1^5 



SUNDAY IMPROVEMENT TRADE SCHOOL AT KOENIGSBERQ. 

The Sunday School of the Society of Industry, (Gewerbe Gesellschaft) at 
Konigsber^ instructs apprentices in the ordinary trades. It requires no previous 
practical edu.-ation, the only requirement being that the candidate has passed 
through the elementary schools, which implies some rudimentary knowledge of 
religion and Bible history, German, history, geography, natural history, arith- 
metic, mensuration, drawing, singing, and gymnastics. 

Instruction is given by the professors of the Provincial Trade School in the 
same city, Avho receive extra pay for serving. The branches pursued are the fol- 
lowing: algebra, arithmetic, gravitation (planimetry and geometry), elementary 
mechanics and mechanical technology, physics and chemistry in their funda- 
mental doctrines, knowledge of wares and tools, drawing (architectural, machine, 
free-hand, and geometrical), modeling in clay, wax, wood, &c., book-keeping and 
business writings. 

The course lasts one or two years. There is no charge, the expense being 
borne by the Society of Industry of the Province of Prussia. There are from 80 
to 100 scholars. 

WORKING-MEN'S UNION AT BERLIN. 

The Working- Men's Union, at Berlin (Betiin Handw&i-ker Verein), stands in 
the first rank of associations of this class in Germany. It was founded in 
1843, dissolved in the revolutionary period of 1848, and again re-organizcd. It 
has for its object to promote good morals, general culture, and special professional 
knowledge among its members. Its doors are open to artisans of all degrees, 
masters, workmen, and apprentices. Every young man, of good character, can 
join it on being introduced by a member, and paying a fee of three silver groschen 
(about seven cents) a month. In its organization is a Committee of Instruction, 
composed of friends of industry and of the working classes who volunteer their 
services, among whom are sgme of the most prominent men in the capital. 

The objects of the Society are accomplished by debates, instruction, both gen- 
eral and special, free lectures and social gatherings. The meetings take place 
four times a week, in the evening, after working hours, and are occupied with 
study and debating, always ending with choral singing. 

Debates. The debaters are generally members of the Committee of Instruc- 
tion, the subject being chosen, and the names of the participants published three 
months beforehand. Between 1861 and 1865, there were .592 such debates, about 
half of the subjects being questions relating to industry and science. In general, 
each meeting completes a subject, but sometimes the subject is carried through 
several in succession. All subjects except politics and religion may be dis- 
cussed. 

Lectures. The lectures are held on the evenings of Monday, Wednesday, 
Saturday and Sunday. The subjects are very various. In 1867, lectures were 
given, during the first nine months, on the following subjects, many of them oc- 
cupying only one lecture : physics, chemistry, technology, natural history, unity 
of natural forces and agencies, history and mode of lighting with gas, value of 
machinery, laws of exchange, public law, national rewards, paper money, security 
of insurance companies, cultivation of industry, manufacturing towns in France, 
weaving, lace making, calling and position of the female sex, relations of man 
and wife, of parents and children, woman in literature and in art, sanitary laws, 



186 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 



physiology, anatomy of the intestines, music, history and works of art, history, 
history of religion, Egmont and Orange, severance of the Netherlands and Spain, 
literature, trick and romance, lyrics, Goethe's Hermann and Dorothea, Faust, 
Lessing, Don Juan Fabel, translation of that work, Arkwright, Wedgewood, 
upon Grabbe and Hcbbel, Franz Dunker, Zimmermann and village education, 
Paris exhibition, Brelcck, Born and Ebert's report from Paris, sketches of a jour- 
ney, German emigration, German life in London, Venice, education, education 
in the Verein, medicine, domestic economy. 

Lectures begin at 8^, and are not to last longer than forty-five minutes, on 
Monday evenings fifteen minutes. Members of other societies pay one silver 
groschen ; those who do not belong to the societies 2|- groschen. Once a week, 
on Wednesday evening, each member can bring two ladies, without entrance fee. 

The courses of instruction are as follows, the principle of demanding special 
payment having been adopted after mature consideration : 



Studies. 



1. Calligraphy and reading, . . - 

2. Orthography " " 

3. German (grammar and reading), 

4. " (syntax and reading), 

5. " (composition and epistolary style), - 

6. Arithmetic. — Course I, - 

7. « " II, . - . 

8. Geometrical and architectural drawing ( Sunday 

niorning), - - - - - 

9. Geometry, ----- 

10. Book-keeping by single entry, theory of hills of 

exchange (Sunday morning), 

11. Commercial arithmetic (Sunday morning), 

12. Book-keeping, double entry, " " 

13. Mechanical designing, " " 

14. Projection, 

15. Singing, in two courses, each 

16. Stenography (Sundays), - . - 

17. Modeling, - 

18. French (2 courses), - 

19. English (2 courses), 

20. Pattern reading for weavers (Sunday), 



Hours Weekly. 


Fee for 3 Months. 




7^ groschen. 




10 




10 




n " 




7| " 




10 " 




7i « 


■»• 


15 " 




H " 




1 thaler. 




1 




15 groschen.' 




1 thaler. 




7^ groschen. 




^2 " 




1 thaler. 




15 groschen. 


2 


1 ^ thaler. 


2 


H " 


1 


15 groschen. 



In pursuance of the purpose of opening classes in special trades, a school for 
the building-trades has been opened, under the supervision of two architects con- 
nected with the Committee of Instruction, imparting the theoretical knowledge 
necessary for a young artisan in a building-trade, and to enable him to pass the 
examination for becoming a master in his guild. There are four courses, each 
occupying four winter months, comprising eight hours of instruction daily. The 
subjects taught are : German, arithmetic, theory of proportions, algebra, geome- 
try, geometrical projection, elements of physics, theory of mechanical powers, 
theory of heat, theory of architecture, agricultural architecture, ornamentation, 
architectural and free-hand drawing and modeling in clay. The fees are from 
4 to 6 thalers monthly, but there is a deficit of from 400 to 500 thalers annually, 
made up by the Union. 

The recreations, which may be considered as means, and powerful means, of 
moral education, are participated in by the female relations of the members. The 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 187 

days selected for this purpose are Sundays and holidays ; the amusements con- 
sist of di.scussions suited to the capacity of tlie female auditors, coiicerts, choral 
singinjj, dramatic readings, balls and scenic representations, held in the Society's 
hall, or in a large park outside of the city. Excursions into the country take 
place often. 

There is a savings bank for tlve members; on the plan of Schulzc Delitzsch, 
and an insurance company affiliated to the great Germania company. 

As a minor arrangement of great possible utility may be mentioned the box 
for questions by workmen on matters pertaining to practical life, or arising from 
their reading. It is filled every evening, and emptied by the teachers at each 
successive general meeting. 

The Union now numbers 3,000 permanent members, nine-tenths of whom be- 
long to the industrial classes. As many as 10,000 temporary members have 
been inscribed in one year. The lectures are attended by 10,000 to 12,000 hear- 
ers, and the school by 1,300 students, of all grades, apprentices, journeymen, 
workmen, and masters. 

The building of the Union cost, in 1864, together with the land, 68,000 thalers. 
It is the first in Germany, exclusively devoted to the instruction of w^orking- 
men. The ccnti*al hall is SO feet long, 60 wide and 20 high, and will contain 
more than 2,000 persons. It opens directly on a garden, the two together afford- 
ing sufficient room for all the members and their families on festive occasions. 
Two entire stories are occupied by the lecture-rooms, &c., and the library. The 
latter is free to all the members, books being exchanged two evenings in the 
week. The number of volumes (1865) is 3,500, of which from 250 to 500 are 
taken out weekly. The average number of readers is, in summer 500, in winter 
700. There is a great demand for books upon commerce and industry. The 
reading-room is mostly furnished by the generosity of the editors of the various 
periodicals, and contains 70 journals, besides political, technical, literary and 
religious reviews. It is visited by a very large number. 

PROVINCIAL TRADE SCHOOL AT DANTZIC. 

The Provincial Trade School at Dantzic, which may be considered as a fair 
example of its class, has for its object to instruct commercial assistants and mas- 
ters or overseers in small manufactories. A further object is the preparing can- 
didates for the polytechnic institutes at Berlin. It is governed by a director, who 
with four other persons appointed by the provincial government, forms a school 
committee, regulating the financial and other affairs of the school. The profes- 
sorships are, one for mathematics, mechanics, engineering, and mechanical tech- 
nology, one for the natural sciences, namely, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, and 
chemical technology, and one, with an assistant, for sketching, modeling, and 
geometrical drawing. The director is one of the two first, the others rank ac- 
cording to seniority. They are considered government officers. 

Professors are appointed by the provincial government, after an examina- 
tion before a special board, but the province may appoint assistants temporarily 
without this formality. All appointments are to be confirmed by the minister, 
to whom also the board reports the results of its examinations, and who may 
dispense with the latter in the case of those who have undergone it at a previous 
period, or have the reputation of having had experience in giving instruction. 

If the candidate has not had practice in teaching, the engagement is made for 
six months only, but he is definitely settled if he has been m active service for a 



188 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

period of from three to five years. He is entitled to a pension, his time of service 
being counted from the date of the beginning of his probation, and a regular an- 
nual deduction being made from his salary. 

The Minister of Commerce exercises supervision over the plan of instruction 
to render the system of the provincial trade schools uniform. This plan is 
forwarded to him every year, in August, together with a detailed report on the 
condition of the institution from the provincial government. 

It receives scholars at fourteen, who can read and write correctly, who have 
some practice in drawing, can explain any German book within the capacity of 
their age, " be able to vise books for self instruction," and possess a knowledge 
of arithmetic as far as vulgar fractions, besides being acquainted with the solu- 
tion of ordinary questions, such as measuring the superficies of polygonal planes 
and prismatic bodies. 

Young mechanics, with only the knowledge acquired in the primary schools, 
can obtain the necessary preparation in the journeyman's Sunday and evening 
improvement sckool, which is connected with the institution. But if it is thought 
necessary, a preparatory class may be opened, supported by the community, and 
not as an integral part of the higher establishment ; it is also desired that its 
course be so arranged as to be profitable to those not intending to pursue their 
studies farther. If such a preparatory class be organized, it is to be provided 
with a good elementary teacher, and to be under the control of the director of the 
. provincial trade school. 

The course lasts two years," and is divided into a junior class for theoretical 
studies and drawing, and a senior class for application of the instruction received 
to the differ ent branches of industrial pursuits. The term commences at the 
beginning of October, and there are only two months vacation in the year. The 
number of hours of lessons is not to exceed 36 a week ; the director gives 16 to 
18 hours, the other professors 20 to 24. As the number of scholars in the school 
is over forty, they are divided, according to the law, into two drawing classes, 
and an assistant is engaged for the lower class. The cm*riculum includes the 
following studies : German composition, arithmetic, with extensive exercises in 
its practical application, theoretical and applied geometry with practical appli- 
cations to surveying, algebra, trigonometry, descriptive geometry, conic sec- 
tions, stereotomy, physics, with strength of materials, mechanics, theory of 
wheel- works, chemistry and the technology of chemistry, mineralogy as applied 
to practice, various architectural constructions in the various materials used, ge- 
ometrical drawing carried to constructing parts of machines from logarithms, 
free-hand drawing of ornaments, and outline sketches from models, in pencil, 
ink, chalk, and elpia ; finally, clay modeling from plaster casts. There is no 
religious instruction. 

Between the senior and junior classes is an examination. Those failing are 
allowed to continue in the junior class another year. Any one who can pass this 
examination is allowed to enter the senior class, whether he has studied in the 
school or not. 

This institution enjoys, as well as some of the other provincial trade schools, 
the right of issuing certificates after a final examination of those who have com- 
pleted the course of study. This privilege is obtained, in all cases, after special 
petition, accompanied with specimen drawings and written exercises from all the 
members of the senior class. This petition is granted if a favorable report is re- 
ceived by the Minister of Commerce from a commissary sent to examine the class. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 



189 



The final examination for the "certificates of maturity " is held in July, or at 
the beginning of August, and is open to all who choose to announce tlu-ir inten- 
tion in writing, whether they have been pupils in the institution or not. It is 
held before a board consisting of a government commissary, the director and the 
professors of the senior class, and is both written and oral. From the oral part, 
however, those proposing to engage in certain trades in house-building are ex 
cused. Four compositions are to be written under the eye of a professor, without 
books or aids of any kind ; one in four hours, in German, on some subject well 
known to the pupil that he may have little to do but to arrange his thoughts, 
and three others to be finished in seven hours each ; one on a subject taken from 
physics, one from chemistry and chemical technology, and one from mechanics 
and engineering. 

Those passing the examination are excused from two of their three years' mili- 
tary service, and may be admitted to the Royal Trade Academy, (gewerbeaca^emie,) 
at Berlin. Like other provincial trade schools, that at Dantzic has the right of 
conferring a stipend and a free place at the gewerbe academie. 

There are (1867) 25 in the first and 35 in the second class. Few of these are 
preparing for the Berlin academy. The fees are 12 thalers a year. It is a day 
school. The building is furnished by the city, the Government having paid the 
first expenses of opening it, which amounted to about 4,000 thalers, half of which 
was for instruments and half for a library and drawing models. The annual 
cost is shared by the State and the city, and amounts to about 3,200 thalers. 

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS IN BERLIN. 

Excellent and useful as are the provincial schools of arts and trades in Prussia, 
we must look to Berlin and its neighborhood for the most complete development 
of the system of scientific studies, and facilities for the practical application of 
the same to national industries, although there is no graded or administi'ative 
connection between the institutions The two schools which give a thorough 
preparation for the highest special schools, are the Royal Real School, and the 
City Trade School. The programmes of these excellent schools were drawn up 
by eminent teachers, assisted by the suggestions of successful business men, and 
will be found in the following account by Prof. Bache. They are valuable as a 
general preparation for business life, as well as for the higher ti'aining of a poly- 
technic school. 

The Royal Real School, whose history is given in another place,* as well as 
the City Trade School, had its origin in the conviction that Latin and Greek were 
not the only nor the highest objects of study, either for mental discipline, or for 
the use of pupils who are to grapple with practical problems of life in the public 
service or in national industries ; and its continued work for 100 years has 
demonstrated the value of modern languages, drawing, mathematics, ( including 
algebra, geometry, and trigonometry), physics, natural history, and chemistry, 
for the highest purposes for which public schools, for the great majority of the 
community, are instituted It was the pioneer institution in that great revolu- 
tion in pedagogy which has asserted the claims of science in agriculture, archi- 
tecture, commerce, and manufactures, in modern systems of public instruction. 

♦Special Report of Commissioner of Education on Condition and Improvement of Public 
Schools in the District of Columbia, 1861-S.— Appendix.— Notes on the Public Schools of Berlin 
and Prussia. 



.JQQ ROYA.L REAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN. 

The Frederick William Gymnasium is regarded by Dr. Bache, as a 
fair specimen oftiiis class of schools in Prussia; in the organization and 
instruction of which a good degree of liberty is tolerated by the govern- 
ment, to enable them the better to meet the peculiar circumstances of 
each province, and the peculiar views of each director. 

The Royal Real School, and City Trade School of Berlin, furnish a 
course of instruction of the same general value for mental discipline, but 
better calculated for that class of pupils who are destined in life, not for 
what are designated as the learned profession, but for tradesmen and me- 
chanics. There is less of verbal knowledge but more of mathematics 
and their application to the arts ; and the whole is so arranged as to fa- 
cilitate the acquisition of those mental habits which are favorable to 
the highest practical success. 

ROYAL REAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN. 

The Royal Real School of Berlin was founded as early as 1747, by Counsellor 
Hecker. At the period in which this school was founded, Latin and Greek were 
the exclusive objects of study in the learned schools, and the avowed pui-pose of 
this establishment was that " not mere words should be taught to the pupils, but 
realities, explanations being made to them from nature, from models and plans, 
and of subjects calculated to be useful in after-life." Hence the school was called 
a " real school," and preserves this name, indicative of the great educational 
reform which it was intended to promote, and the success of winch has been, 
though slow, most eei-tain. 

The successor of Hecker, in 1769, divided this flourishing school into three de- 
partments, the pedagogium, or learned school, the school of arts, and the German 
school : the whole establishment still retaining the title of real school. The first 
named department was subsequently separated from the others, constituting the 
Frederick William gymnasium ; the school of arts, and the German, or elemen- 
tary school, remain combined under the title of the royal real school. The same 
director, however, still presides over the gymnasium and the real school. 

The question has been much agitated, whether the modem languages should be 
considered in these schools as the substitutes for the ancient in intellectual educa- 
tion, or whether mathematics and its kindi-ed branches should be regai'ded in this 
light. Whether the original principle of the " realities" on which the schools 
were founded, was to be adhered to, or the still older of verbal knowledge, only 
with a change of languages, to be substituted for it. In this school the languages 
will be found at present to occupy a large share of attention, while in the similar 
institution, a description of which follows this, the sciences have the pre- 
ponderance. 

In the royal real school the branches of instniction are — ^religion, Latin, French, 
English, German, physics, natm-al history, chemistry, histoiy, geograj'hy, draw- 
ing, wi'iting, and vocal music. The Latin is retained as practically useful in some 
branches of trade, as in pharmacy, as aiding in the nomenclature of natui-al his- 
tory, and as preventing a separation in the classes of this school and that of the 
gymnasium, which would debar the pupils fi'om passing from the former to the 
latter in the upper classes. It mvist be admitted that, for all purposes but the last, 
it occupies an uimecessaiy degree of attention, especially in the middle classes. 

The following table shows the distribiition of time among the courses. There 
are seven classes in numerical order, but ten, in fact, the third, fourth, and fifth 
being divided into two ; the lower fourth is again, on account of its numbers, sub- 
divided into two parallel sections. Of these, the seventh, sixth, and fifth are ele- 
mentary classes, the pupils entering the seventh at between five and seven yeare of 
age. In the annexed table the number of hom-s of recitation per week of each 
class in the several subjects is stated, and the vertical column separating the ele- 
mentaty classes from the others, contains the sum of the hours devoted to each 
branch in the higher classes, o?vc1u'l'n<:( th? lower section of the foui'th class, 
which has not a distinct course from that of the other division. 

I 



ROYAL REAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN. 



mi 



TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF HOURS OF RECITATION PER WEEK, OF EACH CI.AS 
IN THE SUBJECTS TAUGHT IN THE ROYAL REAL SCHOOL OF liEKLlN. 



SUBJECTS OF STUDY. 



Latin, . 
FvoDch, 
English, 
Gennjjn, 



Reliorion, 

Mathematics,* . . 
Natural History, 

Physics, 

Chemistry, .... 
(x.-ography, .... 
History, 



Drawing, 
Writing, . 
Singing, . 



Total, 



36 36 35 35 32 32 32 



6 5 
3 4 



3 4 



p 



< 

•S ' £ . -5 



4 5 

8 8 

2 3 

4 3 

2 2 

2 2 

4 4 



26 26 26 26 



10 



Proportion of other 
studies to German 
in the 



1.4 
1.1 
0.3 
1.0 

0.6 
1.7 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.7 

0.6 

0.2 
0.7 



2.9 
0.7 

0.8 

0.6 
1.1 

O.lt 
0.2t 

0.5 
0.3 

0.4 

0.3 
0.6 



3 
0.9 

1.0 

0.8 
1.6 
0.] 
0.2 

0.5 
0.7 

0.4 
0.3 
0.6 



Pupils who enter this school between five and seven years of age, and go regu- 
larly through the elementary classes, are prepared at ten to pass to its higher 
classes, or to enter the lowest of the g}'mnasium. It is thus after the fifth class 
that a comparison of the two institutions must begin. The studies of the real 
school proper, and of the gymnasium, have exactly the same elementary basis, 
and they remain so far parallel to each other that a pupil, by taking extra instruc- 
tion in Greek, may pass from the lower third class of the former to the lower third 
of the latter. This fact alone is sufficient to show that the real schools must be 
institutions for secondary instruction, since the pupils have yet three classes to pass 
through after reaching the point just referred to. It serves also to separate the 
real schools from the higher burgher schools, since the extreme limit of the 
courses of the latter, with the same assistance in regard to Greek, only enables 
the pupil to reach the lower third class of the gymnasium. In general, a pupil 
would terminate his studies in the real school at between sixteen and eighteen 
years of age. The difference between the subjects of instruction in the real 
school and the Frederick William gymnasium, consists in the omission in the 
former of Greek, Hebrew, and philosophy, and the introduction of English and 
chemistiy. The relative proportions of time occupied in the same subjects in the 
two schools, will be seen by comparing the two columns next on the right of the 
numbers for the seventh class, in the table just given. The first of these columns 
contains the proportion of the number of hours per week devoted to the different 
subjects in the six classes of the real school above the elementary, the number of 
hours devoted to the German being tciken as unity; and the second, the same 
proportion for six classes of the gyujnasium, beginning with the lowest, the same 
number of hours being taken as the unit, as in the preceding column. To bring 
the natural historj' and physics into comparison, I have taken thenumbei-s for the 



* Including arithmetic, geometry, algebra, and trigonometry. 
t These numbers include the entire course. 



192 ROYAL REAL SCHOOL OF BERLIN. 

upper classes of the gymnasium in which these branches are taught. Of the 
courses common to the two schools, those to which nearly equal attention is paid 
in both institutions, are — the religious instruction, the German, geography and 
history, writing, and vocal music. The French, mathematics, physics, and nat- 
ural history, predominate in the real school, the Latin in the gyiimasiimi. The 
effect of reckoning the fii'st, second, and upper third classes of the gymnasium, 
does not materially change the proportionate numbers of the courses which are 
common to the two schools, except as to Latin and mathematics. To show this, 
the column on the extreme right of the table is introduced, containing the pro- 
portions for all the nine classes of the Frederick William gymnasium. 

There were, in 1838, five hundred and ten pupils in this real school, under the 
charge of fourteen regular or class masters, teaching several subjects in the lower 
classes, and of six other teachers. Each of the eleven class divisions thus aver- 
ages about forty -six, who are under the charge of one teacher at a time. 

The elementary course in the real school is similar to that described in the 
burgher schools, beginning with the phonic method of reading, the explanations 
of all the words and sentences being required at the same time that the mechani- 
cal part of reading is learned. Written and mental arithmetic are taught together 
in the lowest class. The religious instruction consists of Bible stories adapted to 
their age ; and verses are committed to improve the memory of words. The ex- 
ercises of induction are practiced, but in a way not equal to that with objects, 
introduced by Dr. Mayo in England. Some of the pupils are able to enter the 
gj'mnasium after going through the two lowest classes. 

In regard to the real classes proper, as I propose to enter into the particulars of 
the course of study of the trade school, I shall here merely make a few remarks 
upon two of the branches studied in them, namely, French and drawing. The 
remarks in regard to the French will serve to show how great a latitude 
a teacher is allowed in the arrangement of his methods, the result of which 
is, that those who have talent are interested in improving their art by observation 
and experiment. The French teacher to whom I allude had been able to secure 
the speaking, as well as the reading, of French from his pupils. From the very 
beginning of the coui*se this had been a point attended to, and translation from 
French into German had been accompanied by that from German into French : 
the conversation on the business of the class-room was in French. The pupils 
were exercised especially in the idioms of the language in short extempore sen- 
tences, and the differences of structure of the French and their own language 
were often brought before them, and the difficulties resulting from them antici- 
pated. Difficult words and sentences were noted by the pupils. Declamation 
was practiced to encourage a habit of distinct and deliberate speaking, and to 
secure a correct pronunciation. The chief burthen of the instruction was oral. 
Without the stimulus of change of places, the classes imder this gentleman's in- 
struction were entirely alive to the instruction, and apparently earnestly engaged 
in the performance of a duty which interested them. K such methods should 
fail in communicating a greater amount of knowledge than less lively ones, which 
I belive can not be the case, they will serve, at least, to break down habits of in- 
tellectual sloth to prornote mental activity, the great aim of intellectual education. 

The drawing department of this school is superintended by a teacher who has 
introduced a new method of instruction, particularly adapted to the purpose for 
which drawing is to be applied in common life and in the arts ; a method which 
is found to enable a much larger proportion of the pupils to make adequate jiro- 
gress than the ordinary one of copying from drawings.* In this method the pupil 
begins by drawing from simple geometrical forms, those selected being obtained 
from models in wood or plaster, of a square pillar,t a niche, and a low cylinder, 
(the form of a mill-stone.) The square pillar separates in joints, affording a cube 
and parallelepipeds of different heights. The hemisphere which caps the niche 
may be removed, leaving the concave surface of its cylindrical part. The exer- 
cises of the pupil ran thus : First, to place upon a board, or upon his paper or 

* Mr. Peter Schmidt, who now. in his old age. has received from the government a pension 
in rf Turn for the introduction of his method, and the instruction in it of a certain number ol 
teachers. 

t Seven and a half inches high, and one inch and a hail ii» .v.. ~^-3Xt section. 



CITY TRADE SCHOOL. 193 

slate, a point vertically above another, or so that the lines joining the two shall 
be parullol to the rijirht or left hand edge of the board, paper, or slate. Second, 
to join them. Third, to place a point hoi-izontally from the second, and at a dis- 
tance equal to that between the fii-st and second points. Fourth, to place one 
vertically over the third, and at a distance equal to that below the first, and to 
join the third and fourth. The first and fourth being then joined, a square is 
formed. After practice in this, the simple elevation of the cube is drawn. Next, 
a perspectis'o, by the use of a small frame and silk threads, such as is common in 
teaching the elements of this subject, and by means of which the pupil acquires 
readily a knowledge of the practice. The drawing of lines in various positions, 
and with various proportions, terminates this division of the subject. The niche 
and cylinder afford a similarly graduated series of lessons on the drawing of curved 
linos, and the drawing of lines of different degrees of strength and of shadows is 
introduced. This is accompanied with some of the more simple rules of shadow 
and shade. ^lore difhcult exercises of perspective follow from natural objects 
and from works of art or mechanism, according to the direction to the pupil's at- 
tainments and the amount of taste which he displays. This method of teaching 
has been introduced quite generally in Prussia, and with the best results as to the 
formation of accuracy of eye and of hand. 

CITY TRADE SCHOOL, 

Tlie City Trade School was founded to give a more appropriate education for 
the mechanic arts and higher trades than can be had through the courses of clas- 
sical schools. It is a great point gained, when the principal is admitted that dif- 
ferent kinds of education are suited to different objects in life ; and such an ad- 
mission belong-s to an advanced stage of education. As a consequence of a gen- 
eral sentiment of this kind, numerous schools for the appropriate instruction of 
those not intended for the learned professions grow up by the side of the othei-s. 
^ The city of Berlin is the patron of the trade school which I am about to notice, 
as the king is of the real school already spoken of. Its stability is thus secured, 
but the means of furnishing it with the necessary materials for instruction are 
liberally provided.* The trade school is a day school, and consists of five classes, 
of which the lowest is on the same grade as to age and qualification at admission, 
as the fourth class of a gymnasium. It is assumed that at twelve years of age it 
will have been decided whether a youth is to enter one of the learned professions, 
or to follow a mechanical employment, or to engage in trade, but the higher classes 
are not closed against pupils. Of the five classes, four are considered necessary 
for certain pursuits and the whole five for others ; the courses of all but the firet 
class last one year, that of the first, two years, a youth leaving the school at from 
16 to 17 or 18 years of age, according to circumstances. During the year lb36-7, 
the number of pupils in the several classes were, in the first class, eleven : in the 
second, twenty-nine ; in the upper third, forty-three ; in the lower third, fifty- 
two ; in the fourth, fifty ; total, one hundred and eighty-five ; from which num- 
bers it appears that a considerable proportion of the pupils leave the school without 
entering the first class. The number of teachers is nineteen, five being regular or 
class teachers, and fourteen assistants. The director gives instruction. 

The following list of the callings to which pupils from this school have gone on 
leaving it, will show that it is really what it professes to be, a school for the in- 
struction of those who intend to follow occupations connected with " commerce, 
the useful arts, higher trades, building, mining, forestry, aorriculture, and military 
life ;" and further, that its advantages are appreciated by the class for whom it is 
intended. The list includes the pupils who have left the school from the first and 
second classes, in the years 1830, 1832, 1833 and 1837. From the first class, two 
teachers, five architects, one chemist, twenty-six merchants, one machinest, two 
calico-printers, two glass-workers, one cloth manufacturer, one silk manuf;>cturer, 
one miner, thirteen agriculturalists, eight apothecaries, two gardeners, one painter, 
one mason, one carpenter, one tanner, one miller, one baker, one potter, one 
saddler, one soap-boiler, one cabinet-maker, two soldiers, one musician, five to 



*The present director of fV'''- school, Mr. Kloden, was formf^j-ly director of the higher 
burgher school ai Potsaam, and is one of the most distinguished teachers iu his line in Persia. 

13 



194 CITY TRADE SCHOOL IN BERLIN. 

public offices, one to the trade institution, six to gymnasium. From tlie second 
class, forty-one merchants, one teacher, one chemist, one machinest, one ship-car- 
penter, nine agricuhurist, one sugar-refiner, three dyers, one tanner, one brewer, 
two distillers, one miner, two lithographers, one dye-sinker, three apothecaries, 
one dentist, two painters, two gardeners, three masons, five carpenters, one miller, 
four bakers, one butcher, one to the trade institution, three to public offices, two 
to a gymnasium, one musician, one veterinary surgeon, one soldier, being ninety 
from the first class, and ninety-seven from the second, in the period of four years. 

In the course of instruction, the sciences and kindred branches are made the 
basis, and the modern languages are employed as auxiliaries, the ancient languages 
being entirely omitted. The subjects embraced in it are — religious instruction, 
German, French, English, geography, history, mathematics, physics, chemistry, 
technology, natural history, writing, drawing, and vocal music. 

The courses are fully laid down in the following list, beginning with the studies 
of the lowest or fourth class. 

FOURTH CLASS. 

Religious Inst iiicti on* The srospel according to St. Luke, and the Acts of the Apostles 
explained, with a catechetical development of the truths of reUgion and ethical applications. 
Two hours per week. 

German. Gi-ammatical exercises in writing. Recital of poetical pieces. 

Frejich. Grammatical exercises. Regular and irregular verbs. Reading from Lauren's 
Reader. One hour of conversation. Four hours. 

Arithmetic. Mental and written, including proportions and fractions, with the theory of 
the operations. Four hours. 

Geometry. Introductory course of forms. Two hours. 

Geography. Elementary, mathematical, and physical geography. Two hours. 

Natural History. In the summer term, elements of botany, with excursions. In the win' 
ter. the external characters of animals. Two hours. 

Physics. Introductory instruction. Genei-al properties of bodies. Forms of crystals, 
specific gravity. &c. Two hours. 

Writing. Two hours. 

Drawing. Outline drawingand shadows, from models and copy-boards. Two hours. 

Vocal Music. Two hours. 

LOWER THIRD CLASS. 

Religious Instruction. The Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles read and explained. 
Two hours. 

German. Grammar with special reference to orthography and etymology. Written exer« 
cises upon narrations made by the teacher. Delivery of poetical pieces. Four hours. 

French. Translation from French into German from Gredicke's Chrestomathy. Grammar ; 
irregular verbs. Extemporalia, and translations from German into French. Four hours. 

Arithmetic Partly abstract, partly practical, from Diesterweg's Instructor. Four hours. 

Geometry. Determination of angles in triangles and polygons. Equality of triangles. 
Depeiidance of angles and sides of triangles. Constructions. Three hours. 

Geigrnphy. Physical description of the parts of the earth, except Europe. Two hours. 

Natural History. Mineralogy. In summer, botany, the class making excursions for prac- 
tical exercise. Man. Three hours. 

Physics. General properties of bodies and solids in particular. Doctrines of heat and 
their "application to natural phenomena and the arts. Two hours. 

Chemistry. Introduction. Atmospheric air. Experimental illustrations of chemistry, 
applied to the arts. Two hours. 

Writing. Two hours. Architectural and topographical drawing. Two hours. Drawing 
by hand (or those who do not take part in the other. Two hours. 

Vocal Music. Two hours. 

UPPER THIRD CLASS. 

Religious Instruction. Christian morals, from Luther's Catechism. Two hours. 

German. Simple and complex sentences. Compositions on special subjects. Poems ex- 
plained and committed. Four hours. 

French. Translation from Gredicke's Chrestomathy, oral and in writing. Written trans- 
lations from Beauvais' Introduction, from German into French. Gi'ammar, examples treated 
extempore. Four hours 

Arithmetic. Properties of numbers. Powers. Roots. Decimal fractions Practical 
Arithmetic from Diesterweg. Four hours. 

Geometry. Similar figures. Geometrical proportion. Exercises. Mensuration of rectili- 
near figu res. Three hours. . 

Geography. Physical geography of Europe, and in particular of Germany and Prussia. 
Two hours. 

Natural History. Continuation of the mineralogy of the lower third class. Review in 
outline of zoology and the natural history of man in particular. Botany, with excursions in 
summer. Three hours. 

♦Roman Catholic pupils are not required to take part in this instruction, which is comma' 
nicated by a Protestant clergyman. 



CITY TRADE SCHOOL IN BERLIN. 195 

Physics. Electricity and maffnetism, witn experiments. Two hours. 
Chemitfry. Water and non-metallic bodies, with experiments. Two hours. 
Writing Two iiours. ArchitcctuTcU and topographical drawing. Two hours. Some of 
the pupils dnrinjf this time are engaged in ornamental drawing. 
Vocal Music. Two hours. 

SECOND CI..A8S. 

Rrligious Instiiiction. Explanation of the first three gospels. History of the Christian 
religion and church to the reformation. Two hours. 

German. Correction of exercises written at home, upon subjects assigned by the teacher. 
Oral anil written exercise^;. Introduction to the history of German poetry Three hours. 

French. Grammar; extemporalia for the application of the rules. Written and oral 
translations froni German into French, from Beauvais' Manual, and vice versa, from Ideler 
and Nolte's Manual. Four hours. 

English Exercises in reading and speaking. Translation into German, from Burkhardt. 
Dictation. Verbs. Two hours. 

Arithmetic. Commercial Arithmetic. Algebra, to include simple and quadratic equa- 
tions. Logarithms Three hours. 

Geometry. Circles. Analytical and plane trigonometry. Three hours. 

Geography. The states of Eurojje, with special reference to their population, manufac- 
tures and commerce. Two hours. 

History. Principal events of the history of the middle ages and of later times, as an intro 
duction to recent liistory. One hour. 

Natural History. Mineralogy. Physiology of plants. Three hours. 

Chemistry. Metallic bodies and their compounds, v^'ith experiments. Three hours. 

Architectural, topographical., and plain drawing. Drawing with instruments. Introduc- 
tion to India ink drawing. Beginning of the science of constructions. Two hours. 

Druicing From copies, and from plaster and other models. Two hours. This kind of 
drawing may be learned instead of the above. 

Vocal Music. Two hours. 

FIRST CLASS. 

Religious Instruction. History of the Christian religion and church continued. Refer- 
ences to the bble. One nour. 

German. History of German literature to recent times. Essays. Exercises of delivery. 
Three hours. 

French. Reading from the manual of Buchner and Hermunn, with abstracts. Classic 
authors read. Review of Grammar. Exercises at home, and extemporalia. Free delivery. 
"Correction of exercises. Four hours. 

English. Syntax, with written and extempore exercises from Burkhardt. Reading of 
classic authors. Writing of letters. Exercises in speaking. 

Arithmetic Algebra. Simple and quadratic equations. Binomial and polynomial theo- 
rems. Higher equations. Commercial arthmetic continued. Three hours. 

Geometry. Plane trigonometry and its applications. Conic sections. Descriptive Geome- 
try. Three hours. 

History. History of the middle ages. Modern history, with special reference to the prog- 
ress of civilization, of inventions, discoveries, and of commerce and industry. Three hours. 

Natural History. In summer, botany, the principal families, according to" the natural sys- 
tem. In wi iter, zoology. The pupils are taken, for the purpose of examining specimens to 
the Royal Museum. 

Physics. In summer, optics with experiments. In winter the system of the world. 
Three hours. 

Technology. Chemical and mechanical arts and trades, described and illustrated by mo- 
dels. Excursions to visit the principal workshops. Four hours. 

Architectural and machine drawing. Two hours. Those pupils who do not take part in 
this, receive lessons in ornamental drawing from plaster models. 

Vocal Music. Two hours. 

The pupils of this class are, besides, engaged in manipulating in the laboratory of the insti- 
tion several hours each week. 

The courses require a good collection of apparatus and specimens to carry 
them out, and this school is, in fact, better furnished than any other of its grade 
which I savp in Prussia, besides which, its collections are on the increase. The 
facilities for the courses are furnished by a collection of mathematical and physical 
apparatus, a labratory, with a tolerably complete chemical apparatus and series of 
tests, a collection of specimens of the arts and manufactures (or technological col- 
lection,) a collection of dried plants, and of engravings for the botanical course, 
and a sinall garden for the same use, a collection of minerals, a collection of insects, 
a collection in comparative anatomy, a series of engravings for the drawing course, 
and of plaster models, a set of maps, and other apparatus for geography, some as- 
tronomical instruments, and a library. The pupils are taken from time to time, 
to the admirable museum attached to the university of Berlin, for the examination 
of zoological specimens especially. 

That this school is as a preparation for the higher occupations, and for profee- 
eions not ranking among the learned, the equivalent of the gymnasium is clearly 
shown by the sulijects and scope of its courses, and by the age of its pupils. 



196 



CITY TRADE SCHOOL IN BERLIN 



Some of these occupations require no higher inslruction, others that the pupils 
shall pass to the special schools introductory to them. So also, many of the pupils 
of the gymnasia pass at once into active life, others enter the university. 

The class of schools to which the two last described belong, are most important 
in their influence. In many countries, an elementary education is the limit beyond 
which those intending to enter the lower grades of the occupations enumerated in 
connection w-ith the City Ti'ade School of Berlin, do not pass -, and if they are in- 
clined to have a better education, or if intending to embrace a higher occupation, 
they desire to be better instructed, they must seek instruction in the classical 
schools. The training of these schools is, however, essentially different from that 
required by the tradesman and mechanic, the verbal character of the instruction 
is not calculated to produce the habits of mind in which he should be brought up, 
and the knowledge which is made the basis of mental training is not that which 
he has chiefly occasion to use. Besides, were the course ever so well adapted to 
his object, the time at which he must leave school only permits him to follow a 
part of it, and he is exposed to the serious evils which must flow from being, as it 
were, but half taught. 

In fact, however, he requires a very different school, one in which the subjects 
of instruction are adapted to his destination, while they give him an adequate m- 
tellectual culture 5 where the character of the instruction will train him to the 
habits which must, in a very considerable degree, determine his future usefulness ; 
and where the course which he pursues will be thorough, as far as it goes, and 
will have reached before he leaves the school the standard at which it aims. Such 
establishments are furnished by the real schools of Germany, and as the wants 
v.hich gave rise to them there, are strongly felt every where, this class of institu- 
tions must s})read extensively. In Germany they are, as has been seen, no new 
experiment, but have stood the test of experience, and with various modifications 
to adapt them to differences of circumstances or of views in education, they are 
spreading in that country. As they become more diffused, and have employed a 
greater number of minds in their organization, their plans will no doubt be more 
fully developed. 

It is certainly highly creditable to Germany that its " gymnasia." on the one 
hand, and its " real schools'' on the other, offer such excellent models of secondary 
instruction in its two departments. The toleration which allows these dissimilar 
establishments to grow up side by side, admitting that each, though good for its 
object, is not a substitute for the other, belongs to an enlightened state of senti- 
ment in regard to education, and is worthy of the highest commendation 

DISTRIBUTION OF STUDIES IN THE CITY TRADE SCHOOL OF BERLIN. 



!fO. OF HOURS PER WEEK. 



SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION'. 



Religion, 

German, 

French, 

English, 

Arithmetic, 

Geometry, . , 

Geogi-aphy, 

History, 

Natural History, 

Physics, 

Chemistry, 

Technology, 

Writing, 

Drawing, 

Vocal Music, 

Total 



First 
Class. 



Second 
Class. 



Upper Lower 
Third Third 



34 32 32 32 28 



Fourth 
Class. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 197 

THE ROYAL TRADE ACADEMY IN BERLIN. 

The Royal Trade Academy {Konigliche Geiverbe Acadamie), formerly the Royal 
Trade Insititute {Institut), at Berlin, was founded in 1821, and underwent a re- 
organization in 1849. 

Its object, according to the terms of a circular of 1860, is " to give the student 
an opportunity to qualify himself for the position of a superintendent or owner 
of a technological establishment." It stands at the summit of technical instruc- 
tion. It may be considered, together with the building and mining academies, 
of which a description is given elsewhere, as a polytechnic school. 

The institution is in the department of the Minister of Commerce, Industry 
and Public Works. It is governed by a Council of Studies, composed of a high 
official of the Bureau of Commerce, Industry and Public Works, of the director 
of the academy as his substitute, of two professors of the school, and of two 
other gentlemen "as independent representatives of science and industry." All 
the interests of the institution, and all changes in its organization, are deliberated 
upon by this Council, and the results of its deliberations laid before the ?»[inistry. 
The immediate management is in the hands of the director already mentioned. 
He is not a teacher. There ai-e ten titular professors, and twelve other teachers. 
Most of the former fill professorships in other establishments, as in the Univer- 
sity. The teaching corps forms a board, called together at the close of tlie term 
to a school conference on the order of classes. There is also in this institution 
a class of instructors called Privatdocenten, receiving fees from their private pupils, 
but no salary from the government. They must have completed the three years' 
course, and have been in practice as competent engineers. 

The conditions of admission are as follows : 1. The candidate must be be- 
tween 17 and 27 years of age, and must bring a certificate of birth to prove this. 
2. He must present a certificate of maturity from a provincial trade school, from 
a first class real school, or from a gymnasium. 3. Students in the shipbuilding 
division must prove that they have been engaged, for at least one year, in prac- 
tical work in the shipyard of a seaport, before they can go on in the special 
studies of their profession. The requirement of one year's practical work was 
originally made from all candidates, but it was repealed, because a great part of 
what had been acquired at the gymnasium was often forgotten during the inter- 
val. In the case of shipbuilders, however, the year's experience is absolutely 
necessary. 

The period of instruction is three years, with six half-yearly terms. Of these, 
the first three, Section A, are occupied with general and purely theoretical tech- 
nical studies, for all the students in common. During the last three, Section B, 
special courses are pursued, and practical exercises are added. The special de- 
partments are : 

I. Special technology, as mechanics. 
n. Chemistry and metallurgy. 
III. Ship-building. 

The studies of Section A are obligatory on all, but those students of chemistry 
who aim only at being assistants in factories. It is thought that " those having 
this modest object in view, can do very well without the mathematics of the third 
term, and will employ their time more usefully in the laboratory. The director 
may, therefore, allow that class of chemists to experiment in the laboratory after 
having attended the lectures in the fii-st theoretical section for one year." Those 



198 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

intending to establish or superintend chemical factories, must go through the 
whole course. The period of study can be prolonged by students of mechanics, 
who are allowed to spend an additional year in the workshops connected with 
the institution. 

The academical year begins October 1st, and closes August 15th, with a vaca- 
tion of ten days at Christmas, and one of the same length at Easter. 

In regard to the studies pursued, we extract from the circular of August 23, 
1860, already cited, the following paragraph, which shows the admirable spirit in 
which they are planned : 

The characteristic peculiarity of the course of instruction is this, that the 
students do not obtain the knowledge necessary to their future career by a series 
of lectures, independent of one another, as at the University, but that the lec- 
tures form a complete and well organized course, intimately connected Avith each 
other, and so arranged that the student passes through all the theoretical and 
practical branches of science and art, step by step from the moment he becomes 
a member of the second section to the time when he leaves the Institute. This 
is the reason Avhy teachers and students are not permitted to select the objects 
of teaching and study, that the students are obliged to pass through the general 
theoretical section, and that the professors must arrange their lectures in har- 
mony with the general plan of the Institute. Free choice is, however, allowed 
within certain specified limits. 

The curriculum, which has undergone many changes, is as follows : 

A. IN THE GENERAL, TECHNOLOGICAL SECTION. 

a. Complement to general knowledge of figures ; higher equations. 
6. Spherical trigonometiy. 

c. Differential and integral calculations. 

d. Analytical statics and mechanics. 

e. Theory of mechanical effects of heat. 

/. Descriptive geometry, and application of it to perspective construction of 

shadows and lithotomy. 
g. Special inorganic chemistry. 
A. Physics. 

i. General experimental chemistry. 
h. General knowledge of constructive building. 
/. Knowledge of simple machines. 
m. Dra^wang. 
n. Modeling. 

B. IN THE SPECIAL TECHNOLOGICAL SECTION. 

I. — For mechanicians : . ■ 

a. Theory of solidity of buildings, and of parts of machinery ; calculations 
with regard to buildings put together; theory of Arone's counterpoise; 
and {Futter mauern) building of sluices. 
h. Motion of water and air in natural and artificial ducts ; practical hydrau- 
lics ; theory of heating apparatuses ; fireplaces. 

c. General theory of machines ; their resistance and regulation, particularly 

the theory of hydraulic motors and steam engines. 

d. Calculations with regard to simple parts of machinery; general princi- 

ples of their construction. 

e. Details of machines ; power machines. 

f. Mechanical technology. 

g. Chemical technology. 

h. Practice in plans of parts of machines, and whole machines. 

i. Practice in plans of power machinery. 

k. Practice in plans of machines and factory grounds. 

l. Plans and drawings of such artistic forms as can be executed in cast iron. 

m. Mathematical foundation of the most important physical laws. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSU. J 99 

n. — For chemists and smelters : 

a. Spociiil inorganic chemistry. 

b. Special organic chemistry. 

c. Mineralogy. 

d. Geognosy. 

e. Metuliurgic chemistry. 
/: Chemical technology. 

o. Special knowledge of machines and machine power. 
A. Practice in planning chemical works. 
i. Practical studies in the laboratory. 

III. — For ship-builders : 

a. (up to i) as in II. 1. 

k. I) rawing of vessels and parts of vessels. 

/. Art of ship-building, general displacement and stability, first part ; hy- 
drostatic calculations. 

m. Art of ship-building, knowledge of stability, second part; theory of sail- 
ing and steam vessels, general principles with regard to form of vessels ; 
knowledge of construction of wooden and iron vessels. 

n. Practice. 

o. Planning and calculating cost and capacity of vessels. 

At the close of every term a review of the studies pursued during the term is 
held. This review, which is a kind of examination, and is called "repetition," 
is obligatory only upon the stipendiaries, and that class of students who avail 
themselves of the free places in the school. 

On leaving the Acadeiiy, the student receives a certificate, signed by the 
council of teachers ; it enumerates all the lectures and practical exercises he has 
attended ; reports his standing in the repetitions and adds a critique on the skill 
and judgment displayed by him in the practical department. 

There is a fine collection of models, which has recently been re-arranged and 
newly classified. They are in bronze, and plaster of Paris, and consist of models 
of ornaments and of the plastercasts for the drawing class, models for wood and 
cotton manufactures, and some illustrating descriptive geometry. Most of them 
were made at the school. There is a rich collection for machinery and mechan- 
ical technology. The library is open to the public at stated hours. The pupils 
can use the collections under certain restrictions. 

There is a laboratory for organic chemistry, with room for 50 pupils, and one 
for inorganic chemistry with room for 20. 

The reagents are arranged on tables, each large enough for six pupils, and 
provided with cupboards and shelves. Evaporating processes are carried on in 
glazed and closed stoves, with gas burners, and hot sand baths, the whole well 
closed and ventilated. 

The workshops connected witi^the academy are more extensive than at any 
other technical establishment, and not only give practical instruction in mechan- 
ics and ship-building, but encourage the construction of new machines, and man- 
ufacture models for the drawing-school, and for general industrial uses. There 
are consequently always a certain number of regular workmen employed in them. 
The pupil begins with the making of a screw, and proceeds in regular order to 
the most difficult mechanical operations, for which the large machines and mon- 
uments made here afford a good opportunity. 

The number of pupils- in the Academy was 440 in 1867. In 1861-62 there 
were 374 pupils, of whom 67 were mechanics, 20 chemists, and 3 ship-builders. 
The fees are twenty thalers per half year ; forty-five thalers for those who work 



200 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

practically in the chemical laboratory, and the student must pay for all breakages, 
&c., caused by his negligence. For practical work in the workshops, the fee is 
one thaler per half year ; for work in the photographic atelier once a week, two 
thalers per half year. Masters of establishments, working-men's unions, <S:c., often 
pay these fees for gifted young men whom they send. 

The institution has a large number, 150 in all, of free places. These are — 
1 . StipencUa. Every province of Prussia can give a stipend of 200 thalers to a 
pupil who excels at the Provincial Trade School. 2. Free places. Besides the 
stipendiaries, each province can send up a pupil to whom the fees are remitted. 
The same privilege is given to the directors of various scholastic establishments. 
In exceptional cases, the State government does the same. Stipendiaries and 
those who fill the free places are obliged to take all the courses in their depart- 
ment, and to attend the repetitions. If they do not succeed well in the repeti- 
tions, they are liable to lose their subsidies. 

The professors are paid at the rate of a hundred thalers annually for every 
hour spent weekly. Most of them eke out their incomes by teaching in other 
establishments, as the resulting salaries are only from 1,200 to 1,600 thalers a 
year. The whole annual expenses of the school are as follows : 

Salaries of director and teachers, 

Collections, - - - - - - - 

Three chemical laboratories, - - . - 

Machine shops, superintendent's salary, - _ - 

Machine shops, materials, _ - - - 

Library, __.---- 

Stipendia, aid, excursions, &c., - 

Heating, lights, maintaining of repairs, . . - 

Administration, servants, . . . . 

Total, . - - . - 

INDUSTRIAL DRAWING SCHOOL. 

The Industrial Drawing School [Muster Z^ichnen Schule), trains designers of 
patterns for printing silk, woollen and cotton tissues, and paper hangings, together 
with all the theoretical and practical branches of weaving. It has its own director. 
The candidate must be foiirteen, and be acquainted with rudimentary drawing. 

The course, covering two years, is as follows* First year .— Drsiwin^ fi-«m 
models in relief, 24 hours a week; applied physics and chemistry, 4 hours; in- 
dustrial drawing, 4 hours. Second year. — Composition and execution of designs' 
for prints and figured tissues, 36 hours ; preparing looms for quiltings, velvets, 
and practice in weaving, 16 hours; decomposition of tissues, and preparing the 
cards for weaving them. 

Instruction is also given in drawing patterns for paper hangings, for oil cloths, 
silk, cotton, woollen, or linen prints, figured stuffs and ribbons, upholstery, fabrics, 
carpets, embroidery, and lace. The course of industrial drawing commences 
with the copying of flowers from nature ; then from select drawings, ftnd no pains 
are spared to accustom the pupils to the composition of new patterns. Drawing, 
is, in all cases, commenced from models or from nature, not from prints. 

During the vacation of each year there is an exhibition of the pupil's draw- 
ings. Part of the drawings executed by the pupils remain in the establisliment. 

Certificates are given stating the extent of the instmction of each pupil. 

The school fee is 12 thalers per half-year. 



22,000 thalers. 


1,500 


" 


3,000 


it 


7,000 


IC 


2,000 


« 


1,.500 


" 


7,000 


« 


4,000 


IC 


2,000 


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50,000 


thalers. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 201 

ROYAL ACADEMY OF ARCHITECTURE AT BERLIN. 

The Academy of Architecture at Berlin (Bau Akadanie), has for its aim to 
train public and private architects, and civil and assistant engineers. The teach- 
ing statt' of the institution numbers twenty-nine, five being' titular and six as- 
sistant professors. 

The course of instruction pursued at the Academy is divided into two sections, 
the first designed for assistant supervising architects (Baufuhrer), the second for 
architects proper and engineers in the Government service. 

For admission to the first section, the candidate is required to bring a certificate 
of having been in the highest class of a gymnasium, or of having finished the 
course of a real f chool of the highest class ; he must also prove, by certificate, 
that he has been practically employed for at least one year by an examined archi- 
tect, and must produce several drawings executed under his supervision. A 
knowledge of leveling and measuring is also required. After passing this exam- 
ination, he is matriculated, and is entitled to admission to all the lectures deliv- 
ered in connection with the course, at the schools, the University, or the poly- 
technic, and to the various collections and the exhibitions at the Academy of 
Arts. 

The instruction is given by means of lectures, and the following are attended 
by those desirous of obtaining the title of Baufuhrer. There are two semesters 
in each year. 

First Semester. Solid, analytical, and descriptive geometry, with the applica- 
t4on of the latter to constructions ; spherical trigonometry ; analysis, including 
differential calculus and conic sections. Physics, particularly as applied to light, 
heat, electricity, and magnetism. Chemistry, the elements and compounds, par- 
ticularly those having relation to building materials. Architecture, construction, 
beauty and symmetry of form and practical usefulness, ancient architecture, its 
character and applicability to modern needs. Outline and ornament drawing. 

Second Semester. Integral calculus and its applications. Scientific and prac- 
tical study of perspective and shadows. Mineralogy and geognosy. Systematic 
study of building materials and their cost. Architecture ; constructions ; ancient 
architectui-e. Drawing ; architectural and ornamental, with landscapes in pencil 
or sepia. 

Third Semester. Dynamics ; on statics of solid bodies and strength of mate- 
rials. Machinery and mechanical action, such machines as are used in architec- 
ture being specially considered. Architecture ; ancient, agricultural, Avith various 
industrial agricultural establishments ; hydraulic architecture and bridge con- 
struction. Dravdng ; pi'ojecting and draughting of buildings ; elaborate draw- 
ings from ancient architecture. 

Fourth Semester. Dynamics as applied to architecture ; mechanics, hydrosta- 
tics, aerostatics, and pneumatics. Surveying and leveling, with practical exercises. 
Building materials ; their cost, source, and the means of obtaining them ; their 
artificial manufiicture. Architecture, hydraulic, bridges and roads ; mills. Pro- 
jecting and draughting of buildings Estimates ; superintendence'; laws of the 
country regarding buildings and their construction. 

Besides the above there are certain architectural designs to be drawn up and 
handed in at stated periods. These are the following : Four architectural draw- 
ings ; one illustrating the laws of projection ; one of perspective ; four studies in 
ancient architecture ; four elaborate di-awings of ornament ; two of engines and 



202 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

theii- parts ; two projects of siipj)le buildings ; two of agricultural establishments. 
After the examination, the title of Baufuhrer is conferred ; the candidate chooses 
the district Avhere he will practice his art, reports there and is sworn in. He is 
obliged to send in an annual report of his occupations, and must be ready to 
respond to any call from government if he should desire to be admitted to the 
examination as government architect. If he intends to enter the government 
service as architect or engineer, he returns to the school after two years of pro- 
fessional labor. The lectures now pursued are different for architects and engi- 
neers. 

For Architeots. First Semester. — Ancient architecture. Italian architecture 
during its highest development. Projecting and drawing of architectural subjects, 
especially of the first class and public buildings. Ornament. 

Second Semester. — Technology. Principles of construction as applied to ex- 
tensive buildings and cases presenting special difficulty. Internal arrangement 
and exterior style of dwellings and edifices of art. Public buildings, their pro- 
jection. Drawing and projecting. Gothic ornament, with drawings and lectures. 

For Engineers. — First Semester. Computation of probabilities applied to 
the theory of the reliability of observations and experiments. Mechanics, and 
engine construction. Sketching and computations regarding construction and 
power of engines. Hydraulic architecture. Railroads and all matters connected 
with them. 

Second Semester. Analytical dynamics, and all its applications in architecture 
and engineering. Geodesy, with practical exercises. Draughts of engines. Pr-o- 
jection, draughting, and computation of cost of hydraulic works. Railroads ; 
construction of stations, depots, and " running stock." Architectural technology. 
Telegraphy. 

Modeling, foreign languages, &c., are taught, but form no part of the exam- 
inations for government situations. The examinations are open also to persons 
who have not pursued the course at the school. Candidates for the title of pri- 
vate architect must be a master in one of the three trades of mason, carpenter, or 
stone-cutter. Assistant engineers are not examined, their attendance in the past 
is examined and they are then sworn in. There are no prizes, but the one suc- 
cessful in an annual and optional competition, receives a donation of about 2,000 
francs for traveling abroad. 

The fees are as follows : — One at matriculation, of 10 thalers, and lecture fees 
of about 18 thalers, annually. The titular professors receive 2 thalers for the 
hour's lesson, the others, 1^ thalers, and the assistants, 1. The school fees 
amount (1865), to 11,500 thalers; the expenses were 25,975 thalers. Half of 
the excess was furnished by the Government, the other half came from various 
sources. 

In the same year there were 472 pupils ; 314 being entered for the service of 
the State, 34 as private architects, 55 as foreigners, and 69 as free auditors. 

BUILDING SCHOOL AT BERLIN. 

The Building School, (Baugewerbe Schule,) at Berlin, gives theoretical instruc- 
tion to all classes of building artisans, as carpenters, masons, roofers, potters, &c. 

The course includes German, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, physics, elements 
of force and heat, lessons in proportions, construction of buildings, fundamental 
doctrine of projection, agricultural buildings, architectural and free-hand drawing, 
and modeling in clay. Fourteen thalers are paid for the whole course ; for th« 
winter course alone, five. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 203 

SUPERIOR WEAVING SCHOOL AT ELBERFELD. 

The Superior Weaving Scliool at Elbeifeld, a town owing its rapid growth 
principally to this branch of industry, has for its object to impart theoretical and 
practical instruction in the various departments of the art, and also includes a 
departriient of general technical drawing. It is open to pupils of all countries. 

The course is divided into three cHvisions, and the pupil can attend them all if 
he pleases. These are — (1) weaving; (2) pattern drawing ; (3) the chemical 
processes of weaving and dyeing. 

Division I. The first division teaches the whole art of weaving, theoretical 
and practical, the instruction being carried so far that the pupil can undertake 
the independent management of a manufactory or of an establishment trading in 
these fabrics. It occupies 36 hours a week for a year and a half, the course 
commencing twice a year, and consisting of two parts, the analytical lasting 
twelve months, and the composition course lasting six. By analysis [decomposi- 
tion) is imderstood the elements of weaving, a knowledge of the machines and 
materials used ; analysis of the modes of making patterns in plain fabrics, practi- 
cal exercises in the various operations of weaving, the elements of Jacquard 
weaving, analysis of and mode of setting patterns for these fabrics, practical ex- 
ercises ^\^th the Jacquard looms, free-hand drawing, painting and modeling from 
nature. The second part, for composition, can be entered upon only by those 
who possess the knowledge imparted in the preceding. It comprises further in- 
struction in materials, their prices, and in all processes connected with the weav- 
ing of linen, cotton, woolen, and silk; the choice and calculation of the quantity 
of yarn to be used for various materials with reference to the changes caused by 
dyeing, and the loss sustained in weaving ; knowledge of the composition of all 
kinds of textile fabrics from the simplest to the taost complicated, and of all the 
technical and artistic processes connected with their production ; calculation of 
the special items, and of the entire cost of the fabrics ; and practical exercises in 
all the details of the preparation of weaving with all the different kinds of looms, 
and in the composition of designs, patterns, &e. 

The pupils of this division may attend the lectures on chemistry and physics 
in the chemical department without adding to their term-fees. The practical 
exercises in the workshops are hjld from 8 to 12 A. M., and from 2 to 7 P. M. 
The fee for the entire division is 120 thalers, the second part alone costing 90. 

Division II The second division teaches the art of drawing and inventing 
resigns and patterns for all woven and printed goods, and pattern-card makers 
who are able to arrange every pattern correctly on the cards. There is also in- 
struction in general technical drawing. The method adopted is that of Dupuis, 
in wliich the pupil begins with drawing from nature or from the model in relief. 

The course is divided into two sections, beginning twice a year, and occupies 
twenty-four hours a week. Lessons are given in free-hand drawing, and paint- 
ing, first from models, afterwards from natural objects, such as plants, flowers, 
vases, &c. ; knowledge of the colors used in manufactures, and the mode of ap- 
plying them ; composition of patterns, and knowledge of and practical exercise 
in pattern-making from textile fabrics, drawing, &e. The annual fee is 30 tha- 
lers. There is a special morning and evening class for scholars who cannot at- 
tend the regular course, held eight hours a week, at two-thirds of a thaler the month. 

Division III. The third division imparts thorough theoretical and practical 
instruction in technical chemistry to dyers, printers, manufacturers of colors and 



204 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

chemicals, &c., and also to those who wish to qualify themselves to become tech- 
nical teachers There are two courses, the first being for practical chemists in 
general, the second for dyers, printers, bleachers, color manufacturers, and man- 
ufacturers of chemicals specially. . Each lasts a year, with a summer and winter 
course, and no one can enter the second without being prepared in the first. 

The instruction given in the first course is as follows : 

1. Inorganic chemistry , A full course. Connexion between chemistry and the 
other branches of natm-al science. The objects to be accomplished by chemistry ; 
its progressive development. Stoichiometry. The lectures are illustrated by the 
use of a large collection of specimens, and by constant experiments ; 4 hours 
weekly. 2. KnovAedge of chemical substances (Droguen). Inorganic chemicals. 
Particular inorganic substances (as sulphurous acid, soda, chlorine, &c.,) of es- 
pecial importance to technical chemists are selected and thoroughly discussed. 
Visits to manufactories, examination of the chemicals belonging to the school 
and practical exercises further complete the lessons. 3. Analysis. Qualitative 
and quantitative analysis, extended to all substances important to technical 
chemists, the course of qualitative analysis being general, that of quantitatiye 
adapted to the future calling of each pupil. Particular attention given to tiitu- 
ration (trituren), 2 hours. 4. Physics applied to industiy, 2 hours. 

In the second course are taught : 1. Dyes and colors. — Special lectures on color- 
ing stuffs, with practical exercises. The collection is studied G hours. 2. Analysis. 
— Greneral anah'sis continued ; specialanalysisof dye stuffs, 2 hours. 3. Physics 
continued, 2 hours. 4. Theory of dyeing. — Chemical and physical consideration 
of raw materials (cotton, linen, wool, and silks); analysis of simple mixed 
stuffs; preparation of the yams for dyeing (bleaching of cotton and linen yam, 
removing the greasiness of woollen textures, scouring silk) ; influence of the re- 
actionary agents (air, light, he'at) ; relation of vegetable and animal fibres to 
dyeing stuffs ; substantive colors ; abjective colors ; theory of tanning ; tanning 
stuffs ; choice of dressing for printed goods ; its influence on the shades of colors, 
&c. Glazing (chemical and mechanical arrangements). All the lectures are 
elucidated by experiments, and, indeed, one of the chief objects held in view, 
is that the pupils have practice in dyeing and coloring all kinds of yarns and tex- 
tures, 6 hours. 5. Analysis of colored stuffs, 2 hours. 

Only dyers, printers, &c., need to go through both courses. For other techni- 
cal pursuits, the first is enough. The fee for the lectures is 20 thalers per half- 
year ; for participation in the laboratoiy practice, 40 thalers additional. There 
is no extra charge for gas or other materials. 

Each pupil in the school keeps a book in which are collected the patterns of the 
different kinds of tissues which he has to analyze and decompose, calculating 
their elements, and reproducing the perforations of the cards by sketches. He 
prepares a pattern, arranges cards, and then makes ready the loom, and sets to 
work. The school provides materials, but little work, however, is done. 

There are 78 pupils ; 45 in the first division, 25 in the second, and 8 in the third. 
The building was built by the town, the looms and other furniture provided by 
the State. It possesses 42 looms, and a large collection of every kind of machin- 
ery and other implements connected with weaving ; of specimens of ancient and 
modern tissues, home and foreign ; drawings, engravings, models, compositions, 
&.C., for the use of the scholars. There are well arranged laboratories, with room 
for twenty or thirty pupils, for special technical analysis. 

The annual expenditure is about 10,000 thalers, and the excess of the expendi- 
tures over the receipts is paid half by the town and half by the government. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 205 



INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY. 

To a Prussian citizen is due the credit of having established tlie first scientific 
agricultural school in Prussia. This was the institution at Moglin, founded in 
1806 by the celebrated Thaer.* The first step taken in this matter by the 
Prussian government was in 1819, when the school of Moghn was made a royal 
institution. 

The agricultural schools of Prussia are divided into primary, intermediate, 
and superior. In the superior schools the course is very full and includes many 
high theoretical studies ; in the intermediate class the pupils are prepared lor 
the higlier, and receive an exclusively practical instruction, except during the 
winter ; in the inferior class the pupils take the place of hired servants, pay 
little or nothing, or are paid for their services. They are occupied in manual 
labor or in tending horses and cattle. 

There are thirty-two of these schools in Prussia. Five are superior: Moglin, 
Eldena, Proskail, Regenwalde, and Poppelsdorf. The whole number of pro- 
fessors in these is thirty-three. Eldena is the best attended. Two are in con- 
nection with universities : Eldena with Greifswald, and Poppelsdorf with Bonn. 

There are two intermediate schools and twelve of the inferior class. 

There are thirteen special schools connected with agriculture, of which we 
will mention the following : two of meadow culture, one for shepherds, eight 
for the raising, dressing, and working of flax, and one, at Potsdam, of garden- 
ing. At Berlin there is a veterinary school. The two of meadow culture are 
at Kraraenz, in Pomerania, and at Janowitz, near Heyerswerda. There is a 
forestry school at Neustadt Eberswald. 

Instruction in pomology, or the cultivation of fruit-trees, is given in the 
normal and primary schools to an immense number of children. 

As an accessory to the system of agricultural education, may be noticed the 
large collection of farming tools and specimens of forest, farm and industrial 
productions at Berlin and Breslau. 

All of these establishments are under the supervision of the Minister of 
Agriculture. 

* Mbrecht Daniel Thair was born at Celle, in Hanover, May 14th, 1752. He studied medicine 
at the University of Gbttingen, and took a degree in that profession, and was very successful in 
its practice. During his leisure, he occupied himself with cultivating flowers, and in this way 
gardening and agricultural pursuits became a passion with him, and he withdrew from the pro- 
fession. He died October 26th, 1828. He published the fallowing books on agriculture: 

1798. English Agriculture, with a view to the improvement of German. 

1799. Annals of Lower Saxon Agriculture. 

1800. Cattle-Breeding — Additions to Bergen's work. 

1803. Agricultural Implements. 

1804. Bell's Agricultural E.-ssays, translated, with rhapsodical additions. 

1805. Annals of Agriculture. 

1810. Principles of Rational Agriculture. 

1811. Annals of Agriculture at Moglin from 1817 to 1823. 
1811. On Fine-wooled Sheep. 

1813. Attempt to ascertain the Net Produce of Farms. 

181.5. General System of Agricultural Knowledge. 

1815. My Farming, (at Moglin.) 

1815. Circular to obtain the Net Produce, as a Basis for Correct Taxation of the Land. 

1815. Wool and Sheep-breeding. 



206 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT ANNABERG. 

The Royal Agricultural School at Annaberg, which we select as an example 
of the intermediate class, has for its object to train peasant farmers and bailiffs. 
It admits none but sons of small farmers, about twenty-five years of age, pro- 
vided with a certificate of baptism, of having attended school, of good mental 
capacity and conduct, and of the place to which they belong. 

The course of instruction lasts one year, and pupils are not allowed to quit 
before the close, or remain beyond the time. The plan is to make the pupilS' 
acquainted with all the branches of a well-organized farming business, and 
more particularly to explain the necessary connection of its several branches 
and the reasons why every thing is done. 

The theoretical instruction is, in summer, confined to explanations in connec- 
tion with the farm work performed. In winter, several hours daily are devoted 
to drawing up simple reports, agreements, receipts, &c., the leading principles 
of natural science, of special sciences applied to agriculture, and veterinary 
medicine. Popular hand-books are used as text-books, and the rich collections 
and apparatus of the Academy of Poppelsdorf. 

The practical instruction is pursued according to a fixed plan for gradually 
perfecting the pupils in all the varied work of a farm. They alternate therefore 
in feeding and tending cattle, in using manures, in cultivating and gathering 
crops, and the processes following the harvest, in draining, and in meadow work. 

The school farm is the royal domain of Annaberg, and is conducted on the 
plan of securing a high and permanent profit. It includes a large orchard, nurs- 
ery, and vegetable garden, besides meadows, and waste lands which are being 
gradually redeemed. The character of its soil is very varied, affording oppor- 
tunities for many different kinds of culture. 

The number of scholars is temporarily fixed at six, and board at $69 a year. 

AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT MOGLIN. 

The Eoyal Institute of Agriculture at Moglin was founded by Thaer in 1806, 
and kept in existence through those troubled times only by the great talents of 
the founder. In 1819, the Prussian government, following the example of 
Wiirtemberg, constituted it a royal institute and assimilated its professors to 
those of a gymnasium, both as to rank and salary, with the condition that cer- 
tain pupils, sent from Berlin, should receive gratuitous instruction. 

It is a boarding-school, and is governed by a director. The course lasts four 
years, beginning October 1st and closing on the 1st of August. The instruction 
includes lessons in mathematics and the physical and natural sciences as applied 
to agriculture, rural economy, veterinary art, and forestry. It gives more spe- 
cial instruction in farm accounts, raising fine wool, meadow irrigation, and 
potato cultivation on a large scale. The price of board and instruction is, for 
the whole course, $240. Pupils are admitted temporarily at $7,00 per week. 

The domain, which is yet in the hands of the Thaer family, consists of 1,050 
acres of poor, sandy land, 50 of natural meadows, and a wide extent of pine 
forest. There is a vast stock of sheep, cows and bulls, horses and swine. In 
all, at the time of the visit of M. Royer in 1844. there were 1,850 animals, 
among which were 1,600 sheep, 60 cows and oxen, and 12 horses, with 21 farm 
laborers. The principal industry was distilling potato spirit and raising wool. 
It admits 20 pupils; 611 have been through the four years' course. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 207 

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY AT POPPELSDORF. 

The object of this academy is: 1. To afford an opportunity to young farmers 
who have a certain amount of preliminary, scientific, and general knowledge, 
and who are skilled in handling the implements of their calling, to make them- 
selves "acquainted with the sciences specially applicable to agriculture, as also 
the auxiliary sciences, in as far as is required for the rational farming and ad- 
ministration of a landed estate in the present day ; and, 2. To offer to students 
of jurisprudence and of political science, as well as to all others whose future 
vocation may render some acquaintance with the rational mode of conducting 
an agricultural business useful (though they may not intend to become practical 
farmers.) the means of learning to know the theoretical as well as the practical 
principles of such a business, and to acquire a distinct notion of its organization 
and the mode of conducting it. 

The aim of the academy is thus not only to educate men to be thoroughly 
capable of conducting the business of larger or smaller estates, whether as pro- 
prietors, farmers, or land-stewards, but also to enable future officials in the 
administrative departments of government, who may require more than a super- 
ficial knowledge of rural economy, to obtain this. 

The studies in the academy are distributed as follows : 

I. BRANCHES OP STUDY CONNECTED WITH FARMING. 

A. Agriculture. — 1. Knowledge of the soil: 
" Upper stratum of the earth. Atmospheric action of constituents of the earth. 
The influence of mountain formations on the composition and fertility of the 
soil. Physical properties of the soil. The classification of soils. The distri- 
bution of soils. Sub -soil and surface soil. 

2. Studij of manures: 

Principles governing the nourishment of plants. The difference between 
wild and cultivated plants. Stable manure. Combination cf the different 
animal manures, with stable litter. Treatment of manure in the stable, the 
yard, and the field. Liquid manure, litter, nightsoil, other animal, vegetable, 
and mineral manures. Economic importance and use of the same. Different 
processes for preparing manures for sale, and different methods of applying 
them. 

3. Clearing, draining, and working the land. 

The most important process of tillage; different modes of culture required 
for woods, heaths, moors, and sandy places. 

Evils of dampness. Different methods of draining, more particularly by 
underground drains. Draining combined with practical demonstrations ; cost 
and results. 

Various objects and various methods of tillage, deep soil culture, fallows. 
Different methods of cropping, change of crops. Rules to be followed in sow- 
ing, reaping, and storing produce. 

4. Tlie Iciiowledije of agricultural implements and machines. 

The importance of agricultural implements and machines. Materials used in 
their construction. 

Implements for working the ground ; hand tools ; horse machines ; the 
plough. The importance and history of the plough ; what is expected from it. 
The work of the plough. Theory of the plough. Its different parts. Classifi- 
cation of ploughs. Judgment of the different kinds of ploughs with reference 
to the uses they are to be put to. The extirpator, the scarifier, horse chopper, 
drag, roller. 

Sowing machine system ; machines for broadcast, drill and dibble sowing. 
Criticism of the methods most in use. Machines for spreading manure. Ma- 
chines for pulverizing manure. Machiues for liquid manure. 



208 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

Various reaping machines, machines for mowing corn, grass mowing ma- 
chine, horse rakes, haymaking machines, potato-digging machines. 

System of threshing by machinery ; hand winch, and steam threshing ma- 
chines. 

Criticism of the most important 

Machines for cleaning grain (cleansing and sorting machines.) 

Groat, flour, and crushing mills, and oil-cake crushers. 

Cliopping machines and root-cutters. 

Other machines and implements, pumps and hydraulic engines. Machines 
for making drainage pipes. Winchwork. Implements of transport, (carts, 
wagons, sledges.) 

5. The cultivation of grain and fodder : 

The special culture required for each plant ; requirements as to climate and 
soil. 

Succession of crops; preparation and manuring of fields; arrangement; care 
during vegetation, harvesting, storing, and transport. 

6. Tiie cultivaMon of mattrials for manufacture: 
The special culture of each plant as in No. 5. 

The lectures on the cultivation of special plants will be elucidated by prac- 
tical demonstrations on the farms of Poppelsdorf and Annaberg. 

7. Tlie cultivation of grass lands : 

Examination of the different modes of culture, distribution of meadow land. 

The forming of meadows by sowing. 

The treatment of meadows which can not be irrigated. Clearing, leveling, 
manuring, breaking up or draining ; forming of water meadows, advantages of 
irrigation, implements used in the cultivation of meadows, trenching ; other 
operations connected with the artificial treatment of meadows, flooding, aque- 
ducts, special methods of irrigation, overflooding, the Peterson system, making 
valuations, the care and keeping up of artificial meadows. 

8. The cultivation of vines and vegetables : 

(a) The cultivation of grape-vines; on the nature of the grape. The places in 
which it is indigenous; the climatic requirements; the propagation and im- 
provement of vines; making and working vineyards; different methods of pro- 
duction ; treatment and cultivation; quantity and quality produced; the 
diseases of grape-vines. 

{b) The importance of the cultivation of vegetables, where there are accessible 
markets. The laying out of the vegetable garden. The cultivation of vege- 
tables on sound principles, with special reference to the kinds of vegetables 
suited for country populations, and for sale in large quantities. 

9. Tiie cultivation of fruit trees: 

Principal facts in the history of fruit culture. Knowledge of fruit culture, 
with demonstrations. The choice of the best and most useful varieties. Their 
requirements as to climate, situation, and soil. The raising of fruit trees, with 
demonstration!?. The laying out and management of nurseries for fruit trees. 
The planting, division, and management of the improving orchards. Improve- 
ment of the qualiiy of fruit trees. The theory and modes of proceeding as to 
different metiiods of grafting, with practice. Eearing, cutting, and shaping the 
grafted tree. Fruit tree plantations, mode of planting and tending them. The 
diseases of fruit trees. The use and storing of different fruits. The profits 
derived from fruit culture. 

B. Cattle-breeding. — 1. Tlie general rearing of animals : 
Relations of cattle-breeding to agriculture. Importance of this at the present 
time. The fundamental principles of cattle-breeding, &c. The art of breeding; 
the origin of races; artificial and natural races. Technical expressions ; breed- 
ing; descent; influence of both sexes on the breed. Influence of parentage; 
individual influence, cross breeds, thorough breeds. The school of Buftbn. 
Breeding in and in. Different methods of crossing. Darwin "On the Origin of 
Species.'" Instruction as to feeding. Different kinds of food and their con- 
stituent parts. Effects of different kinds of food. The natural inchnations of 
domestic animals with respect to different kinds of food. The volume of food. 
The amount of water contained in the fodder. The relation of protein to 
hydro-carbon. The effects of fat. Preparation of food. Salt as an ingredient 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. £09 

of diet. Mixed fodders. Rules for determining the amount of nourishment in 
different kinds of food. Of the individual kinds of fodder. Matters to be taken 
into consideration in determining the quantity of food. Mode of estimating 
quantities to be given for substance, for fattening, and for diminishing fat. 

Tlie further care of domestic animals. The allotment of food for stated meal- 
times. Cliange of food. Drinks. Temperature of the stables. Air, light, 
exercise, treatment in other respects. 

2. The breeding of horned cattle: 

Importance of breeding horned cattle. Points in natural history. Breeds of 
oxen, the P]nglish breed in particular. 

Breeding, choice of breed, method of breeding, choice of individuals for 
breeding. The relation between bodily form and usefulness in various respects. 
Rearing of calves. 

Feeding and tending full-grown cattle : 

General principles on which cattle should be fed. Amount of food required 
Summer stall-feeding. Pasturing, a mixture of the two. "Winter food. Alter- 
nation of fodder. The stable arrangements. Persons tending the cattle. 

Employment of cattle on a farm: 

The dairy. Chemical and other properties of milk. Testing milk. Matters 
tliat intlaence the quantity and quality of milk. The making of butter and 
cheese. Fattening — Choice of stock for fattening. The process of fattening 
calves. The meat market. Classification of meat. The purchase of fat beasts. 
The use of oxen for labor. Choice as to breeding or purchasing. 

3. Horse-hreeding and knowledge of the external parts of horses : 
Horse-breeding. — Its importance. Natural history. Principal races of horses. 

Choice for the various purposes of breeding. Pairing. Keeping and tending 
stallions and mares. Tending of and feeding foals. The most important dis- 
eases incident to foals, A knowledge of the external parts of horses. Bodily 
structure of the horse. The relation of one part to the other, Difterences of 
form and development with reference to the various services for w^hich the 
horses are destined. Paces. Age of teething. Precautions to be observed in 
purchasing horses. Practical demonstrations. 

4. Rearing sheep and the knowledge of wools : 

(a.) Sheep-breeding; importance of breed. Natural history. Breeds of 
sheep. The history of merinos. Breeding, right method of breeding. Choice 
of direction of breeding. Process of breeding. Choice of stock for breeding. 
Register of breedings. Pairing, Lambing, Keeping of lambs and ewes. 

The nourishing and tending of the full-grown animals. General principles as 
to the nourishment of sheep. Amount of food required. Stall-feeding. The 
two methods combined. Winter fodder. The preparation of food. The choice 
of food. Persons attending the sheep. Arrangement of the folds. Utensils 
for holding food. 

Treatment and sale of produce. The uses of wool. "Washing. Shearing. 
The sale of wool. Use of the milk. Separating the sound animal from the 
unsound. The sale of fatted beasts. Sale of sheep for breeding. 

The use of sheep on the farm. Principles of different modes of sheep farm- 
ing. Composition of flocks. Calculation of the cost and profit of diiferent 
modes of sheep farming. 

5. The knowledge of wool: 

Of wool in general. Technical preparation. Cloth wool and carding wool. 

Special properties of wool. Fineness, curl, softness, strength of fibre, elas- 
ticity, length, color, gloss, oiliness. 

"Wool in staple and fleece ; quality of staple. Thickness of the wool ; out- 
ward form of the staple. Inward construction of the staple. Shortness, even- 
ness. Matters to be observed in judging of the yield of the wool. 

6. Bearing of smaller animals : 

(a.) Rearing pigs. Importance of rearing pigs. Natural history. Breeds. 

Breeding, Selection of breeds. Process of breeding. Choice of individuals 
for breeding. Register of breeds. Birth. Care of the litter. 

The feeding of piga General principles of feeding. Amount of food re- 
quired. Alternation of food. Gradual process of fattening. Sale of the fatted 
animals. 

14 



210 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

(b.) The rearing of domestic poultry. Knowledge of races, breeding, feeding, 
and tending. Different plans of management. 

Sanitary matters connected with the treatment of domestic animals. — General 
external influences which affect the bodily condition and health of animals, and 
the amount and quality of the animal ; product more particularly. 

(a.) Atmospheric influences affecting respiration, the developing heat, and the 
functions of the skin. Heat and cold, moisture, crowding, exercise, light, &c. 

(6.) Food and drink. General character of these. Their relations to the 
organs of digestion, and the different purposes of feeding. Amount of food to 
be given. Preparation of food, &c. 

(c.) Tending and care, housing. 

C. Theory of Farming. — 1. Principles of political economy involved in rural 
economy : 

Object of rural economy : land and soil, and their adaptability for different 
modes of culture. Position of the different classes of agricultural laborers. 
Work done by horses. Choice of cattle for draft. Number of laborers required. 
Application of machinery. Capital,-its distribution. Productivity of the capital 
invested in the various branches. Relative proportion of these sums to each 
other, to the land worked. Sale of products. Character, size, and distance of 
the market-town. Influence of trade relations on the entire business of the 
farm. The Farmer — His education. Administration of the estate by the pro- 
prietor. Letting to a farmer. Conduct of large and small farms. The relation 
of industry to agriculture. Agricultural associations and means for taking 
credit. 

2. Farming systems: 

The management of large estates, and the preparation for carrying out plana 
for working. 

Nature of objects aimed at in the management of an estate. Different sys- 
tems oT farming and different rules of rotation. Critical examination of tlie 
same. The conditions on which they can be profitably carried on. Parceling 
out of fields. Diffusion of the established systems and alterations introduced 
by progressive civilization. Change to a new system and new rotations. Choice 
of collateral brandies of business in connection with the farm. Conduct of 
the business. Persons engaged in the management. Their duties and position. 
Choice and acquisition of estate by purchase or on lease. Agreements for pur- 
chasing and taking leases. Founding new estates. Instructions for laying out 
a farm. 

3. Valuation of. land and instruction in making estimates of productions : 
Meaning and object of valuation. Different reasons for valuation. 
Principles of valuation. Improvements. Different methods of classification. 

Estimate of gross revenue derived from the various branches, and from the en- 
tire outlay on the estate. Estimate of net profits. Estimate of the capital 
value. Special and general valuation. Practical instructions for making esti- 
mates of revenue. - 

4. Agricultural hook-keeping : 

As a guide to the lectures, treating of the importance, the principles, and the 
method cf the improved S3^stem of keeping agricultural accounts, the director, 
Dr. Havstein's work on the subject shall be used, and for practical exercise the 
pupils sliall make out a year's accounts of the Poppelsdorf estate, according to 
the S3'stem of double entry. 

5. Agricultural calculations : 

These lectures, which are illustrated by examples, treat of the solution of 
manifold questions connected with the administration of landed property by 
means of arithmetical formulas. For instance, calculation of the cost of pro- 
duction of, and of profits which ought to be realized on, various agricultural 
products ; proofs of the advantages of various operations, such as the use of 
particular machines, of new methods of cultivation, of the technical manipula- 
tion of products, &c. 

D.' History op Agricttlture. — 1. History and statistics of agriculture .* 
• History of the gradual development of agriculture, especially in Germany. 
Sketch of the present state of agriculture as shown by official statistios. The 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 211 

condition of Germany will hold a prominent place with regard to this branch 
of the subject also. 

2. Literature of agriculture^ with special mention 0/ the newest publications : 
The gradual development of agricultural literature, as shown b}^ the loading 

ancient works on the subject. Critical examination of the most important 
modern works on agricultural subjects. 

3. Gotnparative statement of the condition of agriculture in the principal Euro- 
pean countries, loith particular reference to England and Germany : 

Comparative account as above, taking into account the natural conditions of 
the various countries, their means of communication, &c., with a view to afford- 
ing German agriculturists a clear understanding of their own position in relation 
to those of other countries, and of the advantages and deticiencies of German 
agriculture. 

II. Forest Economy. — 1. Forest culture : 

The importance of forest culture. Cursory view of forest botany. The arti- 
ficial and natural tirst growths and after growths of the useful forest products, 
with practical demonstrations. 

2. Forest industry, the protection of forests, and valuation : 

A knowledge of the quility and proper use of different woods. The ingath- 
ering and improvement of forest products (forest technology.) The transport 
and valuation of the useful produce of the woods. Measures of protection with 
regard to the damage done to woods by men, hurtful beasts, and bad 
weather. Accounts of the produce of woods, and calculation of the net profit 
thence accruing from them, and of the consequent capital value of the woods. 
In these lectures, particular notice will be taken of private woodlands, and the 
most important subjects relating to such will be treated in detail. 

3. Concerning hunting and fishing : 

Division of subjects. History. Breeding of game. Preservation of game. 
Hunting, and proceeds of hunting. Formation, mauitenance, and management 
of fish-ponds. 

III. Natural Philosophy. — 1. Inorganic experimental chemistry : 
Introduction. Properties of simple bodies. Laws of chemical combinations 

and decomposition. Description and conditions of compound inorganic sub- 
stances. The whole department of inorganic chemistry will be discussed in 
these lectures, and illustrated by experiments, a deeper study being devoted 
more especially to those elements and their combinations, which are of special 
importance in the economy of nature, and which play a prominent part in agri- 
culture. 

2. Organic experimental chemistry. 

Introduction. Special character of organic combination. Substances of im- 
mediate and mediate organic origin, among the first, hj^dro-cavbon, vegetable 
acids, fatty substances, substances containing nitrogen, &c. ; among the second, 
alcohols, ethers, the products of dry distillation, &c. The extent of the in- 
struction given on these subjects will be in proportion to their importance with 
regard to the vital processes of plants and animals. The lectures will be illus- 
trated by experiments. 

3. Analytical chemistry, with practical exercises in the laboratory : 
Introductory lectures on analytical chemistry. The students receive, first, 

instruction in qualitative examination of minerals, vegetable ashes, soils, ma- 
nures, &c. ; and afterwards in quantitative analysis, for which the chemical 
laboratory has every requisite. Participation in practical work will only be 
allowed to those who have gone through previous study of inorganic chemistry. 

4. Ohemistry of soils : 

General survey of the process of chemical decomposition of arable soils, both 
with respect to its mineral and its organic constituents. The chemical theory 
of the exhaustion of soils, and of manures. These lessons are completed by 
lectures on the practical knowledge of soils. 

5. Animal chemistry : 

Chemical principles of the process of animal nutrition, and of change of sub- 
stances. A critical examination of the most important experiments in feeding 
characteristics of the animal substances most important in practical life. 



212 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

6. Literature of agricultural chemistry : 

History of agricultural chemistry. A survey and criticism of the most im- 
portant works of ancient as well as modern literature bearing upon tliis science. 
A detailed repetition of selected chapters on the subject of theoretical chemistry. 

7. Ej-perimental physics : 

(a.) Statics and dynamics. Introductory lecture. General properties of mat- 
ter. Laws governing the equilibrium and motion of solids, liquid, and aeriform 
bodies. The phenomena of diffusion and endosmose. 

(b.) Science of heat and meteorology. On conducted and radiated heat. The 
most important effects of heat. Expansion of bodies, alterations of the state 
of aggregation. Elasticity of steam. Detailed descriptions and illustrations 
of the steam-engine. Influence of heat on climatic changes. Origin and meta- 
morphosis of the atmospheric precipitates [Mederschldge.) 

(c.) Electricity, magnetism, sound and light. General physical theory of the 
laws governing the powers of nature. Explanation of their natural action, 
(Northern lights, tempests, their eflfects on vegetation, &c.,) and their applica- 
tions in practical life. Telegraphy, photography, &c. The course of lectures 
on physics will be illustrated by experimenta 

Each of these three sections of physics will form a connected whole, so that 
the study can begin with either without much loss. Besides the first section 
on statics and dynamics will be taught in the lectures given during one half- 
year of the second year's course on agricultural machinery and mechanics. 

8. Mineralogy and geology : 
A brief sketch of geology. 

Composition of the crust of the earth. Rock formations, their structure, po- 
sition, and origin. Mountain formations, upheavings and sinking, "Volcanic 
phenomena. The geological action of water, (springs, erosion, and deposits 
caused by rivers, seas, and lakes.) Characteristics of the most important sedi- 
mentary formations. Coal, peat, salt deposits, &c. History of the inorganic 
world. The characteristics of minerals which constitute the chief ingredients 
of rocks, and the products of the decomposition of which form the soil. Min- 
erals most important to miners and for technical purposes. 

9. Botany in general and the anatomy of plants : 

Morjihology. The outward form and anatomical characteristics of the organs 
of plants. 

Principles of systemization. Characteristics of the classes, orders, and most 
important families of the vegetable kingdom, their habitual, anatomical, and 
morphological distinctions. Reference to the general principles of natural sys- 
tematization. 

The most important facts t&uching the geography of plants ; limits within which 
plants are distributed over the earth ; their natural habitation and their emi- 
grations. 

Paleontology of plants. Characteristics of the vegetation of various geological 
jepochs. 

10. Physiology of plants: 

Detailed representation of the structure and functions of the organs of plants 
and of outward influences on vegetation, (for instance, of nourishment taken in 
through roots and leaves, assimilation and course of the sap, transportation, 
the influence of light, of warmth, of air, of the soil, &c., on the vital process of 
plants, &c.) 

1 1 . Agricultural botany and the diseases of plants : 

Monographic descriptions of all the agricultural plants and meadow grasses 
in Germany, their habits, germination, vegetation, and fructification. Reference 
to the relations of their physiological conditions, to their cultivation, country, 
history, and distribution of the several kinds of plants suited for cultivation. 
The lectures will be illustrated by demonstration on living plants, in the lecture- 
room and during excursions. 

In the description of agricultural plants, their diseases, and what is noxious 
to them, will be touched upon ; afterwards a general survey of the diseases of 
plants, and more especially of those caused by parasites, will be given. 

12. Selected sections of general botany and vegetable anatomy and physiology : 
The most important matters comprised in these departments will be specially 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 213 

dwelt upon, and the newest publications on these subjects will be mentioned, 
so as to enable the student to continue his studies in this direction. 

13. Praclical exercise in using the microscope, and experiments as to the physi- 
ology of plants: 

(a.) Use of the Microscope. Introduction to the use of the microscope. Ex- 
hibition and preservation of microscopic preparations, and practice in micro- 
scopic investigations ; (6.) Introduction to experiments on plants. The student 
will have the opportunity of personally testing the most important questions in 
the physiology of plants. For example, the examination of transpiration, nour- 
ishment, the influence of light, of warmth, &c. Only those students who have 
heard the necessary preparatory lectures can take part in these microscopic and 
and physiological experiments. 

14. Anatomical and physiological survey of the animal kingdom: 

The most important points bearing on the organization of the classes and 
orders of the animal kingdom. The influence of external and internal struc- 
ture on the habits of life. General remarks on the processes of nutrition, res- 
piration, and circulation, the action of the nerves and muscles, functions of the 
organs of sense and propagation. These lectures will be illustrated by numer- 
ous demonstrations. 

15. Natural history of invertebrate animals: 

The chief part of these lectures will treat of the natural history of insects 
important to the agriculturist and to the manager of forests ; and that of bees 
and silkworms will be fully elucidated by demonstration. The rest of the lower 
classes of animals will be briefly treated of, and theu" relation to man specially 
touched upon. 

16. Natural history of vertebrate animals: 

Characteristics of mammalia of birds ; of amphibious animals and of fish. 
Their chief anatomical and physiological features, with particular reference to 
Jhe species useful or hurtful to man. Anatomical demonstrations. 

17. Repetitions in natural philosophy : 

During these repetitions, students, and more particularly those who have 
been unable to follow and complete the two years' course of instruction, will 
have an opportunity of gaining an eucj^clopcedic insight into all the various 
branches of natural philosophy taught separately in the academy. 

IV. Mathematics. — 1. Practical geometry and exercises in measuring land 
and leveling : 

Theorems in practical geometry ; their use in the art of measuring fields. 
Application of the latter to agriculture Practical exercise in measuring fields, 
(with measuring bars, cross discs, the surveyor's table, the compass, the theod- 
olite,) and in leveling. 

2. Agrkultwral mechanics^ and the study of machinery : 

Laws of motion ; natural powers; estimation of their strength and working 
capacity -. friction, solidity of bodies, mechanical powers, their application and 
combination as agricultural machinery. 

Water pressure, motion of water, (in rivers, canals, and conduits.) Water 
power and water wheels. 

Atmospheric pressure, and its practical application. Steam power and steam- 
engines. Mills. 

V. Political Economy. — 1. The principles of national economy : 
Fundamental idea of property. Systems of national political economy. The 

characteristics of national wealth. Laws governing the production, the distri- 
bution, and the consumption of goods. 

2. Political economy : 

Relation of the State to the national wealth. Way and means of governing 
in order to obtain the maximum of national prosperity. 

Administrative measures and reguiations relative to the production, distribu- 
tion, and consumption of goods. 

VI. Jurisprudence. — 1. Introduction to the laws respecting agriculture: 

A short view of the existing works on land in Germany. Explanations of 
.the idea connected with the terms, person, things, action, agreement, &c. Laws 
concerning property, law of inheritance, law of entail, &c. 



214 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

The lectures on the general principles of law will hold constantly in view the 
relation of these to agricultural law, and the very extensive subject will thus be 
limited and determined. 

2. Agricultural laiv. 

3. Agrarian legislation [Agral Geseizgebung.) 

YII. Veterinary Science. — 1. Anatomy and physiology of domestic animals : 
These anatomical and physiological lectures, which are to be considered as 
laying the foundation of the knowledge of veterinary science, of sanitary sci- 
ence, of the laws of health as regards animals, and of the breeding of animals, 
treat of these subjects in detail, and in connection with numerous demonstra- 
tions on living and dead animals. 

2. Acute and contagious disorders of domestic animals: 

This lecture treats of the most common internal diseases, and of all infectious 
and contagious complaints of animals, their classification according to the parts 
they affect, (diseases affecting the organs of respiration and digestion, &c..) their 
causes and course. As the object is not to give profound veterinary knowledge, 
but rather to enable the farmer to recognize the first symptoms of illness, and 
so form a right judgment as to their danger, to treat slight illnesses himself 
and, in urgent cases, when the veterinary surgeon can not be obtained quickly, 
to apply the proper medical and surgical treatment ; that part of therapeutics 
will be taught, more especially, which has reference to the treatment of shght 
and acute diseases. 

3. Exter7ial diseases of domestic animals : 

Their division according to the seat of tlie disease in the various parts of the 
body. . In respect of these diseases, also their appearance, their usual course, 
their local and general importance, and their tendency to become hereditary, 
&c., will be taught more in detail than the therapeutical and surgical treatment 
of them. As far as possible, practical demonstrations will be added to scientific 
teaching. Besides this, practical exercise will be afforded by the performance 
of special slight operations, such as bleeding, cauterizing, &c. 

4. Shoeing and tending. 

(a.) Shoeing. — A short sketch of the anatomy and physiology of the hoof. 
The horse-shoe. Shoeing sound hoofs. Shoeing diseased hoofs. Shoeing in 
abnormal positions and for irregular paces. Practical illustrations. 

(6.) Tending, — All matters relating to the symptoms and treatment of female 
animals during bearing time. 

VIII. Technology. — 1. General Technology : 

Introduction. Study of materials for burning and lighting. Preparation of 
fuel. The technical importance and application of water. The manufacture of 
animal and vegetable fats, of weaving and spinnmg fibres. Clay, gypsum, and 
lime-burning. 

2. Technology of collateral branches of rural economy : 

Importance, application, regulation, and management of allied industries, 
showing the most recent scientific and practical improvements; for instance, in 
the manufacture of starch and sugar, brewing and distilling, the making of 
wine, the manufacture of vinegar, the preparation of bread, butter, and cheese. 

Illustrations by experiments, drawings, models, and visits to manufactories. 

IX. Architecture. — 1. Building materials and the art of building : 

The knowledge of building materials, the mode of obtaining them, and rules 
for their selection. Descriptions of the most important building works, their 
valuation, and terms which ought to be paid for their construction. 

2. Construction and arrangement of agricultural and industrial buildings : 
These lectures will be illustrated by drawings and models, as well as by 

buildings already erected. 

3. Construction of roads and canals : 

Constructing and keeping up roads, as well as the needful ditches, thorough- 
fares, and bridges. Constructions for protection against inundations and swamp- 
mg ; making of weirs and sluices. 

4. Exercise in drawing : 

The drawing of plans and of agricultural implements and machines, and de- 
signs for agricultural buildings. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 215 

Mr. Flint, in the account of his visits to European agricultural institutions, in 
1863, thus speaks of his visit to Poppelsdorf: — 

The agricultural college at Poppelsdorf, connected with the university at 
Bonn, is some ten miles above Cologne, beautifully situated on the left bank of 
the river, within sight of the far-famed Siebengebirge, or seven mountains, and 
the Dracheufels. It is reached by a magnificent avenue leading from Bonn to 
Poppelsdorf, studded with superb chestnuts in double rows ou either side. 

I called at onc3 on Dr. Hartstein, the director of the agricultural school, who 
kindly gave me the information I sought in regard to its present position and 
prosperity'. Close by his house is an ancient castle, now used as a depository 
of the extensive scientific collections belonging to the university, to which the 
students in agriculture have access. The model farm of the agricultural insti- 
tute is also close at hand. This is used for the purpose of experiment, and the 
crops on the experimental plots were very striking. Extensive mulberry hedges 
surround the fields, and the silk-worm was in the full tide of successful operation. 

The scientific lectures extend over not only the branches requisite in the 
department of agriculture, but also the fundamental and auxiliary sciences con- 
nected with it, viz. : — 

(a ) Agriculture in its whole range as a leading science, and especially 

1. The science of tillage, which is divided into a general and special branch. 
In the one are the knowledge of soils, manures, and the working of the land, 
the seed, care of the crop, and harvesting of agricultural products in general is 
taught; in the other, more exact instruction is given as to the judicious culti- 
vation of each one of these products. In this connection the formation of 
permanent meadows, and especially artificial meadows, is considered. 

2. The science of cattle-breeding or the production of animals, which also 
include*,^.' general and a special course. In the first, instruction is given as to 
the different races, the pairing, breeding, feeding, care and fattening of cattle in 

^general ; in the second, the breeding of cattle, sheep, horses, swine, &c. 

3. The proper farm management, taking in the whole agricultural profession, 
and including general rules and principles. The principal divisions are, the 
objects of agriculture, land, capital and labor, sale and leasing of estates, 
d liferent systems of agriculture, the arrangements and du-ection of farms, and of 
taxation and book-keeping. 

To these lectures upon agriculture are added those on fruit management, 
garden, fruit and vineyard culture. 
(6.) Chief and auxiliary sciences. 

1. The natural sciences, chemistry and physics, zoology, botany and mineral- 
ogy, with special reference to agriculture, and so far as they are of importance 
to the farmer in the oversight and judicious direction of his estate. 

2. Mathematical sciences, especially applied geometry, stereometry, statics, 
hydrostatics and machinery, connected with the practice in field-measuring, 
leveling, drawing of plans, &c. 

3. Popular agricultural literature, so far as it serves as a safe ground-work 
for practical agricultural instruction. 

4. Agricultural technology. 

5. Veterinary science. 

6. Agricultural mechanics. 

7. Laws relating to agriculture and the cultivation of lands. 

8. History, statistics and literature of agriculture. 

The farm connected with the institute serves for practical illustration, as well 
as the excursions which, from time to time, are taken in the neighborhood, and 
during vacations, also, into more distant regions. The institute is in want of no 
auxiliary means of making the theoretical and practical ini^truction most use- 
ful. Among these are the chemical laboratory, erected especially for agricultu- 
ral investigation, the physical apparatus and the instruments for land measuring 
and leveling, the collection of minerals and ores, the zoological and veterinary 
collection, the collection of models and implements, and of wool, the library, 
the economic botanic garden, the botanical collection and the estate, with the 
experimental fields and the vineyard. Besides these peculiar means of instruc- 
tion of the institute, the use of the rich collections and apparatus of the 



216 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

university, the royal university library, botanic garden and natural history 
museum, is available. 

Students pay an entrance fee of six thalers, and a fee for tuition of forty 
thalers. or thirty dollars, for the first term. The amount for the second term is 
thirty thalers, the third twenty, and the fourth ten, making the fee for the whole 
course of two years, one hundred thalers, or seventy-five dollars. 

The lectures embrace a two years' course, the terms being arranged to con- 
form with those of the university. The special plan of instruction is made 
known each term. The school is designed for those v\ho desire to educate 
themselves for skillful farmers, and those who devote themselves to the studies 
of the university, and at the same time wish to become familiar with the opera- 
tions of agriculture. Students who are entered at the University of Bonn, and 
enrolled in any of the faculties, can attend the agricultural lectures on applica- 
tion to the director. 

Applicants have to bring certificates of good conduct. No proof of specific 
attainments in elementary school studies is required, but it is desired that, 
before visiting the institute, the pupU should be familiar with the practical 
manipulations of farming, and be able to show proof of it. 

On admission, the student is matriculated and enrolled in the faculty of 
philosophy at the university. By this he acquires all the rights and undertakes 
all the obligations'of the university students. 

The whole establishment is under the control of the royal ministry for agri- 
cultural aflairs at Berlin. 

The experimental farm, close by the school, contains, I believe, about seventy 
acres. I visited the barns and out-buildings, all of which appeared to be in 
admirable condition, a place for every thing and every thing in its place. 

But seven or eight cows are kept, and those are all Dutch, which are thought 
there to be among the best for milk. No experiments appear to be made there 
to test the comparative merits of dift'erent breeds. A long series of experi- 
ments in the fields near the house seemed to be conducted in the most careful 
manner. Many of the plots of wheat were of extraordinary growth. A great 
variety of plants are cultivated, chiefly for the purpose of instruction. 

ROYAL ACADEMY OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY AT ELDEKA. 

The superior agricultural school at Eldena is connected with the University 
of Grriefswald. It was opened in 1834, and connected with the university on 
account of the vast manor connected with the latter, which was, moreover, suf- 
fering from lack of studeots. 

It is governed by a director, who is at the same time teacher of agriculture 
and rural economy. The professors of the university give instruction in vete- 
rinary art, the natural sciences, and mathematics. The students must matric- 
ulate there, but are bound only for one semester. They must be over seventeen, 
and must produce testimonials of good conduct and of having pursued classical 
studies. The instruction extends over two years, and includes : 

1. Political Economy : — Finances ; Rural police ; Constitutional law in Prus- 
sia; Governmental organization; Politico-economic discussions. 2. History 
and Statistics of Agriculture: — Agriculture in general; Agriculture special; 
Cultivation of meadows ; Zootechny in general ; Raising of sheep ; Raising of 
horned animals; Rural economy ; Systems of culture; Valuation of rural estates; 
Agricultural book-keeping, theoretic and practical. 3. Sylviculture in general, 
{culture of groves.) 4 Horticulture: — Culture of garden vegetables ; Culture 
of fruit trees ; Arboriculture, (culture of trees and shrubs for timber, &c.) 5. 
liaising of Horses : — Anatomy and physiology of domestic animals ; Yeterinary 
medicine ; Hygiene. 6. Chemistry : — Experimental and agricultural, organic 
and inorganic chemistry, (exercises in the laboratory,) physics, and meteorology; 
Technology, with practical demonstration in the distillery; Brewery; Tile-kiln, 
and dairj' ; Excursion to the saline of Griesswalde ; to the beet-sugar manufac- 
tory of Stralsund; Manufactory of instruments and mills. 1. Anatomy, Fhy- 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 21 7 

siology, and Geology of Plants : — Botany, general and applied to agriculture; 
Horticulture and Sylviculture ; Zoology, general and applied to agriculture; 
Excursions. 8. Arithmetic and Matheiiiatics : — Surveying; Leveling; General 
and applied mechanics. 9. Drawing: — Rural architecture ; Practical estimates 
of constructions. 10. Rural Law. 

It is. liberally endowed and possesses a collection of machines and tools. 

It has nine professors and eighty pupils, of which ten will devote themselves 
to the higher departments of government, where a knowledge of agriculture is 
needed. The fees are about $90, board not included. 

ACADEMY OP AGRICULTURE AT PROSKAU. 

The Agricultural Academy at Proskau, in Silesia, was opened in 1847, and, 
up to 1867, had been attended by 1,067 students. Its curriculum is identical 
with that at Poppelsdorf There are eight professors, and a farm of 2,312 acres. 

There is also an inferior practical school for young farmers here, called prak- 
tikanten station. The instruction is given them by the administrator of Proskau 
and the farm-inspector at Schemnitz, in whose house they are boarded. 

SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AT REGENWALDE. 

The Superior Institute of Agriculture atRegenwalde was established in 1842. 
It has four professors, with a course like that given at Poppelsdorf. The fees 
are about $221 per annum. The farm includes about 1,100 acres. 

SCHOOL OF HORTICULTURE AT POTSDAM. 

The gardening school at Potsdam was opened in 1823. It admits pupils who 
have passed two years in the preparatory school of Schonberg. There are six 
professors, and the course consists of a review of elementary studies, geometry, 
drawing, and the cultivation of trees, esculent vegetables, ornamental plants, 
and those employed in industry. The school possesses land for experiments, 
and a nursery of about eighty acres, whence fruit and forest-trees are sold. 

There are about thirty pupils, of which ten or twelve are bursars. 

SCHOOL OF FORESTRY AT NEUSTADT EBERSWALD. 

The superior special forestry school at Neustadt Eberswald is administered 
and directed by the Minister of Finance. It was founded at Berlin in 1820, and 
united to the university ; in 1830 it was removed to its present site. 

The course lasts two years, with two terms in the year. The branches 
taught are forestry, general and special botany, the encyclopaedia of the natui'al 
sciences, entomology, general and applied to forestry, phytotomy, vegetable 
physiology, mineralogy and geognosy, arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, 
stereotomy, statics and dynamics. Conferences are held upon natural history, 
mathematics, political economy, and forestry; many excursions are made into 
the forests connected with the school, and one annually into those of the Elbe 
and Harz. Four botanical and surveying excursions are made weekly. For 
coppice-working there is a district appropriated to the school at Obersdorf, in 
Thuringia. The school receives only forty pupils. 

The fees are fifty thalers the term. There are many bursars. Toung soldiers 
who have practiced forestry and have served five years in a batallion of chas- 
seurs, and can pass an examination in geometry, are received free into the 
school, continue to draw their army pay, and after two years, may present 
themselves at the examination of forest-inspectors. 



218 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 



VETERINART SCHOOL AT BERLIN. 

The "Veterinary School at Berlin has for its chief object to teach the art of 
military veterinary surgery, and almost exclusively of the horse. 

There are nine or ten teachers and forty pupils. The course consists of anat- 
omy, physiology, zoology, the veterinary art, and horse-shoeing, and extends 
over three years. There is an examination every six months, and one at the 
close of the course, after which the pupils enter the regiments or are assigned 
to posts. A clinique where sick animals are treated is connected with the 
school, and is free of charge, but their' owners pay for food and medicines. 

French estimate of Prussian Agricultural Schools. 
M. de Laveleye, in the Bevue des Deux Mondes for September, attributes 
the great advance made by Prussia in agriculture, first, " to the complete system 
of general education throughout the rural districts;" and second, "to the tech- 
nical instruction provided not only for the manufacturing and mechanic classes, 
but for the agriculturists." 

Prussia maintains four Royal Academies of Agriculture, at which both the 
theory and practice of farming are taught during two years, at a cost to each 
student of less than 8?. a year for instruction in political and rural economy, 
the management of trees and woods ; in the mode of manufacturing sugar, beer, 
bricks and draining tiles ; in mineralogy, geology, botany, and chemistry, with 
experiments and excursions; and lastly, in mathematics, trigonometry, land- 
surveying, practical mechanics, veterinary surgery, rural law, the history of 
their country, and constitutional law. Excursions into the most interesting 
districts are common. The persons who attend these academies are those who 
have to make their living by their own farms, commonly of small extent. For 
amateurs a less practical course is provided at institutes connected with the 
Universities of Halle and Berlin. There are nineteen provincial schools of agri- 
culturs below the academies, subsidized by the State to the amount of about 
2,000Z., and generally taught by some large farmer, assisted by the neighboring 
apothecary, schoolmaster, and veterinary surgeon. Tliere are also numerous 
special schools, for particular branches, such as market-gardening, and the cul- 
tivation of meadows and woods. The care of fruit-trees is taught in one hun- 
dred and thirty-four schools in the ancient provinces alone. 

The system of paid instruction is extended by the institution of itinerant 
teachers, who go from village to village, criticising the cultivation and giving 
advice about rotation of crops and the most suitable kinds of manure. The 
State also maintains seven experimental institutes of organic and agricultural 
chemistry, which, on different soils and under different circumstances, are test-> 
ing and completing the theories of Liebig, and in proving the quality of the 
artificial manures of commerce. 

Finally, there are 519 voluntary agricultural association.s, which by confer- 
ences, exhibitions and prizes, assist in spreading information. Apart from the 
academies and institutes of chemistry, the State does little. There is a central 
commission, presided over by a Minister of Agriculture, but its expenses in 
1862 were only 177^. Three large stud farms, maintained at a cost of 20,000Z. 
a year, continually improve the breeds of horses for war as well as peace. 
Eleven hundred stallions, distributed from tliese forms through the provinces, 
get annually 35,000 foals^a number sufficient to modify the breeds throughout 
the country in any desired direction in a very few years. 

M. de Laveleye assigns much importance "to the simple and economic habits 
of the German farmer, and to the fact that Prussia is fortunate in having no 
Algiers, no large fleet, and especially no Paris to oppress agriculture by the 
draio of both money and men ; but the great secret of the success of Prussian 
agriculture is diffused education and technical instruction." 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 219 



COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS. 
In Prussia, the Real school, and even the Higher Burgher school, has heen 
regarded as sufficient to give all the appropriate and special instruction required 
for a mercantile career, the practical part of v/hich could, it was thought, be better 
acquired by a few years service in a subordinate position in the counting-room 
than in any school. 

COMMERCIAL SCHOOL AT BERLIK. 

The Cominercial School at Berlin, founded in 1848, by Dr. Schweitzer, and 
now under the direction of Dr. Frantz, has for its object the special preparation 
of pupils for. commercial pursuits. There are but few schools of this special 
character in Prussia, as it is generally maintained that the gymnasiums and real 
schools afford the best general culture necessary to the merchant of good social 
standing, while the counting-room is the best practical school. However, the 
government has sanctioned this establishment. 

The course of instruction covers two years, and there are four divisions : class 
III, class II B, II A, and class I. The branches taught are arithmetic, geom- 
etry, physics, history, geography, drawing, calligraphy ; the history, geography, 
statistics, and science of commerce ; history of mercantile staples, technical chem- 
istry, laws of exchange, coinage, &c. ; book-keeping, French, English, and Ger- 
man languages, and correspondence. 

There is a Government Board of Inspection of the final examination. Suc- 
pessful candidates are excused from two of their three years' military service. 
From 1856 to 1862, 122 pupils passed, of whom 21 were characterized as "ex- 
cellent," 64 " good," and 37 " passable." 

The number of pupils was in 1862, 100 in the first year, and 140 in the second ; 
in 1863, 173 and 176 ; and in 1864, 204 and 213 ; these statistics showing an in- 
crease of public confidence in the institution. 

C03IMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR YOUNG WOMEN, AT BERLIN. 

The commercial institution for young women, at Berlin, was opened in 1866. Its 
purpose is to impart to young women already possessing considerable education, 
such theoretical and practical knowledge as will enable them to fill responsible 
commercial and industrial positions, especially those of book-keepers, accountants, 
and correspondents. It has seven professors. 

The course is divided into two divisions ; the first (A) extends over two years, 
giving general preparatory culture, with a view to future employment in com- 
merce or industry ; the second (B) of one year, suited to those who wish to obtain, 
as soon as possible, the knowledge necessary for entering at once into some prac- 
tical employment. Ladies over 15 are admitted to Division A; over 16, to 
Division B. The subjects and Itpurs, per week, are specified below. 

General knowledge of commerce and industry; definition of commerce; differ- 
ent kinds of trade ; auxiliary means of trade ; coinage ; weights and measures ; 
money ; banking and exchange business. The most important laws relative to 
commerce and industry, 1 hour during the first year ; 2 during the second ; 2 in 
Division B. Commercial and industrial book-keeping (by single and double 
entry,) 1 hour first year; 2 the second; 2 in Division B. Commercial hand- 
writing and practice therein by writing themes on commercial business, 3 hours 
first year; 3 in Division B. Ar thmetic general and applied to commerce and 
industry, 4 hours first year, 2 the second ; 4 in Division B. German language 
and composition, 2 hours first year ; 1 the second ; 3 in Division B. German 



220 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

commercial correspondence, 1 hour the second year ; English language and cor- 
respondence, 3 hours both years ; 2 hours in Division B. French language and 
correspondence, 3 hours in both years, and Division B. Drawing, especially 
free-hand and pattern drawing, 3 hours both years and in Division B. Stenog- 
raphy, according to choice. Elements of natural history, 2 hours in both years, 
and Division B, and the elements of physics and chemistry, 2 hours both years, 
and in Division B, to prepare for the study of commercial geography and history, 
2 hours in the second year, and 1 in Division B,and the knowledge of goods and 
technology, 2 hours in the second year, and in Division B. Knowledge of mat- 
ters connected with the vocation of women, more especially domestic economy, 1 
hour in the second year. 

The last branch applies science to domestic life, and treats the Object as fol- 
lows : Knowledge of susteniation — alimentary substances, varieties, source, value for 
nourishment, adulterations, and tests. Animal and vegetable food in all its varie- 
ties. Cheapest and best diets. Cooking ; materials for fire, utensils, modes of cook- 
ing. Preservation of food. Fermentations ; putrefaction, and modes of prevent- 
ing it. Various modes of preserving food ; the ice-house ; storing food. 

Dairy products. Alimentary stuffs, and household goods, and materials. Care 
of house linen, nursing, sanitary laws, management of servants, accounts, and 
various other household functions. 

The above plan of studies is only temporarily established, and is subject to 
change. Visits are made to workshops, goods depots, &c. 

At the close of the course, after an examination, a diploma may be conferred. 

The school fees are a matriculation fee of three thalers ; an annual fee of 50 
thalers ; in Division B there are 10, additional for English, French, and draw- 
ing. Pupils are not received for less time than a year, but may attend single 
courses for 1|^ to 2 thalers the course per semester. There are 49 pupils. 

Connected with the institution is a collection of books, specimens of goods, 
physical, chemical, and technological apparatus. 

SCHOOL OF NAVIGATION, AT STETTIN. 

This school is intended to train mariners and masters of merchant vessels. It 
is under the superintendence of a director, residing at Dantzig, who has the same 
control over the other navigation schools in Prussia, and is provided with two 
professors and an assistant, who teaches drawing. 

To be admitted to the lowest class, the candidate must be able to read and 
write, be acquainted with elementary mathematics, and must be able to make a 
fair composition in German. The lessons are given during 32 hours a week, and 
during three years, the first year being a course for pilots, while, during the last 
two is taught the art of navigating the high seas. 

The course in pilotage comprises the following branches ; arithmetic, plane 
geometry, carpentry, plane and spherical trigonometry, navigation, terrestrial 
and astronomical observations, drawing of sea-charts and astronomical maps, and 
English. That of the highei* division comprises the preceding studies carried 
farther, rigging, drawing the different parts of a vessel, the commercial rules rela- 
tive to ships' papers, and to the course of exchange at the principal commercial 
ports, &c. 

On leaving the school an examination is held, and a certificate of proficiency 
awarded to those undergoing it in a satisfactory manner. This certificate is the 
basis of all promotion to any and the different stations of command of a mer- 
cantile vessel. 

The fees, paid quarterly, are six thalers for the pilot's course, and ten for the 
highercourse in navigation. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 221 

MINING ACADEMY AT BERLIN. 

The Mining Academy (Berg Akademie) at Berlin, gives a superior finishing 
education to persons connected with mines or the working of metals. It is gov- 
erned by a director, and has a corps of nine professors, three attached to the 
school, and six connected with the University, who attend to give their practical 
courses. The pupils must inscribe their names for the courses they intend to fol- 
low, and persons not belonging to the school may hear single courses after the 
same formality. The school fees are calculated at the rate of 1^ thalers the term 
for each hour's lesson attended per week ; thus a course with six lessons in the 
week costs 9^ thalers per half year. Laboratory manipulations cost 20 thalers 
additional, and assaying 10. 

The course of instruction includes : 1. Mathematics; 2. Greometry; 3. Me- 
chanics, elementary, higher, and applied ; 4. Physics; 5. Construction of mining 
machinery; 6. Chemistry, theoretical, technological, and analytical ; 7. Mineral- 
ogy, crystalography ; 8. Geology, paleontology; 9. Surveying, general and 
practical; 10. Architecture, and construction in reference to mining; 11. Met- 
allurgy, assaying by the dry and the wet method, and the blow pipe; 12. Min- 
ing law and business system, including book-keeping; 13. Drawing, through 
the whole course, with reference to construction, platting of grounds, sections, &c. 

At the end of the course there is an examination, giving the pupil who passes 
it the title of el eve des mines (pupil of mines). If he is to enter the State service, 
he must pass two more, the first, for the title of auditor of mines (referendairedes 
n}in€s), after two years' practical mining ; and the second, for that of assessor of 
mines, after two years' of administrative labor under a chief engineer. 

The three professors attached to the academy and the director receive each 
1,000 thalers a year. The total expense of the establishment is 12,000 thalers, 
and the part not covered by the receipts is borne by the State, which has also 
provided the building, the cabinets, and the apparatus. There are xery complete 
geological and mineralogical collections, and very commodious and well-organized 
laboratories. Of the latter there are two, one for the dry and one for the humid 
method of assaying. Reagents are placed freely at the disposal of the students; 
only the more costly ones being given out under supervision. 

SCHOOL OF PRACTICAL MINING AT BOCflUM. 

The Mining School at Bochura was founded in 1863, out of the surplus funds 
gf a miners' association. The management is in the hands of the Director of the 
Mining Bureau, and of the trustees of the old miners' fund. It is designed for 
superintendents of mines, and master workmen. 

The pupils must have worked three years in a mine before entering the school. 
They must enter early enough to finish the course before heing called out to 
military duty, or else have finished their period of service. 

The course occupies two years ; the first year is preparatory and optional ; the 
studies of the second occupy 30 hours weekly, and include mathematics, algebra, 
geometry, trigonometry, chemistry, physics, mechanics, and the elements of 
building construction, the law, administration and accounts of mining, and draw- 
ing. It is held only in winter, the summer being spent in work in the mines. 

Instruction is gratuitous to indigent pupils only, who, if they give promise of 
excellence, find no difficulty in getting pecuniary assistance. 

There is, connected with the school, an excellent library of works relating to 
mining matters and to the studies pursued, and a collection of geological and 
paleontological specimens. 



222 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 



THE STEEL WORKS OP KRUPP. 

In connection with this brief description of the School for Practical Miners at 
Bochum, which we compile from the letter of Mr. Samuelson, on " Technical 
Education in various countries abroad" we introduce a few extracts from the same 
letter, to show the commercial importance of the region of countr}-^, in which this 
and other schools intended to give a high scientific training to the engineers and 
foremen of the great industrial establishments, which the wise policy of Prussia 
now fosters and protects, are located : 

The coal basin of Westphalia will be the foundation of an industrial develop- 
ment for the continent of Europe, second only to that of Great Britain, Its area 
is not yet fully ascertained, but the yield will last for centuries, even at a higher 
rate of production required to supply the steel and ironworks now in full activity, 
and the numerous factories which are springing up through all this region. 

At Essen, in the heart of the great coal basin and rich mineral district of West- 
phalia, are the celebrated steel works of Krupp. They consume 800 to 1 ,000 
tons of coal per day raised from pits within the walls of the works or immediately 
adjoining, the cost at the works being less than 5s. per ton, probably the lowest 
cost of fuel in any metallurgical works on the continent. The machinery is as 
perfect as the magnificent products of the work would lead one to expect. The 
range of crucible furnaces is a sight of its kind unparalleled in the w^orld, except 
perhaps at the neighboring works of Bochum. A steel 1,000-pounder breech- 
loading gun was nearly completed for Russia, and several 200-pounders and 300- 
pounder steel guns, hooped and rifled, also breech-loaders for the German Navy. 
Hundreds, I think I may say thousands, of steel guns, of every size, from those 
I have named down to 4-pounders, and for evei-y nation under the sun, all rifle 
breech-loaders, but of endless patterns, were in every stage of progress, from the 
solid ingot, passing under the ponderous steam-hammer to the bored and turned 
gun, fitted with its breech-piece, and sighted. Besides the gims, numberless rail- 
way wheels and tyres were in progress. I may notice a number of forged cast- 
steel cranked axles, one of enormous size, for a transatlantic steamer, building at 
Greenock, by the Messrs. Caird, and several steel hoops for the Elswick gun 
factory. Nearly 8,000 men are employed at these works, producing 60,000 tons 
of steel annually, or more than tAvice the entire export of steel from the United 
Kingdom ; and the human tide, as it pours from the numerous gates at the din- 
ner hour, is not the least suggestive of the sights of Essen. At the outbreak of 
last year's war, (1866,) a thousand men were called under arms, but 250 of them 
were quickly sent back, lest the manufacture of cannon should suffer interruption. 
The administration is like that of a small State. All the heads of the technical 
departments are pupils of the various Polytechnic schools of Gennany. The 
Commercial staff" includes a jurist, by whom all contracts are settled, and legal 
questions determined. The foremen have all risen from the ranks. 

In the very centre of the works stands the modest dwelling-house, and the very 
workshop in which Mr. Krupp succeeded to his father's trade at the age of 15, 
forty years ago, emplopng at that time a single journeyman at the forge, and 
himself traveling on horseback to sell his steel wares throughout the country. 

The wages of the puddlers here are about 4s. per day, but it is probably above 
the average of the district. Rollers earn 4s., mechanics up to 5s. ; the hammermen, 
at the enormous steam hammers, 5s. to 6s. ; their assistants, 3s. to 4s. 6rf. Here 
again, there is no sub-contracting — the share of every man, in the tonnage rate, 
is fixed by the managers and paid to him at the pay-table. 

The facility and certainty with which solid ingots of steel, weighing from 4o 
to 50 tons, are turned out of the works, are not more astonishing than the pro- 
duction of the largest as well as the most delicate moulded castings in steel at 
Bochum. The steel disc-wheels of Bochum, cast in a single piece, are now to be 
found on nearly every German railway, and while the price scarce exceeds that 
of iron wheels, their durability is incomparably greater ; about 20,000 of them are 
already nmning. Bochum, like Essen, is in the Westphalian coal-basin. 

Scarcely inferior in interest are the great iron and steel works of Hoerde, cm- 
ploying 4,500 work people. The heads of the technical departments licre, as 
elsewhere, are pupils of the higher schools ; the foremen are superior workmen. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 223 

INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

Drawing, since the establishment of the Academy of the Fine Arts in Berlin 
in 1690, and of the Real School by Hccker in 1747, has formed an important 
branch of instruction, not only in professional and technical schools, but in insti- 
tutions of general culture, of the highest and lowest grade. In the classical and 
scientific schools, in the trade schools and further improvement schools, in the 
primary and secondary schools, we are sure to find its place in the programme of 
studies. In 1831, it was made a matter of special regulation by the Minister of 
Public Instruction, which was revised by the same authority in 18G3, with sug- 
gestions as to the aims and methods of this branch of instruction. 

The following Regulations for instruction in Drawing in the Gymnasiums and 
Trade Schools of Prussia, was issued by the Minister of Public Instruction 
(Von Muehler), October 2, 1863 : 

Instruction in drawing is an important element in the education of youth, and 
forms an essential part of the programme of superior schools. 

Experience has demonstrated that the actual state and results of instruction in 
this brancl>, as well as the development of scientific teaching, and the condition 
of art and industry, require a revision of the regulations of March 14, 1831. 
With the advice of the royal academies of fine arts of Berlin, Dusseldorf, and 
Kceni^sberg, and of the provincial academic councils, and of several teachers 
of tried experience, the following regulations have been prescribed : 

I. PROGRAMME FOR GYMNASIUMS. 

1. Instruction in drawing in gymnasiums is given in four classes or consecu- 
tive coixrses, the trade school constituting the fifth class. 

Independent of this division of courses, pupils, as far as local convenience 
permits, shall be classed in special divisions, according to their capacities and 
progress. 

Lower Class: 

2. Elements of the theory of drawing ; lines of different directions, and dimen- 
sions in various combinations. Drawing of straight and curved lines without 
model. 

In the first course, that steadiness of hand is not to be expected, which is 
necessary for drawing lines and circles with the perfection attained with the use 
of instruments. 

Second Class: 

3. First elements of perspective, with the occasional use of the ruler and com- 
pass if necessaiy. The pupils may draw after models of wood ; the apparent 
changes of aspect to which bodies are subject must be explained ; also the elfcct 
of light on the surface of bodies, and the shading of solids, beginning with those 
with plane surfaces. The models are to be turned successively to the right or 
left and placed at various distances from the pupil. 

Moreover, in this class free-hand drawing after engravings is entered upon, ad- 
vancing to parts of the face and to entire heads, giving at first only contours and 
slight indications of shade. 

Third Class : 

4. Advanced exercises in free-hand drawing after models and plaster cgsts, or- 
naments, leaves, parts of the human body ; copying engravings is to be continued, 
and landscape drawing to be begun. 

Progressive development of perspective ; drawing from models in various posi- 
tions and at various distances. Theory of the vanishing-point. 

Introduction to the use of the ruler and compass in the principles of architec- 
tural design. 

Fourth Class: 

5. Free-hand drawing after engravings, arabesques, animals, heads, and com- 
plete figures ; more difficult landscapes. 

Drawing from busts, full heads, use of stump and drawing with two crayons. 
Perspective continued to drawing apartments and groups of difficult objects not 
presenting too great diflficulties. 



224 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

II. PROGRAMME FOR TRADE SCHOOLS. 

6. The four preceding classes, comprising the course of a gymnasium, are also 
the first four classes in the trade schools, with the difference, however, that in the 
latter, fi-ee-hand drawing is taught to pupils of the superior classes, together with 
linear drawing (ruler and compass), beginning in the third class. Ihe method 
of projections, on a plane or in elevation, is theor^icallv and practically exposed, 
and extended much farther than at the gymnasiums, while a greater number of 
hours also are devoted to instruction in drawing in the superior classes. Beyond 
this, the trade schools add a special fifth class to the course pursued at the gym- 
nasium. 

Special or Fifth Class : 

7. Continuation of free-hand exercises ; problems from perspective and the 
theory of shadows, with scientific explanations ; exercises in linear drawing ac- 
cording to the special profession of each pupil ; elements of topography. 

8. As a close to the instruction in drawing, polytechnic schools can impose 
proofs of capacity upon pupils leaving the institute : 

1 . Linear Drawing. — A geometrical or prospective projection, including con- 
struction of shadows, simple objects in architecture, mechanics, or other branches. 
This proof implies the supposition that pupils of the superior course of a poly- 
technic school are able to trace back any graphic representation to its elementary 
geometrical construction ; that they are familiar with descriptive geojnetry, with 
the theory of shadows and of perspective, and that they are sufficiently practiced 
in designing architecture and machines, without having completely exhausted the 
theoretical part of the branches. 

2. Free-hand Drawing. — In this branch the individual disposition of each pupil 
should be considered ; their inequality in this respect does not admit of a formal 
programme as definite as that for linear drawing. The more advanced pupils 
should be able to draw with the free-hand, arabesques, landscapes, animals, heads 
and entire from engravings, and various objects, including shaded heads from 
models in plaster, and prove their comprehension of the principles involved. 

3. Drawing of plans and topographical drawing must also, to a moderate de- 
gree, become familiar to the pupils 

To this programme are appended the following su^estions : 

1. Instruction in drawing should proceed gradually from the most easy to the 
most difficult studies, avoiding that pedantic monotony which weakens the atten- 
tion of pupils, and passing lightly over isolated details, accustoming the student 
at an early period to consider the whole. There is no want of excellent models 
for the first courses in instruction ; but it is recommended that the teacher should 
sometimes make his own models that the pupils may see tne method of construct- 
ing them. In the beginning the entire class should be engaged in the same 
problems in order to better sustain their attention and to elevate and stimulate 
their zeal. 

2. The programme of instruction in drawing in the superior schools, particu- 
larly in gymnasiums, embraces also, besides the training of the eye and the hand, 
the development of the feeling for the beautiful. Pupils will learn by progressive 
exercises, to take in at a glance the characteristic forms of objects, and to properly 
appreciate the beauties of natural scenery and the mastear-pieces of plastic art. 

3. Free-hand drawing is the most important exercise at the gymnasium, and 
the course should correspond with the indications of the programme, without be- 
coming purely mechanical ; but should, on the contrary, be pursued with the 
object of elevating the student to spontaneous and intelligent reflection. Noth- 
ing should be done by the beginner without previous theoretical and practical ex- 
planations. The education of the mind must accompany that of the hand ; the 
latter can produce only what the eye sees, and the eye sees incorrectly without 
the aid' of the understanding. The copying hand is not only an instrument in 
the service of the eye, but the auxiliary of a reasoning mind. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 225 

To attain this object, it is particularly important that the instructions should 
not be limited, as is often done, to the mere copying of engravings, a system from 
which science and method are almost always excluded. Drawing from engrav- 
ings alone is injurious to the eye, because the object to be reproduced is always 
too near ; and it will happen that pupils, after following a course in drawing 
through several years, will not be able to draw correctly even a chair or any other 
simple body. 

4. Experience shows that most pupils leave the gymnasium to choose a pro- 
fession after the third or fourth class, for which reason the coinplete drawing 
course for a gymnasium has been so organized that the pupil can acquire, before 
he leaves, besides some skill in free-hand and linear drawing, the theory of making 
plans and elevations as well as the elements of perspective ; in short, they are suffi- 
ciently familiarized with the principles of design to pursue the course by them- 
selves, if their vocation requires. 

In gymnasiums the use of the ruler and compass in architectural design is re- 
served for the higher classes. 

The education of the aesthetic sense, aimed at in all the other literary studies 
of the gymnasium, is also assisted by the study of models from the antique, and 
pupils in the higher classes should be made familiar not only with the classic 
antiquities, but also with some of the master-works in sculpture and architecture. 

5 The polytechnic schools, by the terms of their organic regulations and to 
respond to their object, should initiate their pupils into a thorough knowledge of 
nature, science and art, by giving due importance to the instruction in drawing. 
By it, pupils should become accustomed to observation, in order that, by pene- 
trating mathematical forms, they may be able to find and recognize them in all 
the natural combinations into which they enter, and to determine their peculiar 
and external characteristics. The better they understand the laws of nature, the 
more the sense of the beautiful will develop itself within them. 

6. If, for the object of polytechnic schools, linear design occupies an important 
f lace in the programme, it is not with the desire that free-hand drawing be neg 
lected ; on the contrary, it should be cultivated in an earnest and methodical 
manner, always connected with instruction in perspective. It is recommended to 
add it to the plan of the fifth class, and if thought proper, to the preceding 
courses, in connection with lessons in natural science, and to introduce as a model 
the skeleton of the human body. 

Before commencing linear drawing, properly so termed, the pupil should have 
acquired skill in free-hand drawing. This branch may begin in the third class, 
with the theory of projections, since perspective has been a subject in preceding 
classes, and may be continued with the theory of shadows. 

7. Instruction in drawing should not generally pass the. limits assigned in the 
programme of the school ; its object is not to form artists, but to exercise pupils 
in the elementary principles of art, in the understanding of form, in surcness of 
eye, in the habit of estimating proportions, and in steadiness and skill of hand. 
Copying landscape studies is often dispensed with in higher classes, as the time 
and labor spent are out of proportion to the usefulness of the practice, and be- 
cause both teacher and pupil are easily deceived by productions of this sort. 

8. In the selection of studies, regard should be had to the needs of instruction, 
rather than to method and aesthetics. 

9. Besides a collection of studies and models, it is indispensable that superior 
schools should be provided with a well-lighted hall specially adapted to this in- 

15 



226 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

struction, where suitable objects for observation, the copies of characteristic and 
celebrated works of art, busts, ornaments, fragments of ai'chitecture, etc., will be 
the best decorations. The daily contemplation of these models will contribute 
essentially to the development of the faculties concerned in drawing. 

Schmidt's method, 

In 1836, Mr. Peter Schmidt received a pension from the government In 
acknowledgement of the services rendered the schools and the country by a new 
method of drawing introduced by him into the Royal Keal School, and taught 
by him to the teachers of the trade school and of the city normal school. 

In this method, pupils begin by drawing from geometrical forms, made in wood 
or plaster, of a square pillar (seven and a half inches high and one inch and a 
half in its square section), a niche, and a low cylinder. The square pillar sei> 
arates in joints, affording a cube and parallelopipeds of different heights. The 
hemisphere, which caps the niche, may be removed, leaving the concave surface 
of its cylindrical part. Each of these models afford a graduated series of lessons 
on the drawing of solids, and of curved lines, and the drawing of lines of different 
degrees of strength, and of shadows. This is accompanied with some of the 
more simple rules of shadow and shade. More difficult exercises follow from 
natural objects, and from works of art, or mechanism, according to the attain- 
ment of the pupil and the direction of his taste. An account of this method 
will be found in Prof. Bache's description of the Royal Real School of Berlin. 

DIJBris' METHOD. 

The method proposed by M. Alexander Dubuis, of giving the human head, 
or bust, which presents only very general masses, or features ; after this, another 
bust, with some additional indications of the head ; then a third, in which the 
details are more numerous and more decided ; and lastly, a fourth, in which 
the details are according to nature. These four busts, each placed in different 
positions, presenting four successive stages of the same figure, is in use in some 
public, as well as private drawing schools. 

DRAWING IN COMMON SCHOOLS. 

Although drawing receives some attention in the common schools, and the 
teachers are systematically trained for this purpose, its scope in Prussia is far 
more restricted than in schools of the same class in Bavaria and Wurtemberg. 
By the " Regulativ " of 1854, drawing in the Teachers' Seminary "must not go 
beyond introductory lessons in the linear representation of simple objects," and 
in the ordinary one class elementary school, it must not be taught beyond the 
simplest free-hand drawing from fiat examples. Practically, it is not carried, as 
in the best Bavarian schools, into elaborate penmanship, tasteful as well as accu- 
rate map-drawing, ornamental designing, and the culture of the sense of the 
beautiful generally. Nor is it applied in the common schools, as in Wurtem- 
berg, to the industrial details of the future occupations of the pupils. Instruc- 
tion of this kind is reserved for the adult, or supplementary schools, and to the 
trade and art schools. 

In the absence of any official directions as to the system of teaching drawing In 
in this class of schools, we introduce a very valuable paper on the subject, prepared 
by Dr. Hcntschel for Diesterweg's " Wegweiser," a manual which has special ref- 
erence to the organization, instruction, and discipline of common schools : 



' DRAWING* 

BY DR. ERNST HBNTSOHBI.. 
I. DEFINITIONS, 

" The cultivation of the faculties of representation and form, gives us a feeling 
for beauty, grace, form, and symmetry." — Hamisch. 

Drawing is a mode of representing solid forms by lines upon 
surfaces. 

A drawing, as a result of artistic labor, has either a purpose out- 
side of the art — such are mechanical drawings, plans, anatomical 
drawings, &c. — or it is executed for its owm sake ; as are landscapes, 
fruit pieces, &c. In the former case, their purpose is principally one 
of material usefulness ; in the second, they are executed with an en- 
deavor after a beautiful external form ; and are thus a representation 
of the ideal. But those of the fijst sort do not exclude the beautiful, 
for every object, without any exception, can be beautifully represented. 

Material forms are either natural or artificial; and either geomet- 
rical, or irregular. 

Various species of drawing are practiced ; as, 

1. Linear drawing, which gives only an outline of the object ;f and 
shaded drawing, in which surfaces are shaded. 

2. Geometrical and perspective drawing. The first represents 
objects in their correct relative proportions as to magnitude; the sec- 
ond, as they appear to the eye. The geojuetrical delineation of one 
side of a body is called an elevation ; that of its plan, a ground-plan. 

3. Free drawing and sketching ; either with or without the use 
of rule, compasses, <fec. 

4. Copying, or drawing from another drawing ; drawing from na- 
ture, or of real objects ; imaginative drawing, or drawing of things 
conceived of by one's self; of which the two former are of things as 
they are directly seen, and the latter are indirectly based upon the 
vision of real things. 

In all drawing, the eye, the hand, and the sense of beauty, are em- 
ployed ; as are also, in drawing from memory, the faculty of concep- 
tion, and in drawing from imagination, that faculty. 

* Translated from Diesterweg's ''Wegweiser." 

t Many persons include in linear drawing, drawing by the aid of the compasses and ruler. 



228 DRAWING. 

II. SCOPE, OBJECT, AND IMPORTANCE OF INSTRUCTION IN OBAWING. 

Instruction in drawing should include — 

1. Exercises in understanding 
a. Form, in itself, 

h. The beautiful in form. 

These constitute culture of the eye and of the sense of beauty. 

2. Exercises in representing 

a. What lies immediately before the student ; as in copying and 
drawing from nature ; 

h. What has heretofore been before him ; as in drawing from mem- 
ory and from imagination. 

These constitute the education of the hand in the service of the 
eye ; and culture of the memory, the imagination, and the sense of 
beauty. 

From another point of view, we may distinguish as follows : — 

1. Exercises in drawing lines, angles, and geometrical figures, as a 
basis for all studies in drawing ; that is, elementary drawing. 

2. Exercises in representing objects of all kinds, or applied drawing. 
The chief advantage of drawing is the culture of the various powers 

which it calls into action. 

Training of the eye and hand. — The knowledge of what God has 
made, and of what man has made, depends in great part upon the 
apprehension of the forms of things. Form, therefore, is one of the 
most important phenomena of the material world. And who will 
deny that the knowledge of the creation is important? God, who 
has made such various works, and has given us the power of accom- 
plishing and being conscious of our own culture, must prefer not to 
have us go blind through the world. And to open a child's eyes, 
not only to the forms of nature, but to those of the world of art ; so 
that he can apprehend and remember not only the form of a plant or 
an animal, the course of a river or of a chain of mountains, but also 
the architecture of an edifice, the construction of a machine, or the 
plan of a city, must be admitted to be of very great importance. 

The training of eye and hand which drawing furnishes, is a means 
of acquiring this power. Not only do we become accurately ac- 
quainted with the form of what we draw, but the work of drawing 
sharpens our observation of the forms of what we do not draw. 
Thus, drawing aflfords a knowledge of the material world. 

In addition to this, we acquire the pov/er of representing forms to 
others in a visible manner. This is a power of universal importance. 
A few lines will often do more than a long description. 

Training of the eye and hand is also of great importance, not 



DRAWING. 229 

merely as a means of knowing what there is in the world, and of 
representing that knowledge, but also as a preparation for the duties 
of life. Thus it is of great use to many kinds of artizans to be able 
to draw a little, <fec. 

Tfaining of the concejJtive faculty/. — Without tliis culture, the 
knowledge and understanding of the forms of the visible world is not 
possible. Through its exercise, the pictures are represented to the 
mind, from which the imagination develops new forms. And without 
the exercise of the imagination, it is impossible to conceive of any 
progress into the limits of the supersensual, the abode of religion. 

Training of the sense of heautg. — This introduces us to that uni- 
versal pleasure, that enjoyment exclusively possessed by none, which 
is derived from the beautiful in nature and art. 

Every man, it is true, is to some degree fitted by nature to perceive 
and enjoy the beautiful, up to a certain point, but no further. He 
whose sense of beauty is not trained, loses infinitely. Take for in- 
stance the first example that occurs in actual life. A journeyman 
travels through a city full of beautiful architectural works. He goes 
stupidly in at one gate, and out at the other; there is no such thing 
as beauty for him. The buildings which he passes by neither have 
any present interest for him, nor will they hereafter be remembered 
except as masses of stone, rising high in the air, hollow within, ac- 
commodated with doors and windows, alike in one place and another, 
and erected merely from the necessity of security against wind and 
weather, thieves and robbers. But suppose another and better edu- 
cated journeyman passing through the same city. How much delight 
will he receive through his cultivated artistic faculties ? He will lin- 
ger for hours, with the hveliest pleasure, before each building; and 
will go forward, stored with wealth of new studies, and remembering 
all his life with delight those impressions of his journeying-years. 

The connection of culture in the beautiful with culture in morals is 
clear. In the recognition and the feeling, the loving and doing of 
the beautiful, coarseness and vulgarity, and tendencies toward debas- 
ing and sensual enjoyments, find a countervailing power. The vir- 
tues especially developed by the study of drawing are, persevering 
industry, love of unobtrusive right action, order, purity and decency.* 

A brief quotation from Goethe may conclude this introduction. 

* Frederic the Great used to recognize his soldiers long after they had left the army, by tlie 
good order cf their houses. An instructor in drawing might do the like. A boy who had 
attended school where, among other things, he had been obliged to learn the greatest neatnees 
in writing and drawing, brought about at his return home a most beneficial reform in the ex- 
ternal life of the whole family, by the vigor with which he opposed any deficiency in cleanli- 
ness and order. 



230 DRAWINGS. 

The importance of instruction in drawing as a part of education, will best ap- 
pear when we consider that by means of that acquirement we gain an increase of 
beautiful and noble pleasures derived from the external world. The whole realm 
of forms and colors opens to him ; he acquires a new mental organ; he receives 
the most delightful ideas, and learns to recognize, to respect, to love and to enjoy, 
the beauties of nature. 

Upon considering all that has been said of the intrinsic importance 
of instruction in drawing, and of its various practical advantages, we 
shall find that it includes no small number of qualities directly valua- 
ble as educational influences, both formal and material ; and that it 
is accordingly an important aid in solving the problem of the common 
schools ; Vhich is, the bringing of the child to what is beautiful, true, 
and good.* 

* The hundreds who frequent a public museum can not sit comfortably in a liquor shop ; 
and will soon come to feel that there is a direct conirast between men raised by art to the 
level of demigods, and men degraded by brandy to the level of hea.sts.~^^ England in 1835,'' 
by Fr. von Raumer. 

Tlie more recent reforms in education make this department of culture a universal benefit, 
no longer to be enjoyed exclusively by the painter, the sculptor, and the architect. And to 
this end, the primary school must provide that the eyes of its pupils are trained, their hands 
practiced in certainty and accuracy of delineation, and their feeling for beauty awakened and 
cultivated. In this manner an important service will be done to the farmer, the laborer, the 
mechanic, and the manufacturing operative. The farmer who can draw, will be far less'the 
victim of his own ignorance, or of designing enemies, in setting out lands and woods, in divi- 
ding meadow, arable land, gardens, in adjusting his tools, and in all matters relating to build- 
ing, hedging, and irrigation. One who is undertaking to build, whether from pleasure or 
necessity, can, if his school instruction has enabled him, judge correctly by the preparatory 
drawings of the taste, strength, arrangement, and convenience of the proposed edifice, esti- 
mate materials and cost, and then save himself and his architect much vexation and now and 
then a lawsuit. A wealthy patron of the arts will thus be enabled to understand better the 
works of artists, to estimate thus more correctly, and to value more highly and remunerate 
more fairly the artists themselves. Indeed, there is scarcely any person who would not de- 
rive benefit from this most desirable study. It has also a moral value which is far from con- 
temptible. Young persons who have learned to draw, will in that way occupy many vacant 
hours which would otherwise be passed in idleness, with all its evil consequences. The re- 
sult of this can not but be beneficial in families ; and when tlie young have themselves grown 
up, and are themselves fathers and mothers, the benefit will be still greater. But mdividuala 
as well as families, will reap similar advantages from it, through its efficiency in averting 
many harmful and prejudicial influences. Any occupation of a regular nature, and fitted to 
employ hours of recreation, is a rich source of pure and quiet pleasures, elevating both to the 
mind and the feelings.— Wirth, in the ^'■Universal Swiss School Gazette," vol. ii. p. 8, 9. 

But setting aside all questions of mere practical usefulness, and therefore passing by the in- 
quiry in what and how many human avocations drawing is useful and necessary— aside from 
all this, we know of scarcely any practice of more comprehensive influence than drawing. 
Instruction in it, in connection with that, in the intuitional knowledge of geometrical forms, 
ha.? an influence in stimulating and conjoining those two great elements of life, receptivity 
and productivity, unequaled by any other, so far as regards material existence. It makes 
demands upon eye and hand, upon mind and heart ; and afFoi-ds a methodical culture in ac- 
curacy, neatness, and in the sense of symmetry and of beauty. It offers the most efficient ol 
all aids to instruction in natural history, natural science, geography, writing, and mathemat 
ics.— Dr. Zehlicke, in '■* Mecklenburg School Gazette," vol. i. p. 3. 

Drawing is not only a suitable occupation for the young, but sharpens the vision, trains 
the hand for writing and other delicate employments, gives practice in ob.servation and quick- 
ness of apprehension, affords a store of instructions and ideas, develops the faculty of order 
and the sense of beauty, gives activity and cheerfulness, and is absolutely indispensable in 
many occupations.— Zerrenner's '■'■Principles of Education and Instruction." Edition ol 
183a 



DRAWING. 231 

To aid in the actual solution of this problem is the purpose of 
drawing. If without it, it can not be completely and in all respects 
solved, the iinportance and ihdeed the necessity of it as a study are 
beyond doubt. It is always the duty of the common schools to give 
instruction in drawing; and only unavoidable deference to still 
higher necessities can exceptionally justify a temporary omission of it. 

The actual state of affairs, it is true, argues against this opinion. 
In far the majority of the common schools, no instruction at all is given 
in it. Calligraphy is practiced with zeal and a great expenditure 
of time ; a multitude of names of Asiatic rivers and Brazilian apes 
are committed to memory ; and the most abstract grammatical rela- 
tions are taught. But no care is taken to make the children familiar 
with the sphere of phenomena lying immediately around them, and 
to fit them better for real life, by means of drawing. The unpractical 
nature of the German mind is one reason for this ; another is, that the 
Pestalozzian principle of a harmonious development of the funda- 
mental human faculties, has, during the last ten years, not only not 
gained in currency, but actually lost. Whether this last fact is the 
result of our inability, light-mindedness and want of judgment, or of 
the truth that every idea has its periods of brightness and obscurity, 
is a question to be settled by others. To return to the practical view 
of the subject. The French are in this matter, as in others, more 
judicious than we. There the law enforces the teaching of drawing 
in all the elementary schools.* 

III. APPLICATION OF THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION TO DRAWING. 

A. Outline of the Proper Exercises for the Common School. 

1. Both elementary drawing (of lines, angles, geometrical figures,) 
and applied drawing must be practiced ; the former as a very neces- 
sary substructure for the latter, on the principle of beginning with the 
elements ; and the latter, because the forms of the world around us, 

* The Royal Government of Magdeburg, in a circular order to tlie common and burgher 
schools on the subject of drawing, of April 6, 1847, reproves the neglect of it ; which is the 
more surprising, inasmuch as there is scarcely to be found one school inspector who is not 
convinced "that drawing, which is in itself an occupation appropriate for the young, and 
of an innocent character, sharpens the vision, quickens the hand, trains the attention and the 
apprehension, conducts to intuitions and to ideas, develops the faculty and the sense of 
beauty, prevents tedium and idleness, and is of great pedagogical-importance ; and who does 
not know how many occupations require a knowledge of drawing ; and that, especially at the 
present day, when such rapid progress is made in all industrial pursuits, drawing is a study 
absolutely indispensable" And the circular adds, '-It is very true that at present, many 
things are studied in our burgher and common schools, and in many ways. But it is also 
true that all such studies, whenever they exceed what is necessary, should not be permitted ; 
and that therefore the school department has long been endeavoring to fix the proper limits to 
the field of study ; and that for a study so important as drawing, the necessary time must be 
found. 



232 DRAWING 

without comprehending and representing which neither the formal 
nor the material object of drawing will be reached, are almost always 
not plane figures, but solid forms. 

The educating power possessed by elementary drawing, is not 
doubted even by its opponents. Nor does it deserve the common ac- 
cusation of dryness and wearisomeness, if properly commenced and 
continued. Experience shows that boys find an especial pleasure in 
dividing an angle into three, four, or more equal or proportional parts, 
in constructing an equilateral triangle, an octagon, a circle, (fee. 
Many maintain that the fundamental forms should be practiced only 
in real drawing— in drawing actual objects. But this would destroy 
a portion of the expected advantages ; for besides the fundamental 
forms, all the collateral work which drawing from nature requires, 
must be repeated exactly as often as the fundamental form ; usually 
without any benefit. An equilateral triangle must be drawn cor- 
rectly, not merely once — for chance may bring that about — but twenty 
times ; which would show that chance has nothing to do with it, and 
that certainty of execution has been obtained. But who would need 
to design twenty times over the whole decoration of which the trian- 
gle may form a part ? 

2. In applied drawing, exercises in drawing by hand and out- 
line sketching, perspective and geometrical drawing, copying and 
inventive drawing, should, none of them, be wholly omitted. But as 
a general rule, the drawings in all these departments should be linear 
only, and not filled out by means of any shadowing. 

The practice of free oflF-hand drawing is evidently indicated as nec- 
essary, by both the formal and material purposes of instruction in 
drawing. This formal purpose requires as great a variety of stimuli 
as possible. These can u'^X he conceived of without free off-hand 
drawing. In respect to the material objects of drawing, the pupil 
who restricts himself to outline sketching, must give up the idea of 
representing a very large number of forms which could well be pro- 
duced in free off-hand drawing. But there should not be such an 
omission. Instruction should be in accordance with nature ; and this 
requires that the perceptions of the pupil should be directed to the 
whole world of nature and art. 

With reference to the other kinds of practice, may be mentioned — 

a. Reasons for practicing outline drawing. 

The great accuracy which this requires, affords a peculiarly good 
practice of hand and eye, and has, in particular, great value as a train- 
ing to observant, judicious, and provident activity. Any one who 
has accustomed himself to go about with circular and ruler, square 



DRAWING. 233 

and pencil, is much readier at apprehending than those who are igno- 
rant of the use of them. Many objects in practical life, also, can not 
be drawn except in outline. 

b. Reasons for practicing copying. 

1. The requirements of actual life demand it. 

2. A harmonious culture of the artistic faculties is impossible with- 
out practice in copying; and this both with reference to the technics 
of art, and to the cultivation of the sense of beauty. Such a culture 
doubtlefis requires in particular that the pupil should accurately com- 
prehend a large number of given forms. But the mathematical part 
of drawing implies much less apprehension than representation, and 
even this only according to fixed and very simple relations. Drawing 
from nature again affords, more especially, training in apprehension ; 
and the subjects selected may be as difficult as is desired; but still, 
only a relatively very small field of forms can thus be introduced into 
the common school for actual apprehension and representation. In 
drawing most animals, for instance, there would be very much disci- 
pline for both eye and hand; yet animals could hardly be made 
models for drawing in the common schools. The taste, again, would 
be very much cultivated by the study of classic architectural orna- 
ments ; but it is out of the question to go to Cologne or Strasburg to 
draw those there, not to mention crossing the Alps. Thus the neces- 
sity of copying becomes clearly obvious. 

c. Reasons for drawing from nature; geometrical [elevations) and 
perspective. 

1. The pupil improves in power of apprehending the various forms 
around him,* and in remembering them. 

2. It enables the pupil to understand perspective drawings imme- 
diately upon seeing them. 

3. There are frequent occasions in actual life when it is important 
and even necessary. 

4. As an immediate, free and independent mode of reproducing 
what the eyes perceive, it has an entirely peculiar attraction for the 
pupil. 

5. Acquaintance with the laws ftf perspective introduces the pupil 
to an entirely new world of ideas and thoughts ; and it is certain that 
such an occurrence can not be without influence upon his general in- 
tellectual development. 

These reasons in favor of perspective drawing, founded both upon 
the formal and the material purpose of instruction in drawing, are not 

*"It is astonishing how many deceptions remain undiscovered without the practice of 
this art, and how invariably we see otherwise than as we suppose." — Otto. 



234 DRAWING. 

witlioiit weight. There can be no complete instruction in drawing 
without that in perspective. If perspective has hitherto found little 
or no favor in our common schools, the reason is, partly the undenia- 
ble difficulty of the subject itself, and partly the lack of time, room 
and apparatus. It can therefore perhaps never be a universal study. 
But in all schools where space and time are not too limited, at least 
the more advanced pupils should make a beginning in perspective. 
Some details on this point will be given below. 

d. Reasons for practicing inventive drawing. 

1. The power of producing, the beautiful already exists in the 
child, and shows itself in innumerable ways. We must develop it if 
we desire to avoid a one-sided culture. 

2. It is certain that, as Otto says, this independent creation of beau- 
tiful pictures elevates the pupil to a consciousness of the rays of that 
divine creative power which appears in the human imagination. 

3. Practical life often calls for ability to arrange or construct in a 
tasteful manner. Many mechanics could not get on without the fac- 
ulty of inventing beautiful forms.* 

e. Reasons for and against drawing with shaded surfaces, 
aa. For. 

1. It affords a knowledge of light and shade as found in the world 
without ; that is to say, of one distinct aspect of the phenomena ©f 
objects. 

2. It relieves the pupil from his dissatisfaction, upon comparing hia 
unshaded sketches with the common shaded pictures, and discover , 
ing his own to be comparatively incomplete. 

hb. Against. 

1. It is of but little value, in comparison with a knowledge of out 
line drawing, in regard to the apprehension of objects in nature and 
art. Light and shade change continually, while outlines are more 
permanent. 

* Aithouj!;h I use the word " inventive " in an entirely general manner, the term of course 
naturally applies to the invention of symmetrical figures from modifications of the funda- 
mental mathematical forms. 1 am not of the opinion of those v?ho think that such exercises 
should be rejected on account ot the lack of reality in such figures. 

Tho>e who doubt whether such figures can be called beautiful at all, seem to doubt also 
whether the habit is to be approved which has prevailed for so many centuries, of using such 
forms on walls, doors, windows, fireplaces, hangings, cupboards, tables, furniture, carpets, 
table-cloths, book covers, embroidery patterns, and in a hundred other such ways. But the 
fact that these objects do certainly exist, and that other similar ones continue to be designed 
and used, so that the figures in que.stion do in fact have a relation to real objects, is a sufl5c 
ient reason for not omitting them from instruction in drawing. 

Otto states the necessity of the three principal departments of drawing, viz., copying, dra-w 
ing from' nature, and inventive drawing, as follows: " Drawing from visible bodies traim 
especially the eye ; drawing forms kept before the mind by the imagination and produced by 
it, and still more the work of imagining them, trains the imagination; and the copying t>| 
pictures already executed, the sense of beauty." 



DRAWING. 235 

2. For such drawing as is required in practical life it has some- 
times no value, and at other times a very subordinate one. 

3. If not very well prepared for and very well managed, it fre- 
quently produces a bad effect, and thus obstructs the cultivation of 
the taste instead of promoting it ; and even renders the minds of 
immature scholars obscure and stupefied. 

4. It wastes time needed for other most indispensable exercises.* 
These reasons on both sides indicate that this department should 

be studied, but that its practice should be confined within somewhat 
close limits. Only remarkably talented and industrious pupils should 
be permitted to pursue it, and then not unless they have prepared 
the way by a thorough practice of outline drawing. Those collec- 
tions of copies for drawing are quite unpedagogical, in which every 
thing is shaded, even from the very beginning. Unfortunately there 
are so many such, that more proper points are too often entirely 
omitted. 

Having thus discussed the necessity of studying in the common 
schools the various departments of elementary and applied drawing, 
free oflf-hand drawing, outline sketching, copying, drawing from na- 
ture and inventive drawing, the next inqury is, 

B. The relations of these different departments of practice to each other. 

1. Elementary drawing is the basis for all the others, and is there- 
fore the first step. 

2. Perspective drawing from nature is the most diflBcult, and there- 
fore should constitute the last or fourth stage. 

Want of elementary practice has an astonishing power of interfer- 
ing with the results in perspective drawing. This latter, moreover, 
requires a certain maturity of the whole man ; and it is also less im- 
portant for ordinary use than the other kinds. And in the small 
extent to which it can be learned at the common schools, it can have 
but a small influence, relatively, in developing the sense of beauty. 
All these considerations indicate that perspective should be the last 
department taught. 

3. Outline drawing is not to be taken up with the elementary 

* The shading is certainly a main reason why, in so large a share of the common schools, 
notwithstanding all the time spent in drawing lessons, the people do not learn to draw. A3 
soon as Johnny has practiced lines and outlines for a few months, he is given a large fruit- 
piece, a group of animals, a landscape, or a head, to shade. The outline is very quickly exe- 
cuted, for the circle is used ; and " the circle is on purpose for drawing outlines ;" and on he 
goes, with his shading. For twenty or forty lessons, he sits scratching vacantly, humming 
and thoughtless, until the wonderful work is completed. Then it is glazed and framed, is 
handed all round at tlie examination, stared at and bepraised by people who do not under- 
stand it, and our young hero, who can not draw a right angle, nor sketch a window, and who 
has no idea of beauty of form, receives a prize. At home, they hang up the picture with 
great ceremony, " ia everlasting remembrance," in the best parlor.. Poor Johnny ! 



236 DRAWING. 

course, but should come later, immediately before drawing in per- 
spective from nature, except so far as it belongs to geometry, and is 
employed in the construction of purely geometrical figures. It thus 
should constitute the third step, or last but one. 

On the subject of practicing outline drawing in the elementary 
course, opinions differ. Ramsauer says that it would be an unjusti- 
fiable waste of time to work with ruler and circle before the eye and 
hand gain firmness. Hippius directs a whole series of elementary 
exercises with the ruler, before beginning free off-hand drawing. 
Most teachers of drawing are of the opposite opinion to this. We 
incline toward the side which experience seems to have indicated, 
namely, that of the majority. 

4. Between elementary drawing and outline sketching is the place 
for free off-hand drawing, applied to actual objects ; which thus occu- 
pies the second place. 

5. Having thus determined upon four principal departments, the 
question will come up. Where does copying come in ; and elevations; 
and inventive drawing ? We answer : 

a. Inventive drawing has already been practiced in the elementary 
stage. But the pupil must always be made master of the materials 
with which he works ; he must have seen specimens of inventions of 
the sort which he is expected to make. 

The child can not develop the idea of the beautiful from himself. 
Some of the Pestalozzians have erred to an unspeakable extent on 
this point. Never was a more unpedagogical problem proposed than 
that of J. Schmid, for beginners — " Make a beautiful combination of 
isolated points!" 

But where the imagination has been set in action by examining 
models, the pupils may be permitted to make some experiments in 
invention, for which reason we have admitted it as above. For it is 
certainly according to nature, to begin to develop the different phases 
of the artistic faculty in children, from even the very point where 
they begin to spring out. We must, it is true, have regard to the 
old motto, ^^ Non multa sed multum ;''"' in order that we may not, in 
avoiding one-sidedness, fall into the opposite error of studying too 
many things at once. 

h. Drawing from nature, so far as it consists in making simple 
elevations, may be practiced during the second stage. For those just 
beginning it is too difficult, principally on account of the usually nec- 
essary reduction to a diminished scale. 

c. Cop3Mng may be commenced in a very easy way, as soon as a 
good beginning is laid in elementary drawing. 



DRAWING. 237, 

All the preceding details may be grouped as follows, in a 

General Scheme for Instruction in Drawing. 

First Grade, or Elementary Drawing ; and in connection with it, 
Inventive Drawing and Copying. 

Second Grade, Application of free off-hand drawing; including 
Copying, Geometrical Drawing from nature, and Inventive Drawing. 

Third Grade, or Outline Sketching ; with a continuation of Copy- 
ing and Inventive Drawing. 

Fourth Grade, Perspective Drawing, exclusively. 

This plan is in accordance with nature, as relates both to the pupil 
and to the subject. 

C. Directions for further practice in the different departments. 

GENERALLY. 

The same principles which have been laid down relative to the 
succession and connection of the various departments of practice, are 
applicable also to the choice and selection of the materials for each 
separate one. 

It is therefore necessary, 

First, To draw various forms. For if the instruction given is to 
communicate any formal culture, the child must, as has been said, 
comprehend its entire scope. It is an error to choose artificial forms 
only, or natural forms only. The teacher utterly misapprehends the 
character of the eoininon school, who causes architecture, or tools, or 
flowers, or landscapes, either of them exclusively, to be drawn. The 
pupil does not see either of them exclusively ; nor is it the business 
of the common school to educate especially for any one occupation 
such as that of the carpenter, the cabinet-maker, potter, <fec. 

Secondly/, It is the universal rule to begin with what is easy, and 
to proceed from that only with great caution. Now the easiest part 
of drawing is that with right lines ; not perhaps where the fewest 
lines are used, but where the relations of lines and angles are easy of 
comprehension. Of the regular forms, for instance, an easy one is 
the regular octagon; and a difiBcult one, the regular pentagon. Ir- 
regular forms are easy, if they are derived from regular ones ; as, for 
instance, the semi-circle ; but difficult otherwise, as in the case of the 
eye, nose, ear, hand, &c. ; all animals ; most flowers and fruits ; all 
trees ; most tools, &c. Thus many of the designs most frequently 
given to children as elementary exercises, are entirely improper for the 
purpose ; and great care must be taken not to be led astray by such 
titles as " The Little Flower Draftsman,''^ " Elementary Exercises in 
Jjandscape Drawing,''^ '^Studies of Animals for Industrious Boys,^'' <fec. 



238 DRAWING. 

The principal disadvantages of selecting too difficult subjects to be 
copied are, waste of time, discouragement of the pupils, or else vanity 
and overestimate of their powers. And in schools where there are 
several classes, a teacher who proceeds in a thorough manner, will 
find himself cast into the shade by this faulty mode of proceeding by 
his colleagues. 

" But the children will not work well at easy exercises." Unfortu- 
nately this is too true. They want to make a great picture, of the 
market-place at Leipzig, and that, if possible, during the great Easter 
fair ; the shipwreck of the Medusa ; St. Genevieve ; the battle of 
Katzbach, <fec. But it will not do to permit this. The more difficult 
it is to bring the children, by a course of instruction unbroken, and 
yet interesting, appropriate, attractive and not wearisome, to the point 
where they will find their pleasure in solving with certainty the pro- 
blems laid before them, instead of in their extent, so much the more 
zealously should we labor to accomplish it. 

But even the most careful arrangement of the order of problems 
will not avail, unless. 

Thirdly^ The pupils receive the necessary explanations and assist- 
ance. Here failure is frequent. Perhaps the pupil is set to copy a 
flower. He begins at once, at one of the extreme points ; and goes 
on to draw leaves, anthers, petals, pistils, &c., one after another, as 
zealously as possible, down to the minutest parts and details. After 
long and careful labor, his flower is finished ; an excellent flower, but 
unfortunately quite different from the original. There are schools 
where drawing is practiced in this manner, year after year. But how 
easily would the pupil have accomplished his work in the case pro- 
posed, if he had at first been taught how to see the blossom, correctly. 
The fundamental form would have been laid out perhaps by three or 
four points; and all the details would then have fallen into their, 
places of themselves. 

It must be plainly said, that in most drawing schools, instruction 
in intuition and apprehension is unjustifiably neglected. Many teach- 
ers have scarcely any idea of the basis of all drawing, of which the 
judicious Brauer, in his " Theory of Free Apprehension^^'' has ob- 
served, " Before any figure is drawn, it is necessary that it should be 
seen or understood in all its parts and relations." Here is a principal 
reason why so little progress is commonly made in this study. 

But supposing that all the conditions hitherto laid down have been 
complied with ; then, lastly and 

Fourthly^ It must be strictly required of the pupil, that he draw 
well ; that is, correctly and with entire neatness. No botching or 



DRAWING. 230 

working over, indistinctness or fancifulness, smearing or rubbing, 
trifling or talking, will accomplish this. The whole of the pupil's 
power must be earnestly and perseveringly exerted upon his work. 
It is only by this means that drawing will become the important 
educational instrumentality that it may be made. 

Working in company is much to be recommended. The task may 
be given out, the mode of performing it stated, and then followed at 
the same time, from point to point, by all. This trains to intelligent, 
orderly and regular labor. It is unnecessary to argue that all possi- 
ble means should also be tried to enlist the -interest of the children in 
the wojk which they are to do, and to conciliate their love of it. 



1. .Elementary Drawing. 

a. Should elementary drawing follow geometry, or geometry draw- 
ing? Neither, and for this reason ; that the order of study of the 
two subjects must often be very different. Geometry considers the 
triangle before the square ; while in drawing, many squares may be 
considered before, many triangles are. And much that pertains to 
geometry is of no importance to drawing. For it results from the 
nature of the case, that the portion of geometry which is of use in 
drawing, is studied during intuitional instruction, and therefore long 
before drawing is commenced. Such points are, ability to recognize 
a right angle, a square, a circle, <kc. I find no use in connecting 
geometry with drawing. But it is a different thing to repeat while 
drawing the fundamental forms, that part of geometry which relates 
to them. This will aid in thorough comprehension of the case, and 
is to be recommended. 

h. There are elementary exercises which consist in drawing right 
and curved lines by the children together by beat, large free lines, if 
possible with a movement of the whole arm. These exercises are 
of great importance ; they should be practiced at the same time with 
such others as require the closest care, and where therefore the pupil 
is working more by himself and in detail.* 

c. Exercises in estimating the lengths of such straight lines as may 
be found at hand, by natural or artificial means, may, from time to 

* The opposition of many of Peter Schmid's pupils to this class of exercises, hns for a long 
time been much less violent. Ramsauer says. " Brief and definite orders, and prompt and 
uninterrupted work according to them, regulated by keeping time, will accomplish an infin- 
ite amount of^ood in acquiring any kind of manual skill where practice is the thing required. 
While on this point, a word should be said of the applied art of writing. Markwordt. of Ber- 
lin, practices much in large free strokes. A great part of the so-called ' American method in 
writing.' al.«o consists of large free movements in unison ; and the results are so evidently 
good, that the system is daily coming more into use." 



240 DRAWING. 

time, be introduced between the drawing exercises proper, but should 
not be carried too far. 

d. In arranging the subjects for practice, the objective and subjec- 
tive order should be, as far as possible, united. According to the 
purely scientific or objective arrangement of the fundamental forms, 
the equilateral triangle should come before the rectangle ; but in 
drawing the order should be different, because the latter is much the 
easiest to draw. The same is true of the pentagon and octagon. A 
coui-se of instruction arranged with reference to subjective principles 
may, it is true, at first seem disorderly rather than orderly ; but a 
more acute vision will discern the " red thread " which leads through 
the whole. 

2. Copying. 

a. Subjects beautiful in themselves should be selected for copying. 
For example, a finely formed vase should be selected rather than a 
common kettle. The faculties used in drawing will be as well trained 
by one as by the other, while the former is of greater value in devel- 
oping the sense of beauty. 

h. For beauty of execution, only the very best designs are suflSc- 
iently good; those only moderately well done can not go. 

c. For the purpose of working in classes together, the use of de- 
signs large enough to be seen by the whole class — those made to be 
hung up — is much to be recommended. An industrious teacher will 
even, if necessary, prepare such himself. 

It is still more important that the teacher be able to design on the 
blackboard. Hippius says, " The children can see the drawing con- 
structed ; can watch the beginning and the end of it ; and can obtain 
more thorough ideas as to apprehension of objects. They should 
themselves proceed to imitate these drawings, which should be suited 
to their capacities, on a smaller scale. The manipulation of the work 
should be such as to serve as a model to the children ; the teacher 
locating in the proper places the necessary initial points, in a careful, 
I had almost said a learner-like manner. When the figure on the 
blackboard is complete, it should be analyzed, and understood both 
as a whole, and in the relations of itself to its parts and of the parts 
among themselves. After this mode of intuitional study has been 
sufficiently practiced, the teacher should again go through with the 
process of drawing the figure, as it were in his thoughts, by dictating 
the work point by point. At the same time he should pass round 
among the benches, directing and assisting wherever necessary, re- 
proving or praising, and endeavoring to keep all the pupils in cheer 
ful activity. 



DRAWING. 241 

d. Even when the children draw each by himself, after small sep- 
arate originals, they should often be made to draw their copies on 
a larger or smaller scale, for the sake of gaining in freedom of 
conception. 

e. With an eye to the ultimate and principal purpose of instruction 
in drawing, it will be better for the pupils to sketch many objects 
with few strokes, than to occupy the same time over a few drawings, 
more elaborated. But these latter should not be entirely excluded. 
The best mode is to produce, from time to time, some larger work, 
and to draw between or along with these many sketches not so much 
finished in detail as full of meaning. 

/. For copying, more reference should be had to the sex of the chil- 
dren than was the case in elementary drawing. Thus, architectural 
subjects should be chosen for the boys, and beautiful vases for the 
girls ; weapons for the former, flowers for the latter, &c. One-sided- 
ness in selection should, however, be avoided. The girls should be 
made to comprehend the beautiful forms of the higher departments 
of architecture, and the boys the characteristics of leaves and fruit. 
In short, to repeat the principle once more, it is the whole world of 
4brms which the school should prepare its pupils to comprehend. 

3. Inventive Drawing. 

a. This may be practiced both upon spontaneous conceptions and 
upon real things. In either case, the pupil may be required either to 
complete a design, to decorate it, to vary it, or wholly to invent it. 
For instance, 

1. Ideal representations. Completion — to draw the whole of some 
figure from half or a third of it. Decoration — to ornament a rectan- 
gle with lines all converging to its center. Variation — to change a 
regular octagon into an irregular one. Entire invention — to draw a 
group of equilateral triangles and decorate them at pleasure. 

2. Real objects. Completion — to draw a window, having one 
quarter of it given. Decoration — to ornament a design for a table 
top. Variation — to change a quadrangular window into one with 
curved lines at the top. Invention — to design a beautiful trellised 
gate. 

The usual order of these exercises should be, first, free representa- 
tions of real objects, together with drawing mathematical figures. 
Completing a design is usually easier than decorating it, and that 
again than varying it; while absolute invention is the most diflBcult 
of all. The lessons should be arranged in accordance with these 
principles. 

h. Occasionally an entire class, or at least a section of it, should 

16 



242 DRAWING. 

"work together at invention. If, for instance, the problem is to decorate 
a square, the children may step up to the board, one at a time, and work 
upon a square drawn upon it. This will furnish many opportunities 
for remarks, and the inventive faculties of each pupil will benefit all. 

c. Sometimes the pupils should merely sketch their conceptions 
without completing them ; and the teacher may then criticise the 
sketches. In this way, several designs may be sketched at one lesson. 
The slates may be sometimes exchanged about in such a manner, 
that each pupil can see the designs of all the others. 

d. Invented designs which are to be finished in detail, should be 
approved in outline, to prevent expending hours of the pupil's labor 
on a design which may, perhaps, at last be rejected. 

4. Drawing from Nature. 

First^ as to geometrical drawing from nature. 

a. Either actual objects, such as are about the children, should be 
drawn, such as doors, gates, trellises, floors, windows, cupboards, 
stoves, monuments, &c., or there should be used, as Otto very judic- 
iously recommends, an apparatus on purpose, by means of which all 
sorts of figures can be set up together, on a ledge on the blackboard. 
The drawing may either be of the natural size or on a reduced scale. 
In the latter case, great care must be taken that the children shall 
justly estimate the relative sizes of the reduced objects. 

h. Just at this point it is of especial importance that, in the begin- 
ning especially, much work should be done in common. Before the 
children put pencil to paper, they must fix upon all the relative di- 
mensions, not by means of a mere cursory view of the object, but of 
a careful survey of it. It should be a point of honor to come as near 
as possible to correctness. When all the estimates have been made, 
the teacher may name the dimensions before the class ; and then they 
may proceed to draw. 

c. This is a very appropriate place for tasks to be performed at 
home. " Draw the front of your father's house ; the windows of the 
sitting room, &c. I will take occasion to compare the drawings with 
the originals." And so on. 

About this time a beginning may be made with perspective draw- 
ing, perhaps somewhat as follows : — 

a. Practice the children in seeing real objects in a perspective 
manner. This is not very difficult, and has the advantage of showing 
the pupil what perspective is, even if he does not become able to draw 
on its principles. 

h. Perspective may be taught by copying. Perspective designs 
may be given to be copied, arranged in a progressive manner, and 



DRAWING. 243 

instruction on the laws of perspective may be given at the same time. 
This is the method of Solclan, Wannholz, and others; and is not 
liable to any weighty objections. 

c. Exercises both on copying and seeing sliould be practiced. 

G?. Drawing from real objects should be practiced, either by section 
of the class at once, or singly. 

Drawing is of course a more useful exercise than mere seeing; and 
drawing fi-om real bodies is better than from another drawing. And 
it is better to display the article to be drawn conveniently upon a 
table for one, two, three, or at most four scholars, than to elevate it 
somewhere for the whole class to draw from. 

The circumstances must govern in each particular case. I would 
however have some exercises in seeing, in every school where draw- 
ing is practiced at all. I add a few hints for such as have proceeded 
far enough to draw real bodies. 

a. To complete the shading of what is drawn should be uncondi- 
tionally forbidden. The common school has no time for this, if the 
children are to be made at all acquainted with perspective. 

h. The subjects should not be too difficult; such, for instance, as 
plaster heads, landscapes, groups of animals. The principal thing is 
to teach the children to comprehend and represent with ease the sim 
plest perspective appearances. 

c. The children should not be troubled with difficult theories of 
perspective, nor, on the other hand, should they be restricted to the 
brief rule, "Draw what you see." Some knowledge of the laws 
of perspective is indispensable for the moderately and less capable 
pupils, as well as an acquaintance with some simple means of aiding 
in seeing in a perspective manner. 

d. These laws of perspective, however, should not be given, but 
discovered. It is wrong, for instance, to tell a pupil that a circular 
surface or thin body can be seen as a straight line, and then to hold 
it up to him that he may be convinced of it. 

e. The most practical possible application should be made of the 
principles which lie within the scope of the common school. These 
should be joined to the exercises on cubes and prisms, for instance, a 
drawing of a chimney, a chest of drawers, an open door, (fee. ; and the 
best scholars may afterwards draw a house, a bridge, a gateway, &c. 

5. Outline Sketching. 

a. The common school is not the place for designing pillars, capi- 
tols, and similar architectural construttions. They belong to the 
industrial school. The business of the common school is limited to 
this : 1. Geometrical construction of lines, angles, and figures ; 2. 



244 DRAWING. 

The application of these to the drawing of simple sketches and ground- 
plans. 

h. Great skill may be attained in this kind of drawing, so far as it 
can be carried with the aid of the simple instruments which the chil- 
dren can be trusted to use. Without using these, the practice would 
do more harm than good. 

c. The. use of the circle and ruler must be industriously practiced, 
in order to the acquisition of skill in it. Many simple problems 
should be given out for using them ; as, for instance, to draw four 
angles one after another, each half as large as the preceding ; to mag- 
nify to many times its own size, <fec. 

d. As to selecting subjects for ground-plans and elevations, the fol- 
lowing suggestions may, perhaps, be of service : — 

1. Select for drawing, a plan of the school garden ; the church- 
yard ; of some building, as the church ; an elevation of the school 
house, &c. 

2. Let the children copy some plans, ground-plans, elevations, <fec., 
in order to become acquainted with the usual mode of doing such 
work. 

3. Let each pupil himself make out some such plans, ground-plans 
or elevations of his father's house or garden, &c. 

D. Course of Study. 

This is rather to indicate one mode of arranging the work, than to 
be followed to the letter. 

1. Common schools of three classes. — Drawing should be practiced 
only in the middle and higher classes ; not in the lower. It is safe 
to calculate that children of at least three different grades are always 
to be found in each class ; so that divisions must be made. More 
than two such divisions are usually too many, as experience indi-. 
Gates. Thus each class will have a two year's course, and each pupil 
will, at least in that part of the study where the whole section works 
together, go twice through one of the halves of the course. 

a. Middle class. — Here it will be well to permit the capacity and 
industry and progress oP each pupil to determine which half of the 
course he shall go twice through with. The course should be as 
follows : — 

First half— 

1. Elementary drawing. Lines, angles, the easiest divisions of 
lines and angles, the rectan^e, isosceles triangle, square, rhombus, 
rhomboid, equilateral triangle. Straight and curved lines together, 
by beat. 



DRAWING. 245 

2. Copying. The simplest forms with straight lines, partly repre- 
sentations of real things, partly variations of fundamental forms. 

3. Invention. The easiest exercises in completing and varyin. 
forms ; usually to be executed in common. 

4. Beginning of estimating dimensions ; usually of those where one 
of the dimensions to be estimated may serve as a measure of the 
others. 

5. Examination of the model drawings. 
Second half — 

1. Elementary drawing. Continuation of the division of lines and 
angles. The regular hexagon. The regular octagon. Different 
curves on straight lines, and half and quarter circles. Irregular poly- 
gons; waving, serpentine and spiral lines; the circle, ellipse and 
oval. Curved strokes together, by beat. 

2. Copying. In the first half year of designs with straight lines 
only ; in the second, of those with curved and crooked lines. The 
straight lines should always be in simple combinations ; the curved 
ones in connection with straight ones ; and easy flowers and fruit 
given only to the most capable of the children. 

3. Invention. Tasks somewhat more diflScult, but no designs of 
real objects yet to be permitted. 

4. Drawing from nature. Very easy elevations ; and only to be 
practiced as a secondary exercise. 

5. Study of model drawings. 

6. Estimating dimensions; partly with and partly without the use 
of the legal measures of size and distance. 

^. Upper class. — Here the scheme must be a little more carefully 
arranged. I suppose the children to draw in perspective only during 
the last year of school, and then during both lessons ; so that their 
copying and inventive drawing must be done at home. The children 
of thirteen years of age, again, should form one section, (Section 1,) 
and those of eleven and twelve another, (Section 2.) Then the in- 
struction for the year may be arranged as follows : — 

1. From Easter to St. John's day. For Section 2, oflf-hand draw- 
ing; exercises in copying and invention. Section 1, perspective; first 
beginning. 

2. From St. John's day to Michaelmas. Section 2, off-hand draw- 
ing ; copying, invention, elevations. Section 1, perspective, continued. 

3. From Michaelmas to Christmas. Section 2, outline sketching; 
geometrical constructions ; but for the girls instead, off-hand drawing. 
Section 1, perspective, further continued. 

4. From Christmas to Easter. Section 2, outline sketching; ground- 



246 DRAWING. 

plans, and in ofF-hand drawing ; copying, invention, elevations. Sec- 
tion 1, perspective, concluded. 

Observations on the foregoing plan. 

1. In the first quarter, Section 2 is so employed that the teacher 
may busy himself mostly with Section 1, where his aid will be quite 
indispensable. And in Section 2, also, the exercises, in copying es- 
pecially, can be adjusted to the capacities of each individual scholar. 

2. In the second quarter. Section 2 will have advanced far enough 
to work by themselves for say half an hour together. That time may 
thus be spent in introducing Section 2 to the department of drawing 
elevations. The pleasant summer da3^s will be found quite suitable 
for drawing in the open air ; and the pupils, while unoccupied during 
vacation, may execute many drawings. Toward the end of this quar- 
ter. Section 1 may be set at drawing easy buildings in perspective, in 
the open air. 

3. The third quarter will find Section "2 busily employed with circle 
and ruler. The pupils of twelve years old, who are going over the 
ground a second time, will be able to assist those of eleven, so that 
the teacher will get time to do some open air work in pleasant 
autumn days with Section 1. But if he does not think it safe to 
leave Section 2 alone, he may take them out also and let ^hem sketch 
elevations. 

4. When winter comes round again, Section 1 will be employed 
again in the house, in learning something of drawing bodies bounded 
by lines not straight. Section 2 will take up off-hand drawing again, 
in the departments of copying and invention ; and some ground-plans 
may also be drawn. 

5. The exercises in copying and invention should continue what 
was begun in the middle class, but not too rapidly. 

For copying, pictures of flowers, fruit, ornaments and characteristic 
animal forms may be gradually introduced. The inventive drawing 
may be in part of imagined forms, in part from real objects. .No 
teacher who pursues his subject with a really vivid interest, can fail 
to find abundance of materials for lessons and models. 

2. Common schools of two classes. 

a. Lower class. If the pupil remains five years in this class, he 
should draw during the last two. Thus we shall have pupils of eight 
and nine years of age, in one section ; so that each will go twice over 
the' year's course. The course should include all the first half of 
what was prescribed for the middle class of a school of three classes. 

b. Upper class. Here there are many difficulties. I shall sup- 



DRAWING. 247 

pose two sections to be formed ; one of the pupils of ten and eleven, 
and the other of those of twelve and thirteen, so that each section 
shall go twice through the course. The lower section should draw 
what was directed for the upper division of the middle class in a 
school of three classes. The first division may alternately draw in 
perspective one hour, and in the next partly make outline sketches 
and partly work at copying and inventing. There are many disad- 
vantages in this arrangement, but I have not been able to make a 
better one which was not too intricate ; and our pedagogical literature 
affords very little aid on this subject. 

3. Common schools of one class. 

Nothing can here be done in perspective. The pupils should draw, 
from their tenth year upwards, in two sections. The course of study 
should be that for the middle class of the school of three classes ; 
except that the children should learn something of outline sketching 
during the last half year of their schoohng. Some of the better 
scholars may perhaps be permitted to copy some of the exercises laid 
out for the middle class. 

E. Miscellaneous Observations. 

1. Beware lest the instruction in drawing educate the children in 
falsehood. Where every drawing which is shown at an examination 
is more than half done by the teacher, or by his assistants, such a 
result is certain to follow.* 

2. The purely technical exercises of off-hand drawing should chiefly 
be done on the slate; but copying, elevations, finished inventive 
drawings, <fec., on paper. It is necessary to be economical, but then 
pains should also be taken to enable the children to enjoy repeated 
examinations of what they have drawn by care and industry. It is 
always unpleasant to children to see a piece of work which is care- 
fully finished, thrown away at last. 

3. Avoid all luxury, especially in poor neighborhoods, in pencils, 
paper, <fec. The children should understand the necessary truth that 
man must always learn to accomplish the greatest possible results 
with the simplest means. 

4. It is not judicious unsparingly to cross out every ill done work 
from the pupils drawing book, for this may frequently destroy in a mo- 
ment the work of many laborious hours, besides disgracing the book, 
as the children say. Only evident idleness should undergo so severe 
a punishment. 

•' Act honestly '. Let your examination be a proof, not of what your powers as an artist 
are, but of what you can do, as a teacher, through the efforts of your pupils. Honor truth ; 
and she will honor thee in turn." — Uippius 



248 DRAWING. 

5. The strictest care should be taken to make the children sit cpr- 
rectly while drawing; for carelessness in this particular will very 
easily lead to crookedness in weakly children. It is a great evil for 
the pupil even to turn constantly towards the right hand to look at 
the design to be copied. A conscientious teacher will use every 
means of avoiding such habits. 

6. The pupils must be protected from too bright sunshine, by cur- 
tains or some equivalent means. 

7. All conversation should be strictly forbidden during the drawing 
lesson. It is astonishing to what an extent the looking off from the 
work which is inseparable from whispering, interferes with and de- 
feats the comprehension of the design and success in reproducing it. 

8. The frequent use of India rubber is decidedly to be prevented. 
This is, in many schools, practiced to a miserable extent; no drawing 
being finished without having been rubbed out in every part, nobody 
knows how many times. Instruct the pupil in a truly elementary 
manner, teach him to apprehend, make him work with attention and 
care, and away with the India rubber ! 

9. Whatever work is given to the children to be done at home, 
must invariably be shown and examined when completed. 

10. If possible, let the most skillful pupils be employed as assist- 
ants in instruction. 



INSTRUCTION IN SINGING 

BY DR. E. HENTSCHEL. 



I. DEFINITIONS. 

By singing we understand the production of the beautiful, as ac- 
complished by the human voice, by means of the union of musical 
tones with poetical words ; the union of music and poetry. 

The elements of speech are sounds ; of music, tones. From sounds 
are formed syllables, words, sentences, periods ; from tones, 1, in suc- 
cession, melodies, which consist of phrases and periods ; and 2, in 
combination, harmonies or chords. Every succession of tones, and of 
combinations of tones, whether of single tones or those consisting 
of several tones together, (chords,) may be considered in three 
respects. 

1. Height or lowness, or melodically. This department is called 
Melody. 

2. Length or shortness, or rhythmically. This department is called 
Rhythm. 

3. Loudness or softness, or dynamically. This department is called 
Dynamics. 

The relation of tones to each other with respect to their simulta- 
neous sound, is the harmonic relation ; and the study of them is 
called Harmony. 

The distinctions between the various kinds of singing, such as the 
church, solo, choral, &c., are understood by every one. Either solo 
or choir singing may be in unison or in harmony. A mixed choir is 
one in which there are women's or boys' voices as well as men's. 

Singing, as a development of the beautiful, is an expression or rep- 
resentation of the feelings. The beautiful is within the singer or sub- 
ject, as the occasion of his feelings ; and it appears also as the object 
of feelings, through the medium of poetry and music. 

Several of the faculties are exerted in singing. The singer is con- 
cerned, first, with words. These he must learn (unless in the case 
where he composes them himself, which is not considered here), re- 
member and reproduce. In learning and understanding the words, 
their logical and poetical natures are to be considered ; and use is 
made of the understanding, the memory, the imagination, the fancy, 



250 SINGING. 

and the sense of beauty. And in reproducing these words, besides 
the above faculties, the voice is employed. 

Secondly, the singer is concerned with musical tones. And these 
also he must learn, (except in the case, not here considered, where he 
himself composes them), remember and reproduce. In learning these 
tones, he must, firstly, consider them with exclusive reference to their 
melodic, rhythmical, dynamic, and harmonic character, and secondly 
with reference to their inner or aesthetic character, through which they 
exemplify the beautiful. The former of these two is accomplished by 
the musical faculties; the latter, by the fancy and the sense of 
beauty. 

The musical faculties include the musical memory, and the powers 
of apprehending and of reproducing sounds — usually termed the ear ; 
and also the rhythmical faculty, or faculty of time ; as well as that 
which appreciates the degree of loudness of sounds. The power of 
apprehending sounds, if developed to the point of intuition of sounds, 
presupposes a systematic knowledge of sounds, which requires the ex- 
ercise of the numbering and reckoning faculties, as well as of the 
memory. In order to the comprehension of tones from the written 
marks, or notes, which indicate them, is required, besides the musical 
faculties, a system of notation ; which is an affair of the understand- 
ing and the memory. And to produce the tones thus indicated, the 
voice is necessary. 

Singing represents feeling; sometimes a feeling which indicates a 
condition which is not in any proper sense that of the singer, and can 
perhaps never be so. This is the case for instance, almost always in 
oratorio, in opera, in ballads and romances, and in singing war-songs, 
hunting-songs, sea-songs, and many others. But the singing is in- 
tended to give pleasure ; artistic pleasure ; and of this there are differ- 
ent kinds and degrees ; the highest being that where the reflective 
faculties are quiescent, and we are transferred so wholly into a foreign 
condition of feeling, that we are wholly carried out of ourselves ; and 
every feeling that speaks in the music, whether of grief or joy, becomes 
entirely our own. This is most easily the case with children, who 
are always more poetical than adults. Jean Paul says, " Singing im- 
parts to children something of the enjoyment of heaven; for they 
have not yet lost any of their rights to it." 

Men also find in singing an inexhaustible fountain of the noblest 
pleasure,* which no one is forbidden to enjoy. The delights of this 
art are in nowise confined to the saloons of the rich and great ; its 
pleasures and beauties will abide in the most lowly room, under the 

* " The most J070US of joys, mnsic."—Klop8tock. 



SINGING. 261 

humblest roof, if the occirpauts only know how to introduce them 
there. 

Singing also produces an artistic transfer of the consciousness, not 
as it were into a foreign condition of life, but into an excitement of a 
sort at first strange, but which becomes natural through the influence 
of the singing. Thus a cheerful song enlivens the sad ; a spirited one 
refreshes the weary; and a devotional one gathers together the 
thoughts, all distracted by the incessant impulses of outward 
occupations, and elevates them to God. In such cases as these, 
there obviously takes place not only a mere transitory pleasure, 
but often a profound and permanent influence upon the whole inner 
man.* 

In other circumstances, again, no stimulus, no excitement of the 
sensibilities is necessary ; the heart itself is " full of a thousand feel- 
ings," and they overflow in song. A victorious army sings a Te 
Deum ; the mournful choir laments the fallen ; a rich harvest blessing 
opens the lips in joyful hymns; friends departing to distant lands 
mournfully sing a departing song; a Christian congregation joyously 
shouts its inspiriting hosanna to the Lord ; an anguished and stricken 

* A remarkable instance of this nature is related in Schubert's " History of the Soul," of 
the preacher Kiihze of Berlin, who was freed, by listening to a devotional song, from an ag- 
onizing fear of an apparently necessary operation upon his eye ; a result which also had such 
a favorable influence upon the eye, that the operation was found unnecessary. 

" And I can testify," says Luther, " which also experience demonstrates, that after the holy 
word of God, nothing is so good, and so highly to be praised and famed, as music ; and that 
for the reason that it is a controller of all the movements of the human heart, and has such a 
power over it, that men are often governed and overcome by it, as by a master." 

Acoustics, so far as I know, does not yet account for the fact that we feel pleasure in hear- 
ing chords, and displeasure at discords. We know that musical tones are produced by regu- 
lar atmospheric vibrations, and that all vibrations of aliquot parts chord. If two or more 
tones sound together, either the atmospheric waves coincide and strengthen each other, or 
they obstruct and destroy each other. These promotions or obstructions evidently commu- 
nicate themselves through the ear to the nervous system and the mind, in one case in a man- 
ner promoting their natural action, and therefore pleasant; in the other, in a manner ob- 
structing it, and therefore unpleasant. The first of these two kinds of impressions we call a 
consonance or chord, the latter a dissonance or discord. By the use of both, the artist com- 
municates to us the joy or sorrow of his soul, in an immediate manner ; and by the solving 
of dissonances, which concludes a contest of tones, he communicates that excitement which, 
always follows the conversion of grief into joy. 

But more than this, acoustics can not at present tell us. Music has not only scientific but 
psycnological abysses : and no psychologist, even though likewise learned in art, has yet been 
able to penetrate them. Bui they exist, because the composer's elevation into pure feeling, 
into the feeling of the harmony of his own inner nature with the world of sound, exists. "It 
is," says Prof Grassmann of Stettin, in his excellent treatise on ^'Acoustics," (Stettin, 1837, p. 
25.) " the joyful or sorrowful emotion, which we feel within ourselves in a truly physical and 
real manner ; and agaui. it is the pulse of our own heart, the deepest longing of our breast, which 
takes full possession of nature, and is given back again to us through musical tones ; so that 
we may feel ourselves to be no longer individualized, but sunk again within the depths of the 
universal life. This most secret and profound emotion within us, by a wonderful sympathy, 
arouses even the least stimulable portions of our nature, and leads us into joy or grief, inso- 
much that we can hear, sounding back to us, the most secret tremors of the soul ; as if nature 
were calling to us, ' I understand thy profoundest desires ; 1 partake of thy pleasure and thy 
sorrow.' " 



252 SINGING. 

heart cries out of the depths, in lowly penitence. Song is the lan- 
guage of the feelings ; and human nature is under a profound neces- 
sity to speak in this language. This is proved, not only by the story 
of "John the Soap-boiler,"* but by the history of all times and peo- 
ple, and especially by that of Christianity.f 

Singing has a great influence upon the Hfe of the feelings. There 
is truly such a power as the Power of Song J From the battle-songs 
of the ancient Germans, therefore, down to the patriotic songs of the 
present day ; from the hymns of the early Christian Church to the chorals 
of Luther, we find it employed for the highest and holiest purposes 
of our race ; not to refer to the analogous place which it filled among 
the nations of antiquity. It should especially be remembered that it 
operates, by awakening and stimulating the religious feelings, upon 
the will, and thus becomes a means of elevating the moral nature. 
Song is not only a promoter of the Beautiful, but through it of the 
Good.§ 

II. CHARACTER, PURPOSE, IMPORTANCE, AND NECEeSITY OF INSTRUCTION IN SINGING. 

The character of instruction in singing, is derived from the charac- 
acter of the art itself. As this has for its object to produce the beau- 
tiful by means of a union of words and tones, the former has for its 
object, words, tones, and the union of them. It therefore includes 
exercises in 

1 . Understanding and pronouncing words, which comprehends hear- 
ing, reading, understanding ; or expression. 

2. Understanding and producing tones, comprehending melody, 
rhythm, dynamics, harmony ; or, vocal exercises. 

3. Conjoining tones and words, which is the union of the two 
former, in singing, proper; or, execution. 

The exercises in words are the same for singing and language. 

• I will quote one similar case from my own experience. In each of the rooms of a school, 
the class was in the habit of beginning their daily work with a short morning song. The 
mingling of different tunes and modes sounded ill without; and as circumstances did not 
permit all the classes to be assembled together for a common morning devotional exercise, it 
was decided that only one class should sing at a time, each in its turn, a prayer being offered 
in each of the other rooms. But after a short time all the pupils petitioned for the restora- 
tion of the old custom, alleging that it was impossible for them to begin their work without 
Binging. 

t " When Christianity had awakened the life of the feelings, and had supplied it with the 
loftiest ideals of existence, humanity could find only in music a sufficing mode of expression, 
and thus was gained a new Christian zxX."— ''Esthetics nf Music,'' by Dr. Hand, 1837. 

X " By the influence which music exerts upon the hearts of all, it operates most powerfully 
upon the character."— .K'ocAftr's '■'Music in the Church." 

§ Klonstock said to Rouget de Lisle, author of the '■'■Marseilles Hymn" that he was a dan- 
gerous man ; for that he had killed more than fifty thousand Germans. What then might be 
laid of Korner, Arndt, Scheukendorf, and others? Henry the Lion's motto was 

"Fight without song 
Can not be strong." 



SINGING. 253 

They secure for the pupil a store of imaginations and thoughts ; and, 
as has been observed, they traiu the understanding, the memory, the 
fancy, and the aesthetic faculties. 

Exercises in tones belong properly to instruction in singing. They 
give a knowledge of the system of tones, as a separate department of 
creation, distinguished by an abundance of phenomena ; they develop 
the acoustic faculties, without whose cultivation no education in har- 
mony is possible; and as has been already observed, they train the 
understanding, the memory, the aesthetic faculties, and the voice. 

The exercises in singing, to repeat the observation, have a pecu- 
Jiar influence in enriching and elevating the emotional life, and indi- 
rectly upon the determination of the will toward what is good. For 
it may here be observed, that the sense of beauty, as it becomes 
developed in any one direction, becomes also, according to the laws 
of psychology, easier and freer of development in other directions ; 
in this case, namely, in the direction of what is morally beautiful. 

Such are the formal and the substantial educational influences of 
singing. It is likewise in a high degree adapted to assist in lead- 
ing the child toward what is beautiful, good and true ; and to really 
accomplish this, is its purpose. 

It is for this purpose, also, that it is so important for the common 
schools, which are themselves intended to serve the cause of the 
beautiful, the good and the true. It may even be said to be abso- 
lutely indispensable as a department of common school duty, be- 
cause it promotes the objects of all the rest, in a manner not other- 
wise to be supplied.* 

The consideration of some of the special influences of singing as 
a duty, will only confirm their views of its value. It is an excellent 
means of sharpening the powers of observation, and of accustoming 
the pupil to acting promptly as directed by a word, a nod, a look. 
It thus counteracts both the indolent carelessness and indifference of 
some, and the precipitate hasty ways of others. In short, it is of great 
value in a gymnastic and disciplinary point of view. 

In most other studies, each single pupil stands by himself and acts 
for himself; or at least a community of action is not indispensable. 
But the study of singing puts a close and strict constraint upon all 
the class together, both in an external and internal sense.f 

*" Music, by its rhythm and time, imbues the feelings with a regulated harmony. So 
highly did the Greeks value music, and in so many ways did they practice it, that the ex- 
pression a •' musical man" was equivalent to ours of a " cultivated man." They therefore be- 
stowed the extremest care upon this study, which was designed to unite in a beautiful habi- 
tude, readiness, openness, circumspection, and a most powerful mental discipline. '■'■ Peda- 
gogy as a system," (Die P'ddagogik cUs System,) by Dr. Karl Rosenkranz. 184S. 

t " A choir is like an association of brothers. It opens the heart ; and in the streams of 
BOQg they feel themselves to have but one soul and one heart."— ZTerrfer. 



254 SINOING. 

And lastly ; it may be observed, that good instruction in singing, 
by developing the pupil's faculties for rhythm, accent, and melody in 
speaking, renders very valuable assistance to the increasing efforts at 
present being made to elevate the style of reading above the repul- 
sive sing-song practiced in so many of the ancient schools. 

In concluding this statement of the importance and necessity of 
teaching singing in the common schools, I may not inappropriately 
quote the following authoritative opinions : 

Music is a means of culture so healthful for sense and soul, so powerfully pro- 
motive of virtue and godliness, that we are bound to train our youth in it with con- 
scientiousness aiid dignity, zeal and perseverance. Nageli. 

Music may be considered a department of man's intellectual life, which he can 
not omit without restricting and weakening himself. It is one of those intellectual 
endowments by means of which he is to become consefous of, and joyful in the 
world, himself, and his mental life. Marr. 

. Even if the young are unable to attain to any important grade of artistic power, 
music deserves, on account of its educational value, as possessed of a peculiar 
power of influencing the mind and the heart, one of the highest places as a 
department of study. Natorp. 

III. application of the general principles of instruction in SINGINO. 

A. Two Courses; their relation. 
The instruction in singing should be both formal (disciplinary) and 
material (eflBcient in the study itself.) These two purposes require : 

1. A series of elementary exercises; an elementary course. 

2. Practice in singing songs, &c. ; a singing course. 

The former is to give the pupil a knowledge of the necessary prin- 
ciples, and a mastery of them ; and the latter, to train him in expres- 
sion and feeling. We may lay down, therefore, with a view to secure 
these objects, the following principles : . 

The elementary course should 

1. Continue during the whole period of school attendance. 

2. Include all the elementary tones. 

3. Proceed by an unbroken progression. 
And the singing course should 

1. Also last during the whole school period. 

2. Be related to the whole life of the child, both within and with- 
out the school. 

3. Include nothing which is not significant and attractive. 

We shall hereafter recur to these principles and add to them. The 
present purpose is, to inquire what should be the relation of these 
two courses to each other within the school ? 

Should the elementary course precede the other ? In this case, the 
children would during a certain time have only preparatory exercises, 
without singing ; and for a long period together ; for the elementary 
course, to comply with the second and third principles just laid down 



SINGING. 



255 



respectinir it, could not be concluded for weeks and months ; which 
would violate the fii'Bt principle relating to the singing course, and 
also the first relative to the elementary course. 

We are thus naturally led to the idea of connecting both courses. 
The most suitable way of accomplishing this,- seems to be, to apply 
in the singing course, the principles learned in the elementary course. 
This however, sometimes leads to a violation of the principles relating 
to both courses. It is evidently impossible, for instance, to find songs 
which shall correspond with all the steps of the long unbroken series 
of exercises, which shall be satisfactory in point of beauty, and shall 
bear upon all the various aspects of the child's life.* 

There is therefore no mode left, except to divide what can not be 
connected; to conduct the singing course independently, parallel 
with the elementary course. We must be able to sing, at Christmas, 
" Glory to God in the Highest !" and on the king's birthday, " God 
save the King," without having to inquire whether in either of them 
there has not been used some progression or measure which had not 
been practiced. If some such freedom is not taken, we shall never 
see the fruits ripen which have been for thirty years looked for from 
the instruction in singing. 

But, it may be asked. How then shall the children be taught to 
sing ? I answer, in that manner which is adapted to the grade of 
development of their musical powers. Those who can only sing by 
ear, should sing so ; and he who can do more, should do more ; 
whether he can only follow in a general manner the outline of what 
the notes set before him, or whether he can sing strictly and 
surely the notes as they stand. The singing course requires the ap- 
plication of all that was learned in the elementary course, but in se- 
lecting songs we should not depend entirely upon the former. The 
pupils should in good season receive the notes, with a brief general 
explanation. Then each of them should make the best he can of 
them. Such is both the ancient and modern practice of almost all 
instructors in singing in chorus, both for small and large classes. 

But, it may be further inquired, is not this too mechanical a prac- 
tice ? Does not such a course almost altogether prevent singing with 
a due feeling of the expression ? 

* At the Martin's Foundation in Erfurt, as appears by the Rhenish "Gaze/Ze," (Rheinische 
Blatter,) Vol. VI., No. 3, p. 273, all the songs are learned by rote, without notes; that is to 
say, without any artistic and methodical gradation in their order. It is stated a little further 
on (p. 286.) that the director of that institution often spends as much as a fortnight in search- 
ing and referring, and years in corresponding, to find a suitable song or melody, " because he 
subordinates the religious instruction entirely to that in singing;" and "rejects all songs 
which are not good in text and melody, in every particular." I would inquire how long his 
researches and his correspondence would be, if he should have reference, in addition, to any- 
thing like systematic progress 7 



256 SINGING. 

To this I may reply : 

The problem which the child must solve in order to sing with 
proper expression, is usually stated thus : To be able to sing a choral 
or simple air from the notes without the aid of the teacher. But do 
you know what is required for this ? This problem, in the first place, 
is one in which many persons never learn to solve ; because it has 
not pleased God to endow them with the requisite power of appre- 
hending the tones as written.* Neither, again, do even remarkably 
endowed pupils often solve it before their eleventh or twelfth year, 
howQver early their instruction is begun, however carefully and skill- 
fully con<lucted. And only those children solve it at once, who 
possess very distinguished musical powers ; such who open the whole 
world of musical sounds to themselves as it were with one magical 
blow. 

And do not be misled if you hear of, or even think you have found, 
one or another school where the pupils have learned in a very short 
time to sing from notes or figures. Upon a close examination you 
will always find one or the other of the following cases true. 

Either the airs sung consist of short phrases scarcely including any 
notes except the first, third, fifth and eighth, and unsatisfactory and 
crippled, such as the following: 



-A-^l \ 1 


1 \ 1 , 


1 1 


J^ 4*7 1 


1 .9 




; 1 


MM -4 ifll 


^ w 




J 1 


^■— ' 


4 




* ^ 



rA: 



How bright - \j glows the mom - ing re^ 

or, the pupils do nothing except to keep time ; that is, the) follow 
after a certain feeling of the succession of the tones, whiie the teach- 
er, in the pride of his heart, thinks they are reading the notes ; or, 
some more capable children are acting as choristers to the rest, who 
sing after them unintelligently, by ear. 

But again, what does " mechanical" mean ? Where does it begin, 

*The result of my observations upon more than a thousand pupils of the most various 

ages and grades of development, is as follows : 

Memory of tones, is universal. 

A certain sense of tones, without any clear intuition of tones, is quite frequent. 

Comprehension of tone, and certainty in it, quite rare. 

And these conclusions are coptirmed by the following extract from the •' Rhenish Gazette,^* 
(Vol. X , No. 3,) of an article on instruction in singing, by Karow : "For singing, as well as 
for music generally, certain natural endowments are necessary, and one destitute of these, 
whatever his efforts, will not learn to sing. We may compute that, of the singing classes in the 
schools, the following proportions will be found; of eighty children, ten will become very 
skillful and competent singers; twenty others, not distinguished, but still competent; five 
and twenty others, will sing well enough with the rest, but not in solo, as they will depend 
upon the rest ; twenty others will not trouble themselves with the notes, but will sing only by 
ear ; and the remaining five will be unable to sing, being defective in ear or voice, or both." 



SINGING. 257 

and where does it end ? A, sings an air wholly by ear, while B sings 
it by the notes, by his comprehension of the intervals of the octave. 
A, it may be said, learns mechanically. B, however, although in a 
higher, grade, also learns mechanically. C, again, who feels the 
meaning of all the intervals, sings by note accurately without de- 
pending merely upon a knowledge of the scale, but does not under- 
stand w^hat are the harmonies at the base of the melody : — he also sings 
mechanically. D, who sings also without depending upon mere 
knowledge of the scale, knows these harmonies, but not the laws of 
their connection : — he sings mechanically too. Lastly comes E ; 
whose attainments are equal to theirs and who knows the last item 
also, but has no idea of the mathematical basis of the system of 
musical tones ; — he is a mechanical singer too ! The truth is simply 
this ; — children will, and ought to, and must learn songs all the time ; 
joyous, powerful, living songs. And what can be the harm, if they 
only sing them by rote, if they can not sing by a knowledge of the 
scale ; or by that knowledge if they have it, if they have not attained 
to the intuition of the melodic interval ? Each one of our faculties is 
from God, the inferior as well as the higher. Therefore watch over 
each and make it useful in its own time, and accomplish some good 
thing with it ! 

B. Contents and Management of the two Courses considered^ further. 

I. Generally : and 

a. Notation. To about the end of the eighth year the children 
should study without making use of written notes. After that time, 
however, they should always be used. This delay in using them 
follows from the principles of proceeding from the simple to the 
complex, and from the known to the unknown. 

It is however necessary both for formal and substantial reasons, 
that written music be. invariably taught. For however little the 
pupil may know of singing by note, his execution will always be 
freer in character then if he has learned exclusively by rote. But 
the ver^ great majority of teachers of singing unite in testifying 
that under all circumstances, the use of the notes is an important 
aid in all practice and repetition. And if others maintain from 
their experience the opposite, and perhaps even say that the notes 
are a hindrance, they only prove that however interested they may 
be in singing, they do not know how to use the written notes. 

In teaching singing, we should distinguish two principal stages ; 
singing by ear, and singing by note. 

The instruction should be by means of actual vision. The repre- 
sentation of sounds by notes is the method most obvious to the eye, 

17 • 



^58 



SINGING. 



and therefore nncondltionally to be preferred. Compare the following 
two modes of writing an air : 



=1^- 



6=1 



7 1 



4-3-2-1- 



1 7 



-5-4-3-2- 



^-f 




Those exceptionally able pupils who are now and then found in 
every school, can, according to all experience, sing with equal ease 
from notes and figures. But it is quite otherwise with all the rest. 
Whatever may be &aid to the contrary, they find the notes much 
the easiest; that is, unless they are drilled in a quantity of unmeaning 
rhythmic and melodic phrases, instead of real airs, that present a variety 
of rhythms and intervals. With most children, eitlier the musical 
faculty gradually develops to the point where they can sing an air 
with an entire understanding of it, or that degree of attainment is 
altogether wanting. They are thus, until their fourteenth year, if 
not permanently, left to practice singing by note, in such a way that 
they guide themselves, in general, by the form and location of the 
notes, but where they bring out each single note rather by a sort of 
feeling of what ought to follow the preceding one, and by means of a 
knowledge of the scale, than by any real and clear knowledge of 
melody or the air itself. As long, therefore, as a pupil is not able of 
himself to execute each note of a written melody, exactly as it ought 
to sound, so long he has nothing to do with figures, and would get 
none except utterly indeterminate information from them. But the 
method by notes always gives him some assistance; it represents to 
him the relations of the tones, and he has only to look at the notes, 
to find at least a leading sketch of the melody. And this material 
representation is of great use in retaining the melody. As the eye 
seizes upon the groups of notes, the memory connects "the tones with 
them ; and it often needs but one glance at the notes to recall whole 
melodies which have been foro^otten. But the fio-ures afford no such 
assistance. One row of figures looks just like another ; and the pupil 
must go one by one through the whole series, and pick out each note, 
before he can tell, what the melody is. Therefore, no figures. 

•The notes should be learned in the key of G, not in that of C, 
which is in scarcely any collection that most used. 

6. With respect to singing. 

Whatever is learned by children should be learned as thoroughly 



SINGING. 259 

as possible; or if that has not been the case, should at once be made 
80. What is defective neither educates in form nor in substance; 
and indeed in the former sense it is positively injurious. One third 
sung too flat brings after it twenty other flat thirds ; and passing 
over one pause endangers the time at every other pause ; <fec. 

In every stage must be unconditionally required purity of intona- 
tion, correctness of rhythmic representation, observance of the dy- 
namic marks, clearness of enunciation. Other things must receive a 
proper relative shave of attention. 

This perfection in what the children learn must especially be re- 
quired in three respects; Firstly, the problems, to be solved must 
always be suitable to the pupil's grade of attainment ; the course of 
instruction must be one of unbroken progression. This principle is 
universally known and yet often quite disregarded. In many schools, 
music too difficult is selected for practice; and the unavoidable result 
is a lamentable disfigurement of musical works perhaps the noblest 
of their kind. What is the occasion of such errors ? Often vanity ; 
often ignorance of music, not always of an excusable kind. 

Secondly; the teacher must be competent to give in every case 
^ such directions and guidance as are required, in order to avoid what 
is false, or to remedy it. No pupil can arrange the succession of 
problems for himself, without the invigorating aid of the teacher. 
A whole class may perhaps sing an interval too low, and all exhor- 
tation to sing it higher may be fruitless, however earnestly they 
endeavor to do so, because they do not see what the interval is. In 
such a case the teacher must aid them, by singing or playing the 
required note correctly. 

If the possibility of correctness by the pupil is conceded, then 
thirdly, the teacher must insist with persevering and unbending strict- 
ness, that the problems proposed be solved without error. This pro- 
ceeding will accustom the pupil to correctness, which will become to 
him both a musical and a moral necessity. Once more, therefore, 
endure nothing erroneous ! Every thing depends upon this. He is 
a forlorn teacher enough who permits inaccurate singing for four 
whole years, with the idea that things will improve in the fifth year, 
because " people learn to walk by stumbling." That proverb, like 
many others, is a heap of meal with a cat in it ; and he who can not 
apply it better than that ought to be ashamed. To such I would 
say : It is not by stumbling that people learn to walk ; it is by 

walking. 

Rules for practice. 

As important aids toward singing correctly I may name the 
following : 



260 SINGING. 

1. Unless tlie contrary is strictly prescribed, smg with the full 
strength of the voice. It is a great fault for the children not to pro- 
duce a good full tone. A whispering, lisping, powerless melody is never 
true. But loud singing is not screaming. If the pupils keep strict- 
ly to the musical tones they can not scream. 

2. In much of the practice, an instrument should be used. For- 
tunate is the teacher whose school children come every Sunday to 
church, and standing around the organ, sing the chorals with care 
and perseverance. That will be worth three singing-lessons a week. 

And generally, of elementary singing practice, we may say: 

No instrument. Very bad. 

Piano-forte. Somewhat better. 

Small school-organ. Better again. 

Violin. In general, better still. 

Church-organ. Very good in some cases. 

Sometimes one and sometimes another, according to circumstances. 
Best of all. 

The non-use of an instrument occasions such crying evils, that every 
one must understand them himself. Of the instruments above-named, 
the piano-forte and organ are better than the violin, for accompany- 
ing part-singing ; but for exercises in accent, and practicing single 
voices, the latter is much to be preferred. For while playing the 
violin, the eye can be kept upon all the children, which is not often 
the case with keyed instruments in ordinary school-rooms; it can b.e 
carried about; and its sharp and piercing tones are much more im- 
pressive than those of a piano-forte, or of a small school -organ. The 
tones, again, can be modified upon the violin, in any desired way, (tc. 

But let me not be misunderstood. Singing with an accompani- 
ment is not an end, but is the means to an end. A choir accom- 
plishes its proper, real, and most beautiful work, only when singing 
truly and surely without accompaniment — a capella. The same ob- 
ject should be sought in every village school. 

3. In singing by beat, the beat should be kept without any break, 
either by the teacher or by the children, or by both. The teacher 
should keep time by counting aloud, or by movements of his bow, a 
rod, (fee, each pupil being to go strictly by it. If the children keep 
time, it should be either by causing some to count aloud while the 
others sing, or by having all mark time. This they should do, not 
by using movements like those of the instructor, up, down ; up, right, 
down, &c., but by audible strokes of the hand either on a table or 
into the other hand ; a much easier, more natural, and more useful 
method. 

4. If orthography is the schoolmaster's heaviest cross, enunciation 



SINGING. 261 

while singing is certainly one of the second rank. Nothing will avail 
toward this end, except for the teacher to use zealous and uuintermit- 
ting strictness with the children — no, first with himself, and after- 
wards — with himself again, and after that with the children — in the 
enunciation of everything that is read or sung in the schooh* 

11. In particular ; and 

a. Elementary course. This should include 

aa. Exercises in the understanding of the melodic, rhythmic, dy- 
namic, and harmonic relations of tones ; exercises in hearing, which, 
by causing the pupil to note by written marks what he hears, will 
lead to a knowledge of writing music. 

hh. Exercises in singing ; in the production of melodic, rythmic, 
dynamic, and harmonic tone formations. A distinction should be 
made between dynamic exercises and vocal exercises proper, in the 
strict sense ; such as are intended to operate upon the material of the 
voice, and to give it strength, endurance, sweetness, flexibility, and 
quickness. Nor can the harmonic exercises be properly referred to 
those in melody. In order to avoid confusion, the following compen- 
dious classification will be found convenient: 1. Melodic exercises, 
including those in harmony. 2. Rhythm. 3. Exercises for the voice, 
including dynamics. 

To proceed to the necessary directions as to the arrangement and 
conduct of these departments of practice. . 

1. It has already been stated that the elementary course should 
extend through the whole school period, its easiest exercises may be 
commenced with children of five or six years old. For the rest, "Art 
is long, and school time short." There are many things which must 
be studied only by advanced scholars, such for instance as the minor 
key, (fee. 

2. The elementary coui*se, as has also been observed, should include 
all the elements, and therefore the harmonic. Harmony, even in its 
elements, is of especial value for formal training ; and is also very at- 
tractive to pupils. It opens to them an entirely new view of music. 

3. The principle already laid down, that the elementary exercises 
should proceed without any intermission, is a universal one ; but in 
singing it is of especial importance, which is the reason why it is re- 
peated here. 

4. The matter should be arranged at once subjectively and objec- 

* There was a little girl who, in a song to Spring which she had learned in school, sang 
"^ Moor out of his shell, springs out the tender shoot," {Eiji Mohr, 4"c.,) instead of •' Up- 
tpards out of, «kc.." {Empor, Sfc.,) and when told that the latter was the correct word, she 
answered that her teacher knew best about that. 

Again ; a boy was asked what they sung in school, and said, " The Chandelier^" (Der 
Kronleuchter ;) having caught that sound instead of the word "Scale," {Tonleiter.) 



262 



SINGING. 



tively. To arrange it wholly objectively is unpedagogical ; wholly 
subjectively, impossible. It is not correct to pursue one department 
through, as rhythm for instance, and then melody, but they should 
be taken in corresponding portions ; first the easiest parts of all the 
departments, so far as they belong to the matter in hand, then 
the more difficult ones, and so on. But this subdivision must not be 
carried too far, for fear of losing the connection of what is taught. 

5. The different departments should be so taught that some one of 
them shall always be the main subject, and yet so that from one step 
to another they shall always form a whole. The former of these 
requisites follows from the principle of taking simple things before 
complex; the latter will enhven the children, and render the teaching 
substantial and significant. If, for instance, the time be -f-, .and the 
melody that of the major common chord of the first, there may result 
forms like this, 



I 



Si 



.^^ 



5 



-eL 



And words may be set to such phrases ; as, for instance, 



B" i I # ^ ^ I hi III i — I — \ 



Rise up from your pil-low, for cock-crow 



past! 



The smaller the attainments of the pupils, the more care is neces- 
sary to preserve them from what is unmusical and unpoetical. As 
they proceed further, it is of course easier and easier to select not only 
brief musical phrases, but entire songs, which can be used first for 
illustration, and then in the singing course. But care must be taken 
that the songs do not become the principal thing, and the practice of 
the elements secondary. 

The rule that only one department is to be the object of study at a 
time, must not be construed to mean that no time should be kept 
while studying melody, and that the rhythmic exercises should be in 
monotone. So complete. a disjunction as this of the elements of 
music, neither accords with the nature of music nor with that of the 
child. We often find rhythm without melody it is true, as in the 
drum; but melody will not accept the converse, and go without its 
companion and supporter, rhythm. Even the simplest e-xercises very 
Boon become wearisome and distasteful if they include no rhythm. 



SINGINQ. 263 

The children's minds develop all parts together; and therefore the 
melodic exercises should have some rhythmic forms, and the rhyth- 
mic ones some melodic form. 

6. The course of proceeding should be from things to their names 
and signs. When, for instance, the children are to go from quarter 
notes to eighth notes, some quarter notes should first be played, while, 
the children beat in four-four time ; then a sudden transition should 
be made to eighth notes, which will strike the attention of the chil- 
dren, after which the name of the shorter note may be told tlxem, 
and its representation shown. 

7. Even during the stage of singing by ear, melodic and rhythmic 
voice-exercises should be given. 

8. The harmonic element should be as much as possible omitted 
from the melodic exercises at this stage. It should only be intro- 
duced so far as is necessaiy to understand and correctly sing the 
major common chord in its simplest forms. 

9. The vocal exercises of this period should be arranged with very 
great care to limit them to the capacities of the age of the children. 
They should, in general, consist of very easy successions of quarter 
notes of moderate pitch, sung sometimes loudly and sometimes softly ; 
such, for instance, as these : 



■H-^- 



f-f- 



10. The harmonic element is most appropriately brought out in 
connection with the scale. It is true that very little work can be 
done with it, but that is no reason why none should be done. The 
following points may be taught : 

aa. Construction of common chords or triads upon the first, fifth 
and fourth of the key. 

hb. Construction of the chord of the seventh on the fifth of the 
key. 

cc. Establishment of the following as the fundamental musical 
chords : 





V. 


T. 








IV. 


I. 








IV. 


I. 


V. 


I. 




V. 


I. 


IV. 


I. 


I. 


IV. 


V. 


I. 





It will be of course understood that these principles must be brought 
out by means of actual intu'ition. Mere words and figures would be 



264 SINGING. 

entirely useless. The children must hear the chords and their suc- 
cessions. For this purpose the school organ* will be found very use- 
ful, but not indispensable, for the teacher will have a living organ ; 
namely, the children themselves. ^ 

11. Vocal exercises in the scale — with rather more advanced chil- 
dren therefore — should be made a chief study here. 

The best material for this practice is the scale itself, which should 
be sung in long, sustained, crescendo and diminuendo tones. The 
common schools have nothing to do with artistic runs, trills, &c. In- 
strumental accompaniment is especially necessary here. 

The middle notes of the voice should be chiefly practiced, and in 
the scales of D, E-Jj, E, and F. The children should never be required 
to foTce out very high notes by a violent effort, which proceeding can 
only do harm. And it is as unfair as it is ill-calculated, to endeavor 
to train the children to a more correct style of singing by making 
them sing every air a third or a fourth higher than it was set by the 
composer. 

12. The pupils should be trained to write upon the staff the notes 
which they hear. Diligent practice in writmg music should there- 
fore be required. Otherwise the pupils' attainments will be entirely 
one-sided. To sing from note is one thing ; but it is another, and 
equally important for musical culture, to be able to write down notes 
that are heard. Writing music also constrains that class of scholars 
who are disposed to accommodate their singing to that of the rest, to 
the exertion of all their musical faculties. And it is the only mode of 
continuing the instruction after the children have arrived at the point 
of intuitional comprehension of the music, and of preserving thera 
from innumerable errors. If Nageli had done nothing except to in- 
troduce writing music as an exercise into the schools, he would even 
then have done them an exceedingly great service. 

h. Singing Course. 

I shall repeat here the three laws already laid dovra, and shall add 
others. 

1. The singing course should continue through the whole school 
period. Even the youngest pupils will readily sing simple airs by 
ear ; and according to all experience will partake of their enlivening 
and improving effects. 

2. The singing should have a real reference to the life of the 
child.f 

* The melodeon, perhaps, in an American school. — Trans. 

t " The simplest enjoyment and the simplest instruction, are enlivened and reinforced by 
singing ; and what we even fail to accomplish by instruction in faith and morals, may be 
taught by song." — Goethe, Wilhelm Meister's Wandci- Years. 

At the Rauhe Haus near Hamburg, great stress is laid upon singing. Credible reporters. 



SINGING. 265 

Singing is intended to enliven, ennoble, and cheer the whole of 
man's life. Regard should be had to the present and the future 
of the child ; to his permanent and varying relations to nature, other 
men, and God. With reference to the present condition of the chil- 
dren,, instruction in singing should, above all things, stand in the 
closest connection with religious instruction ; including the faith, love, 
and hope of Christians. And on every occasion of school hfe when 
the religious feelings of the pupils are appealed to, at the beginning 
and end of lessons, weeks, months, or years, at preparation for a 
church festival, at confirmation, the king's birthday, <fec., singing 
should be employed. In our day, the liturgical element, in which 
singing holds an important place, has been introduced for religious 
purposes into schools. This is much to be rejoiced at; and may be 
of very great service. 

There should be a little sinofinof festival in the church at least once 
a mouth ; and not merely on such occasions as visitations, consecra- 
ting an organ, &c. This might be done without difficulty almost 
every where. But it will be necessary to confine the selections to 
the simplest class of music, and to persevere in accustoming the con- 
gregation by little and little to take more pleasure in such music, than 
in the ungodly uproar of the usual style of church music. Materials 
truly useful should be selected, every thing should be thoroughly prac- 
ticed, and care should be taken that the audience may understand 
the words. 

Besides religious songs, secular ones should also be learned, so that 
the children may use them as a means of enjoying themselves at 
home, at play, at festivals, during walks, journeys, &c. And for this 
purpose, such music is appropriate as has ihe artistic eflfect of trans- 
porting the child into conditions of existence quite strange to hira. 

How shall reference be had, in the school singing, to the future of 
the scholars ? 

First, by having a good stock of chorals.* Chorals are an indis- 
pensable necessity of religion and sacred worship. Every child should 
be able at leaving school, to sing at least fifty or sixty chorals from 
memory. 

There should also be a suitable number of secular songs. With 
proper management, the pupil may graduate in possession of as many 
as thirty such. What should their subjects be ? Experience shows 
that the religious feelings of the people expresses itself through the 
medium of chorals. For this reason I should use songs for other 

describe the judicious mode in whieh Mr. Wichern makes use of it at prayer and labor, ex- 
hortation and admonition, at serious and cheerful occasions, and sorrow and joy, and of th« 
important good which he thus accomplishes. 
• These correspond to our usual church psalmody.— TroTW. 



266 SINGING. 

purposes. Of tliem, also, I should exclude some kinds, viz: 1. All 
songs of particular vocations, except war-songs, and for their proper 
localities, mountain songs and sea-songs. 2. Songs for occasions 
that rarely happen in actual life ; such as, "Up! with mountain-staff 
in hand, forth with joy to Switzerland ;" which is nevertheless in 
itself a good song. 3. All songs which, though perhaps good io 
themselves, do not correspond with the popular mode of thought and 
feeling ; such as, " Know'st thou the land where the leraon-trees 
bloom ?" 4. Love songs. 5. Drinking songs. I add a mere sug- 
gestion of the proportion in which I would perhaps arrange thirty 
songs to be learned, namely : five, to incite to good company ; three 
soldier's songs ; three travehng songs ; six for general expressions of 
pleasure, and for observation of nature ; four patriotic ; five romantic 
historical ; four miscellaneous. Total, thirty. For girls, I would 
substitute cradle songs for the soldiers' songs, and for the traveling 
songs, others referring to the observation of nature. 

3. All songs should be beautiful, both poetically and musically. 

What is worthless in itself can never develop the artistic sense, nor 
properly cultivate the feelings. There are good words to bad tunes, 
and wretched rhymes to beautiful tunes. And it requires much study 
on the part of the teacher to acquire a sure judgment on this subject.* 
Especial care is needed with respect to children's songs, properly so 
called ; for among the great number of them are many bad ones. A 
children's song is never good unless it can be sung with some enjoy- 
ment by grown persons also. Moralizing songs for children, in par- 
ticular, are bad, and always will be ; and so are those where the 
children are made to sing to each other, and encourage each other to 
joy, to innocent cheerfulness, &c. ; such as, 

" Open brothers, ear and heart, 
Unto teachings wise." 

" Our daily work is done at length : 
Now for a joyous game ! 
Pleasure for working gives us strength, 
And strengthens all the frame." 

* " Notwithsfanding the preat number of songs for the young, yet but very few of them are 
really adapted for use ; partly on account of their faulty and spiritless melodies, and partly, 
and especially, on account of unsuitable words. * * * * The text of a song must be 
adapted to the young, clear and plain, joyous and vivid ; equally removed from watery and 
feeble sentimentality, and from a stupid jumble of morals and phrases." —Memorial of the 
Nuremberg Education Society. 

As music is variously taught and practiced in the teachers' seminaries, many young teach 
. erscome to believe that it is an easy thing to compose for singing So they proceed with 
great confidence to make motets, and hymns and cantatas, and make all possible haste to 
introduce their compositions into a church or a school. Great evils are to be apprehended 
from this source. 



SINGING. 26 Y 

Some valuable observations upon tins pseudo-poetry are to be found 
in Franz Horn's ^'- Forte-piano^^' and Hiecke's ^'Instruction in German 
in the German gymnasia!'' {Der deutsche Unterricht auf deutschen 
Gymnasien.) 

With regard to the relation between the words and music, we can 
not be too mistrustful, in particular, of operatic airs with words set to 
them.* 

Songs, to be appropriate, must be both objectively beautiful, in 
themselves considered, and suited to the children's capacity. Children 
should not be forced up to any thing which is without the sphere of 
their apprehensions. On this point, I shall hereafter remark further. 

4. Each style of songs should be used for its proper purpose ; for 
eacb has its peculiar influence in training the pupil. 

a. Sufficient reasons have already been given for cultivating both 
cKurch and secular singing in schools, it may be added, that the 
former can not properly be very extensively used in the lower classes, 
and must commonly be sung somewhat faster than at subsequent 
periods. 

h. Care should be taken to have the singing in unison, or in parts, 
as the case may demand either. Children less than nine years old, 
usually sing in unison. Part singing is not natural to them, whatever 
credit it would obtain at examinations. With older children the case 
is difierent ; they may sing in parts; but should still not transgress 
the limits of popular requisites in the artistic direction. Part-singing 
is however so efficient a means of artistic training, and its power over 
the feelings is so great, that it should not be omitted, even in the 
smallest school. 

On this important subject many mistakes are made. The follow- 
ing principles may serve the reader as initial points for his belief, 

aa. A mixed choir is always most efficient ; and should therefore 
be formed wherever possible. The school will furnish sopranos and 
altos ; and there can always be found some accommodating youths or 
men, who will sing tenor and bass. The thing can easily enough be 
done without sounding drums and trumpets, with prudence and per- 
severance. 

The societies for men's choirs seem in some places and lately to 
have hindered the prosperity of small mixed choirs. This is much to 
be regretted, however useful those societies are. Forget not the 
children ! 

*In an extensively used collection of songs, the " Hunter's Chorus in the Freysciiutz," is 
to be found, set to an Advent hymn ! In the same, '' Christ a gardener," is set to the duett 
from Titus, " In friendship's arms ;" which, as a reviewer in the ^'■South German Messenger^" 
{Suddeutscher Boten,) says, " fits like a theatrical costume on a clergyman." 



268 SINGING. 

hh. In schools where only the children can be employed, the fol- 
lowing plan may be adopted, which will prevent very various errors, 
namely : The children should sing chorals, generally, in unison ; secu- 
lar songs in two parts ; and all music for rehgious, and especially 
church festivities, in three parts. 

Chorals can not and should not be sung in parts, for the reason that 
time will not be found for practicing them in that manner; and be- 
cause it would prevent those appointed for the middle and lower parts, 
from thoroughly learning the air — a great disadvantage. 

Only on some few special occasions should a choral be sung by the 
children in three parts ; and if such an experiment should succeed, it 
would probably be beneficial. 

Chorals in two parts are always somewhat dry. But if the teacher 
"will have some such, let him be careful to see that the second part is 
of an independent and marked character. 

The reasons for singing secular songs in two parts are these : — ■ 

1. This method is indicated by the nature of that sort of music. 

2. The practice will be found suflScient for the needs of the chil- 
dren in that particular. 

3. It does not, like singing in three parts, impose on some of the 
children the necessity of sacrificing themselves for the sake of the rest, 
by the unnatural practice of singing in the lower register, which is 
also in itself uninteresting to them, and if long continued, very wear- 
ing.* But the church requires a more dignified style. Here, singing 
in two parts seems empty and dry ; at least three parts are necessary. 
Nor should the choruses in the liturgy be sung in two parts only ; 
but rather in unison, with organ accompaniment. Children can 
profitably sing in four parts only under very favorable circumstances.f 

c. Solo singing, as well as singing in choir, must also be attended 
to. This is necessary both on account of the individual develop- 
ment of the pupil as well as the formation of his style, and the con- 
sequent influence of it on the feelings. With regard to this last 
point, I need only refer to such songs, motets, and little choruses, 
as are used in school in which choruses and solos alternate. 
The effect of such pieces when well executed, is very good. It also 
has a very good effect, when some single verse of a song is sung by 
some one person, the whole singing the next. The solo singers 
should be trained separately, by which however I do not mean that 
they should be trained in the higher artistic departments of music. 

♦Gersbach, Herder, Rinck, Miihliney, B. Klein, and the profund Nageli, have, I believe, 
scarcely set any children's songs in more than two parts. Their statemenls of the reasons, 
however, are not sufficiently lucid. 

tTh^re are very various opinions on this point, and I know that many persons diflfor from 
me. But I have many authorities on my side. 



SINGING. 269 

6. Care should be taken, not only to select music suitable to the 
children's capacity, but to practice them long enough to be able to 
execute them with certainty and freedom. 

This principle has already been indicated in substance, but ought 
to be here again stated in full and expressly.* It is not until all 
technicalities are done away with, and all sense of constraint or im- 
pediment by difBculties is removed, that the heart of the singer opens 
itself. The desperate efforts of some singers, or entire choirs, to ac- 
complish a task beyond their abilities, does not even afford the audi- 
ence the pleasure derived from the breakneck leaps of a rope-dancer. 
Therefore, no great contrapuntistic choruses, nor elaborate solos. All 
that is required is simple songs, and little motets and choruses, at 
the utmost not more difficult than the most difficult of Hientzsch and 
Erk. If circumstances imperatively require that the children should 
execute some more elaborate piece of church music, the most skillful 
of them should be selected, and practiced in private on the cantatas, 
hymns, (fee. 

6. The practicing of songs, during the period of singing by ear, 
should be by playing or singing them over to the children, who 
should then endeavor to execute them. 

When the period of singing from note begins, some ten or twelve 
lessons will probably be needed to acquaint the children with the 
main points as to the meaning of the notes, especially their rhythmi- 
cal value ; which should be thoroughly illustrated by examples. Then 
will follow the use of the notes in practicing songs. The children 
should be prevented from becoming discouraged if they do not at first 
understand more than a very little of the details of the system of 
notes. They should be allo^ved to be astonished, not at what the 
notes do not do for them, but on the other hand as the real help which 
they afford. And they will be much delighted, as the meaning of the 
written notes, at first so puzzling, becomes gradually more and more 
distinct, and when at last the song which is given them to sing shall 
contain its own explanation. 

C. INSTRUCTION IN SINGING, IN COMMON SCHOOLS OF THREE CLASSES.f 

(Two hours of singing in each class, weekly.) 

1. Lower Class. — (Four half hours.) In each half hour ; Elementary Exercises, 
ten minutes ; Songs, twenty minutes. 

2. Middle Class. — (Two full hours.) First : Indispensable information as to 
the notes, and for practicing songs; together with repetition of songs previously 
learned. This during from four to six weeks. 

* "In order that the execution of compositions may be as little as possible interrupted or 
hindered by ignorance or hesitation, and that no perplexity may interfere with the artistic 
conceptions of the singer, and thus prevent the successful training of his feelings." — Ndgeli, 

t Viz., of a three years' course. 



270 



SINGING. 



Next, in each hour ; Vocal Exercises, ten minutes ; other Elementary Exercises, 
twenty minutes; Songs, thirty minutes. 

3. Upper Class. — (Two full hours.) First : Continuation of the fundamentals 
of written music, and repetition of songs already learned. This during three or 
four weeks. 

Then, during each hour ; Vocal Exercises, ten minutes ; other Elementary Ex- 
ercises, twenty minutes ; Songs thirty minutes. 

Details on the above points, 
a. Lower class. 

The elementary course consists of simple exercises, in the singing 
by rote of single tones and simple connected tones ; in distinguishing 
high and low, long and short, loud and soft tones, in counting to 
time, &c. ; such as are prescribed in almost all the better class of 
books on the subject. A course of vocal exercises should also be 
combined with this. 

Take for example the following cadence. 



I 



The teacher plays these notes, the children counting them. Then 
let them describe them, somewhat thus ; " The second tone was lower 
than the first, and the third higher than the second ; and the third 
was like the first." Then let them sing them, to the sound ah, first 
getting the measure of their duration from the playing of the teach- 
er ; who must by the way watch carefully to see that the last note is 
not flat. Then let them count to each tone, one, two, and one, two, 
three, and one, two, three, four, while the teacher is playing them; 
and let them also beat time. And then let them do the same to 
their own singing of the notes. In these cases, they will sing the 
following. 



I 



^ 



n: 



XT 



:o: 



r 



P^-P. 



^ 



-o^ 



Then let them sing the same notes to words, such as " summer 
comes," or the like ; which will give an opportunity to train them in 
enunciation. That is, they must say, not " sum-mer," dwelling on 
the ra with their mouths shut, but su-mmer, holding the vowel 
sound, (fee. Lastly, the cadence may have a name given to it; it is 
a " cadence from below." Such exercises will be found very interest- 
ing, if conducted with spirit. 

The songs, in the lower class, must be sung by ear, after being 



SINGING. 



271 



played or sung by the teacher. The following may serve as an 
example : 









Oh how cold the weather's growing, And the sky all cloud -ed o'er, 



'-M=^^ 



£ 



El ; 

n 1 — \ — c 



■Sa 



J> N_ 



r^FF 



-^-r 






I 



From the North fierce winds are blowing, And the sun-shine's seen no more. 

First the words should be repeated to the class, and said over by 
them. Any mispronunciations should be corrected ; and the words 
"o'er," "north," "fierce," &c., briefly explaine<3. The teacher then 
announces that he will play the melody. All are attentive. He 
plays the first half of it, once, twice, thrice, four times ; the children 
beating time, which they can easily do. Some of them will at once 
begin to hum over the air, but should be stopped. The fifth time, 
they may all sing it, softly. Then the teacher sings it alone, then 
plays it alone; and then the children sing it by themselves, the 
teacher marking time for them. Perhaps they will sing the second 
or thii-d G too low, or fall behind the time, or take breath after " cold," 
or make the first note of the third full measure too short,«&c. ; all of 
which errors should be corrected on the spot. For a change, some- 
times part of the class may sing, and sometimes all ; and perhaps 
some one of them may be found bold enough and able enough to sing 
in solo. The teacher should always accompany, to prevent falling 
from the pit<jh. After the first half of the melody has been learned, 
the second should be practiced in the same way. When the whole 
is "well committed, the teacher may play second to the children's so- 
prano, or sing a second, and play the first. It will not sound well 
for him to sing the air. Then the remaining stanzas of the song may 
be learned. Every thing should be executed correctly and well. The 
result of such a course of training will be very satisfactory. When 
the children go home, they will be singing the song, wherever they 
are. What more could be desired ? 



272 SINGING. 

b. Middle class. 

As has been stated, this class should begin by devoting from four 
to six weeks to a very simple preparation for singing by note. The 
object of this preparation should be to make the children acquainted 
with the leading points of the notation, without burdening them with 
details. It can not be expected that the children shall learn to sing 
independently by note ; but they will receive whatever assistance the 
notes can give them ; their eyes, ears, and feeling for time, will be 
trained. An excessively long step will be avoided, by thus placing 
the children midway of the great space between singing without 
notes, and the free reproduction of what the notes represent. They 
will attain to the position occupied by those many thousand singers 
who do not indeed really sing by note, but who still would not on 
any account be without the notes. In short, the pupils will be placed 
in a situation where they will learn songs, not with a full intuitional 
appreciation, but with the aid of the use of their faculties of tune 
and time. 

What should be the exact importance of these acquirements ? I 
think it should be sufficient, if the children learn that 

1. The tones, rise, or fall, as the notes do. 

2. The notes show whether the tones proceed onward by grada- 
tions or jumps. 

3. The steps of the latter kind are various; thirds, fourths, fifths, 
sixths, sevenths, octaves. The pupils must learn to recognize these 
promptly by the notes. A short series of exercises should be given 
to acquire this facility, preparations having been already made for it 
in the lower class ; by playing one and another of these intervals in 
different parts of the major scale, and making the children what they 
are ; and then by the reverse method of calling for an interval, which 
the children are to sing. But nothing difficult should be introduced. ' 

4. The notes indicate the length of the tones. 

5. There are whole, half, fourth, eighth and sixteenth notes. A 
whole one is as long as two half ones, a half as two fourths, &c. 

6. There are also rests or pauses, fourth rests, eighth rests, &c. 

1. A note or a rest very often has a point or dot with it; which 
increases its length one half 

8. The notes are arranged into groups or sections, each of which 
is called a measure. One measure may contain four quarter notes, or 
three, or two ; or three eighth notes, or six, &c. The pupils must be 
able to name all these. 

9. They must also be able to beat time. For ^ time, four motions 
of the hand must be made, for -f three, for f two, for -| three, for f 
six, or sometimes two. It will be a sufficient exercise to them, if ap- 



SINGING. 273 

propriate portions of airs are written on the blackboard, named, and 
then played, while the children keep time, counting aloud. 

10. Various marks are used to indicate whether to sing loudly, 
moderately, or softly. 

11. The words are printed underneath, one syllable to each note; 
if several notes are connected together by a stroke or a curved line, 
they are all to be sung to one syllable. 

12. There are many other marks, whicb will be learned afterward. 
The pres'int is only a small beginning. 

To knew the nri,mes of the notes will be of no use to the children 
in this stf ge, because the present object is not an introduction to the 
system of the tones, but merely to afford the means of gathering by 
the eye fen acquaintance with the outlines of a melody. 

Abou\ midsummer, if the course commenced about Easter, the 
children can continue their singing practice in the green and flowery 
meadow* ; where they may wander without being constrained by 
methodical hedges and ditches, walls and timbers ; freely, joyously, 
and, if God will, piously. 

Rules for singing practice. 

1. Whatever is to be understood must, so far as the children's 
capacity will go, be made entirely clear to them, and then stated by 
them. 

3. In general, the children should be encouraged to make exertions 
of themselves ; and they should be encouraged — especially those who 
arc in their second year — to endeavor frequently to sing the air which 
is in hand, without assistance. But this must be done cheerfully and 
"with interest ; without any misery or any inflictions. 

3. Where the children's knowledge fails them, play them the 
air. 

4. Part of them — to repeat the suggestion once more — only count 
time aloud, while the others sing. But all of them must always keep 
time by light blows on the other hand or on the table, until the music 
is learned with entire certainty. 

5. Every eye should be strictly required to be directed to the music. 
The less capable may often be assisted by pointing out one note after 
another with a stick. 

Close adherence to these fourth and fifth rules will often give the 
children a facility in singing by note beyond what could have been 
believed. 

An example will illustrate this course of proceeding. I select the 
beginning of a well-known song by Nageli : — 

18 



2V4 



SINGING. 




-^-^ 



Tf-p-9 



S^^ 



1^ 



I 



Gold-en 



eve-ning 



sun! 



How art thou so bright? 



Let the notes be very plainly written on the blackboard, at first 
without the words. Then let the notes be first read, thus : " Dot- 
ted eighth ; sixteenth, rising second; fourth, rising second; fourth, 
faUing second, &c., <fec. ;" ending with "fourth, rising fourth; half, 
falling third."* Then a rising fourth and a falling third may be sung. 
The children can sing these intervals themselves, with occasional 
assistance, if their ear has been sufficiently well trained. That is, if 
they remember clearly the triad g, b, d, they will not sing g, b, 
instead of g, d. Then those who are in their second or third years 
practice may sing the scale with Za, except a few who are to be sta- 
tioned with the smaller children, to count aloud, keeping time, also, 
with blows on the hand or the table. If the air is correctly sung, 
well ; if not, let it be played over by the teacher. Then the smaller 
children may sing along with the rest, another section counting; or 
all may beat time. This exercise should continue until the. melody 
is sung with entire correctness and in strict time. Then the text 
may be written under the music. 

This practice is for the last half of the singing lesson. The first 
half should be used for the elementary course. My mode in this 
particular would be the following : Take one of the better works on 
teaching singing, and begin where the subject of written notes is 
introduced, and proceed strictly as is written, going very slowly, 
since there is time enough; and be satisfied with whatever acquire- 
ments can be made. Only, some portions of the songs given as 
exercises in time or melody may perhaps be omitted, if the purpose 
of comprehending the written tones is attained ; since the singing- 
course has particular reference to the development of the feelings of 
the children. 

This should usually be opened by vocal exercises ; which are also 
often properly introduced just before or during the singing exercises. 
Our practice (at Weissenfels) is to practice the scale, at first in two 

* This mensuration of the intervals is of the greatest importance ; at least, my own experi- 
ence shows that for the majorily of pupils it is the simplest and surest way of learning to sing 
truly If is an excellent thing when a pupil feels the key so well as to be able to strike the in- 
tervals correctly by taking the notes in their relation to the key note. But this power will fail 
him as soon as the melody passes a little beyond the limits of the simplest juvenile songs, 
and even within those iimits will be much confused by a modulation. In these cases, if 
the pupil is not practiced in the sort of knowledge of the intervals referred to in the text, he 
will gri.pe about in a*^ uncerta'i; manner, as is the cai;e with too many who sing by figures. 



SINGING. 276 

tetrachords (c, d, e, f; and g, a, b, c:) tlicn altogether, usually with 
the sound a, b, sometimes loudly and sometimes softly, (the latter is 
much the most difficult, but is very important;) and always beating 
time (with two, three, four or six beats to a note.) 

Til us the pupil makes his way through the middle class. At his 
leaving it, his voice will be found somewhat developed, a fund of 
songs laid up in his memory, and his power of reading at sight 
gratifyingly cultivated. The latter however is very seldom the case 
to an extent that makes it allowable to dispense with carrying on the 
elementary course together with the singing course, in the higher 
class. Careful beating time must also still be kept up for a long 
period yet; it is only in the latter years of their school life that the 
more capable of the children will be found capable of singing inde- 
pendently by note. 

c. Upper class. 

Before proceeding here with the singing course, the pupils must 
be somewhat further practiced in written music, for the sake of easier 
understanding. From three to four weeks at the beginning of the 
course may be specially devoted to this purpose. However much 
pi^ogress may have been made in the middle class, or the elementary 
course, they must yet be taught in the upper class : — 
■ 1. That there is a universal (chromatic) scale which is several times 
repeated. 

2. That it consists of twelve tones. 

3. That the tones are so near together that it would not be easy to 
sing another between them. 

4. That the steps from one of these tones to the other is called a 
half tone or semitone. 

5. That these tones have their fixed names and signs; and what 
these are. The scale most natural to commence with will be that of 
C, the intermediate tones being added. The nature of these semi- 
tones may be illustrated by marks, j^y a scale, a staircase, the keys 
of the piano-forte, the situation of the tones on the neck of the 
violin, and by playing and singing them over. 

Reading wTitten music, to which the middle class has at least 
afforded an introduction, must here become an indispenable prelimin- 
ary to singing practice. The subject of the different keys can not 
be begun in these three weeks of instruction ; it must be left 
for the elementary course, to be there treated deliberately and 
thoroughly. 

About Whitsunday, of the third year, again, singing practice may 
recommence, the vocal exercises being resumed, and the elementary 
course taken up again where it was left oft' in the middle class. 



276 



SINGING. 



I may properly give an instance of the instruction in singing of 
the upper class ; for which I will select a Whitsunday hymn. 




Deck the walls with wreaths of- flowers, And conse - crate to God the 




I 



l^—9-l^ 



8^ 



-^ 



TJ 



hours, 



And let the 



al - 



bloom. 



The course of instruction may be as follows: — 1. The key, 
signature and time may be determined. 2. Count the measures. 
3. Read the notes, as follows, a; a; rising fourth, d; rising third, 
f sharp; falling second, e; falling second, d; rising second, e ; rising 
second, f sharp ; falling third, d, <fec. 4. Take up the longer in- 
tervals. Which are the thirds? The fourths? Who can sing a 
fourth ? How does a sixth sound ? &c. 5. The upper section makes 
an attempt to sing the scale with la, the lower section beating time 
and counting aloud. Every eye fixed on the notes ! Trifling varia- 
tions from the melody can easily be corrected with the violin ; if 
there are any serious ones, the class must be stopped, and the error 
expressly corrected. If they do not succeed after two or three at- 
tempts, play the passage to them. 

6. All the class sings the scale, naming the notes by name, and 
beating time accurately. 

Y. The words are put under the music. 

W^hen afterward the keys are discussed, they can be properly 
spoken of at each lesson. The principal thing, however continues to 
be that the children shall recognize the intervals, even if only by 
their numeral designation, and not by the interval of sound. Expe- 
rience teaches that those who learn on that plan gain a very good 
degree of certainty and facility. It will of course be observed that 
as the elementary course progresses, the increasing vocalizing powers 
of the class can be more and more exercised. 

I could now proceed, if my space would permit, to describe in very 
bright colors our scholar, now stepping forth from the upper class 
into active life, free, joyous, bold, and if God please, pious. But I 
eave every young teacher to imagine such a picture for himself. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 277 



NEW CBDEMIOAL LABORATORIES IN PRUSSIA. 
The establishment of two great chemical laboratories in connection with the 
two otherwise best equipped universities of Prussia, on a scale and with an ex- 
penditure unprecedented, not only in that, but in any country, is a recognition 
of the position which chemistry now occupies in reference both to scientific 
inquiry, and to the industrial arts. The following account is abridged from a 
Report* to the English Department of Science and Art, by Dr. Hoffman, under 
whose direction the laboratory of the School of Chemistry in London, now at- 
tached to the School of Mines, was constructed. The example of Prussia has 
already attracted the attention of the Russian, English, and French governments; 
and the Minister of Public Instruction in France has already obtained the neces- 
sary pecuniary means to enlarge and reorganize the laboratories of the Museum 
of Natural History, the School of Medicine, and the Superior Normal School, 
and to est iblish in Paris, others, larger and more complete, designating them 
" the arsenals in which are to be forged the weapons for new conquests in the 
field of experimental science and industrial development." 



The first negotiations respecting the building of a new laboratory in Bonn 
commenced in 1861. Situated on the high road of Europe, on the banks of the 
mighty Rhine, surrounded by some of the most charming scenery of the world, 
distant but a few hours from the Belgium frontier, and scarcely farther removed 
from France, within reach of England by a short day's journey, in the midst of a 
large agricultural, vine-growing, and mining populations, in close proximity 
with the great manufacturing districts of Rhineland and Westphalia, united with 
the focus of this large industrial territory by a network of railways whose meshes 
are augmenting daily, itself the seat of one of the most flourishing universities 
and schools of agriculture in Germany, — the city of Bonn embodied a number 
of condi tions which cannot fail to secure the rapid success of a large chemical 
institution established within its walls. 

The scientific arrangements of the building were entrusted to Professor A. TV. 
Hoffman, after a careful study of the latest structures of the kind in Europe. 
The foundation was laid in the spring of 1865, and the construction has gone on 
under the direct superintendence of an able young architect, Mr. Jacob Neumann, 
and the building, properly equipped, was handed over to the university in the 
summer of 1868. 

Of the several institutions in the Rhenish university, part only are situated in 
the electoral castle in Bonn, granted to the university at its foundation in the 
year 1818; others, for instance, the natural history collections, the magnificent 
and world-renowned astronomical observatory, the botanic gardens, the agricul- 
tural academy, are located in the village of Poppelsdorf, about fifteen minutes* 
walk from the castle, but connected with it by one of the finest chestnut avenues 
in Germany. In close proximity to the castle of Poppelsdorf, a tract of land, 
the freehold property of the university, was chosen for the site of the new labo- 
ratory, and a more favorable situation could scarcely have been found. 

The land allotted by the university is of very considerable extent. The spa- 
cious building, covering, with its four enclosed courts, an area of 45,000 square 

* Report of Dr. Hof&nau to the Department of Science and Art, of the Committee of Council 
on Education, London. 



278 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

feet, is surrounded by a handsome garden, which at the back extends to some 
depth, leaving ample room for the erection of any accessory buildings that may 
be required at some later time. Thus unfettered by narrowness of space, or the 
fear of having air or light shut out by the close proximity of other buildings, and 
on a well drained soil, the architect was enabled to lay out the plan of the edifice 
with a degree of freedom that has materially promoted the beauty and harmony 
of his work. 

' Even the slight distance from the city of Bonn might appear at first sight a 
disadvantage. Since, however, the natural science institutions of the university, 
almost without exception, are concentrated at Poppelsdorf, it is a real conven- 
ience to the students that the chemical laboratory is in their neighborhood, be- 
sides being removed from the annoyances of a rapidly growing town, and com- 
manding views of unsurpassed beauty ; on one side, the chestnut avenues and 
the city of Bonn with the lofty spire of its cathedral ; on the other side, the 
castle, with the adjacent botanic gardens ; in the distance, the Kreuzberg, with 
its chapel ; and farther still, on the opposite bank of the Rhine, the graceful out- 
lines of the Siebengbirge, the castled crag of Drachenfels, and the sheen, and 
near and distant flow of that abounding river. 

The new chemical institution is provisionally intended for sixty students ; the 
space, however, has been meted out so liberally, that accommodation can be sup- 
plied without inconvenience to a much greater number ; besides this, the building 
has been so constructed as to allow of enlargement at any future time, by the 
addition of a second story, without detracting from the hai-mony of its structure, 
either as regards outward appearance or internal arrangement. 

In addition to the various apartments required for educational purposes, for 
practical analysis, for scientific and technical investigations, for class exercises, 
and for the lectures, there are in the new building sets of rooms for the families 
and servants, apartments for three assistants, and also a magnificent residence 
for the director, consisting of a suite of rooms, which, as regards number and 
extent, would be very seldom met with in a private house. Lastly, there is a 
considerable number of Avell-lighted basement rooms, which have as yet no spe- 
cial use assigned to them, but the construction of Avhich, on account of the greater 
depth of the foundations on the street side, could not be avoided. On any later 
enlargement of the institution, however, these rooms cannot fail to be adapted 
to some useful purpose. - 

The various departments of the building are spread over three floors, the base- 
ment, the ground floor, and the first floor. The first floor, however, extends 
over but a small portion of the structure, and is exclusiA^ely occupied by the 
private apartments of the director. But few of the rooms devoted to the pur- 
poses of the institution are found in the basement, as, for instance, the store- 
rooms, the rooms for metallurgical and other operations, requiring large quanti- 
ties of fuel, those for medico-legal, and chemico-physiological research, &c. All 
the remaining space intended for educational purposes, viz : the laboratories, 
with their adjoining rooms for special operations, and side-rooms, balance-rooms, 
rooms for volumetric analysis, combustion-rooms, lecture-theatres, the halls for 
collections, the study and private laboratory of the director, the apartments of the 
assistants and other officers of the institution, are on the ground floor, an ad- 
vantage which would not have been obtained had the site of the building been 
of more limited dimensions. 

The ground floor contains no less than forty-four rooms, exclusive of vestibules. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 279 

corridors, and closets. After ascending the massive flight of stairs wc enter the 
large vestibule, the rich architectural decoration of wliicli at once bespeaks the 
dignity of a great public building dedicated to science. Before the spectator 
stiTtches a long corridor of considerable -width, the main artery of the entire 
building. It is brilliantly lighted by a number of windows, (eiich nine feet high 
and four feet wide,) on the left side. The large folding doors at the further 
end of the corridor lead to the director's spacious study, which is provided with 
a large bow-windoAV for microscopic observations. From this central situation 
the various parts of the great building are quickly and easll}' accessible. 

There are three laboratories, each with permanent working-places for twenty 
students, with more than sufficient space, and every convenience for work. 

The Jirst of these laboratories is for beginners, that is to say, those who, having 
become acquainted with the rudiments of chemistry hy attending lectures, enter 
the laboratory to become exercised in chemical manipulation, to make jDrepara- 
tions, and to go through an elementary course of qualitative analysis. 

The second laboratory is for advanced students, or those who, having acquired 
practice in qualitative experiments, are occupied with quantitative analysis, both 
ponderal and volumetric. 

The third laboratory is ior young chemists sufficiently conversant with the prin- 
cipal departments of chemistry to engage in original experimental investigations, 
either suggested by the director qr chosen by themselves. In these laboratories 
the students have their permanent working-places. To each one is allotted for 
this purpose a table amply supplied with gas and Avater, as well as lock-up 
'drawers and cupboards in -which to keep apparatus, re-agents, &c. ; in a word, his 
own chemical estate. At these working benches all ordinary chemical work, and 
all operations not requiring the special arrangements provided, in other parts 
of the institution, are carried on. • 

In the side apartments attached to the three laboratories are three closets in 
direct communication with the main rooms. They are in cliargc of the respect- 
ive assistants, and are intended for preserving delicate and costly apparatus, pla- 
tinum and silver vessels, expensive re-agents, &c. 

Besides the three laboratories in which the students, as already stated, have 
spacious and permanent benches, liberall}' provided Avith gas and water, and every 
facility for carrying oif vapors and liquid products, there are a series of rooms for 
certain operations Avhich cannot be well conducted in them, such as di^illations, 
making of gases, heating of bodies in particular gas-atmospheres, and all exper- 
iments requiring large and complicated apparatus. This class of Avork is carried 
on in these special rooms or in the " evaporation-niches " let into their walls. 
Should, hoAvcA^er, for any particular purpose, even more space or greater pro- 
tection from noxious or offensive emanations be required, such as preparing 
sulphur compounds or similar substances, provision has likeAA'ise been made for 
such contingencies. Each Avorking-room communicates Avith a coA^ered colonnade, 
opening tOAvards a back-court, and fitted up with gas and Avater and all the requi- 
sites for this special Avork. Flights of steps lead from the open sides of the col- 
onnades doAvn to the tAvo back-courts lying bctAvecn the three laboratories, and 
here the student finds an additional supply of Avater in the large central res- 
ei'voirs, the tabular parapets of which serve as Avorking-benches for a variety of 
operations. 

Besides the chief apartments already mentioned, there are the folloAving rooms : 
a laboratory for gas analysis, a volumetrical analysis room, tAVO balance-rooms, 



280 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

not only intended for the reception of chemical balances, but also of the more 
delicate physical instruments made use of in analysis, such as air-pumps, barom- 
eters, &c., two rooms for fusions and ignitions capable of being carried out by 
means of gas, a library, a large and excellently arranged lecture room capable 
of seating conveniently two hundred and fifty students, a chemical and miner- 
alogical museum, storo-rooms, &c. 

The basement has nearly thirty rooms, which are at present mainly used for 
store-rooms, coal-cellars, lumber-rooms, &c., but capable of being utilized if nec- 
essary. Only the front block of the building has a second story ; this contains 
a spacious and attractive suite of apartments, provided for the director of the 
institution, commanding the finest sceneiy in the world. There are abxindance 
of rooms for sei-vants, domestic offices, and storage. 

The external aspect of the new laboratories is in perfect keeping with the 
scale of grandeur of the ground plan. The street front, 180 feet in length, con- 
sists of a long centre structure, two stories in height, with richly decorated win- 
dows and pillars, terminated by two end blocks of greater height, each containing 
a main entrance, with an ornamented balcony above. The side-front facing the 
city of Bonn, with the main entrance for students, has a depth of 250 feet, and 
consists of two parts, separated from each other by the carriage-way leading to 
the courts. One of these parts is the north-east corner of the front block ; the 
other, perfectly symmetrical in itself, has for its centre the main vestibule, with 
its richly decorated entrance, and classically ornamented roof rising consider- 
ably above and projecting prominently 'from the remainder of this fa9ade. On 
either side of this vestibule branch forth two long wings, which, though only of 
one story, are nevertheless of imposing attitude, being relieved, moreover, on the 
two corners by slightly projecting portions of somewhat greater height, and 
marked by the more elaborate architecture of the windows. The impression 
made on the spectator by the animated appearance of this front is exceedingly 
pleasing. The inner and outer fa9ades and the principal architectural mould- 
ings, are in stone. The architectural ornamentation of the interior is in keeping 
with that of the exterior. The principal vestibule, a hall of considerable dimen- 
sions, is lighted by a band of highly elevated windows running round the four 
sides of the building immediately under the roof. The ceiling is divided into or- 
namental squares, and the walls are enlivened by projecting pillars bearing eaiy- 
atides, aAd a rich door architecture framing the entrance to the corridor. 

The lecture-room is lighted from both sides through a range of windoAvs, which 
are separated from one another by columnar pillars. Its walls and ceiling are 
correspondingly decorated in stucco and color. 

The three laboratories, despite their necessary simple ornamentation, will not 
fail to make a favorable impression by their liberal proportions, by the enlivening 
effect of the wainscoting and the evaporating niches projecting from the walls 
above it, as well as by iheir elegant and in all respects suitable fittings. The 
rooms adjoining the laboratories, the small lecture-theatre and the museums, and 
the director's spacious residence, are all richly and tastefully ornamented, and are 
in all respects worthy of the institution to which it belongs. 

The cost of the building, aside from the land, which belonged to the university, 
and of the equipment, was 183,000 thalers. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 281 

II. BERLIN. 

Chemical Laboratory of the Frederick William University of Berlin. 

The University of Berlin, like that of Bonn, had its origin within the present 
century, having been founded in 1810, at a period when the pressure of foreign 
domination weighed almost insupportably on Prussia; and it will ever remain 
significant of the direction of the German mind, that the great men of that 
time should have expected to gather in the focus of science and letters the forces 
necessary for the political regeneration of their country. 

To the present time, there have been three leaders of chemical science in this 
University since its foundation, Klaproth, Mitscherlich, and H. Rose, who have 
taught in succession, or at the same time. The existence of the Royal Academy 
of Sciences, instituted by Liebnitz in 1700, and reorganized by Frederick the 
Great in 1740, operated, among other causes, against the establislmaent of a great 
chemical in.-;titution at the university, as that academy was a scientific corpora- 
tion, including chemistry within its scope. Ever since the foundation of the 
university the chemical chair has invariably been occupied by the chemist of the 
academy, and the university was thus exempt from the necessity of providing 
the chemical professor with working accommodations, which he already enjoyed 
in his capacity of academician. This double position, however, proved a disad- 
vantage, when the demands for chemical instruction and investigation had in- 
creased in consequence of the rapid advance of science, and the industrial arts to 
which chemistry could minister. 

" In the autumn of 1863 the university and the academy suffered a heavy loss 
in the death of Mitscherlich ; and not long after, by that of H. Rose. Professor 
A. W. Hoffman, F. R. S., then at Bonn, was selected to fill the chair thus va- 
cated, principally on the grounds of the experience he had just acquired in organ- 
izing a chemical institution at Bonn, as it was universally conceded that the time 
had come when the building of a great chemical laboratory for the university of 
Berlin must be vigorously undertaken. 

Site. The site of the new Berlin laboratory is in the midst of the great rep- 
resentative institutions of the kingdom, and in close proximity to the uniAcrsity 
and the military medical school, at the east end of the beautiful street and prom- 
enade, " Unter den Linden," so called from its two parallel avenues of lime trees, 
which extend through the city from the monumental Brandenburg gate, in a di- 
rection from west to east. At the east end of this street, next to the splendid 
palace built by Frederick the Great for his brother, Prince Henry of Prussia, now 
devoted to the university, and the spacious edifice of the Academy of Sciences, 
near to other great public structures, the library, the academy of arts, the arsenal, 
and the royal residence, is the site of the new laboratory. 

The relations of the university and academy with respect to their participation 
in the new institution, and the various preliminary conditions having been satis- 
factorily settled, the scientific details of the institution were arranged substan- 
tially after suggestions and plans of Prof. Hoffman at Bonn. The architectural 
details embodied by Mr. A, Creamer, an architect of great experience, were com- 
mitted to two young achitects, Messrs. Cornelius & Drawe. 

The area occupied by the building is 21,680 square feet ; aud the building has 
two stories and a basement. The foundations rest principally upon arches 
thrown over concrete piles sunk through the yielding peat to the solid stratum 
below. The whole expense of the building and the additional grounds pur- 
chased (over 318,100 thalers), was borne by the Prussian government. 



232 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

The broad frontage of the Georgen-strass was selected for the principal facade, 
with the main entrance for students. On the back of the large rectangle foi-m- 
ing the site, parallel to the main edifice, runs a corresponding wing, and two 
structures, connected on either side by long galleries, and in the middle by a more 
massive block of buildings containing the great lecture-theatre of the institu- 
tion. Thus two quadrangles were fonned. 

The principal front of the institution rises in two lofty stories over a massive 
basement, facing the Georgen-strass. The main entrance, consisting of three 
arched portals, is in the middle of the edifice. On the right hand corner there is 
a carriage-way leading to the quadrangles. 

On entering by one of the middle portals and ascending three granite steps, 
the imposing vaulted Vestibule is reached, which is separated from the street by 
iron gates of ornamental trellis-work, closing the portals. Half-way across the 
vestibule a flight of aine steps, extending across the entire breadth of the hall, 
leads to the Coiridor on the main floor. The construction of this splendid open 
vestibule Avas an architectural necessity, the Municipal Board of Works in Berlin 
not permitting the projection of steps into the street more than two feet. 

The more important rooms of the institution are in the first or main story. 
The corridor above referred to extends through the entire length of the front 
building, being lighted in part from the staircase, and in part from three large 
windows appropriately situated. 

The Ground Floor. The branch of the corridor on the right of the vesti- 
bule leads to a large glass door opening on a flight of steps which descends to 
the carriage-way, thus forming a communication between the ground floor and 
the quadrangles with the several wings that surround them. From this branch 
of the corridor, access is had to two rooms very near the carriage-way, viz : a 
small lecture-theatre for special lectures, and their recapitulations or reviews to 
be held by the assistants of the institution ; and between this and the vestibule 
a special room for the lectures, as well as for the preparation of the experiments 
for the lectures. Being between the two entrances, these rooms are selected for 
these uses on account of their accessibility, being reached by students not work- 
ing in the laboratory, without in any way interfering with the general business 
of the institution, while a great majority of the practical students are working 
in the first floor above, and have therefore only to descend the principal staircase. 

The branch of the corridor extending from the left of the vestibule, leads to 
three important laboratories, opening into one another, which are fitted up for 
smelting operations on a large scale, involving the use of wood, coal, or coke. 
For this purpose the walls adjacent are traversed by a succession of flues for the 
several furnaces set up in the rooms. All these rise vertically to the height of 
about sixty feet, affording as great a draught as can be required. These rooms 
are so ample in their dimensions, however, as to be available for many other op- 
erations besides smelting ; one of them, for instance, contains the large press of 
the laboratory, and another the steam-boiler, supplying the institution with dis- 
tilled water, and heating, by means of pipes rising through the ceiling, the dry- 
ing-ovens in the gallery on the first floor. In these rooms all the experiments 
made under great pressure are performed ; for which special arches are let into 
the walls, provided with strong iron doors for the protection of the manipulator 
in case of explosion. The third room, in addition to the doors communicating 
with the corridor and the middle room, has a third door, leading into the Collon- 
nade for open air work nearly one hundred feet in length. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 283 

This colonniidc receives air and light through seven gi'eat arches, the middle 
one of ■which leads to a double flight of steps, descending to the quadrangle. This 
hall has all the requisites for chemical work, such as .gas, water, etc., whilst three 
recesses in the partition wall serve to carry away such vapors as arc to he avoided 
even in open air. The colonnade, in addition to the main staircase, has a spiral 
one uniting it with the first floor. 

On the landing, directly opposite the main entrance, and visible from the 
street, is the entrance to the Great Lecture Theatre. This hall differs fi-om that 
at Bonn by being much higher, rising through the two stories of the building, to 
an elevation of not less than 37 feet. 

In direct communication with this theatre arc the rooms for preparing the 
lectures and that containing the scientific collections of the institution. The 
Preparation Laboratory proper is accessible from the theatre by two doors, one on 
either side of a large niche behind the mid.lle of the lecture table. This room is 
amply provided with all the requisites for chemical manipulation, and is well 
lighted, and has a flight of steps communicating with both the quadrangle and 
basement. It has also several other doors by means of which access is easy to 
the corridor, the waiting-room, the instrument-room, and the Great Museum for the 
Scientific Collections of the I)istitution, the latter being a magnificent hall 60 feet 
long and 25 broad, the arched roof of which is supported by iron columns. 

The architecture of this museum suggests a division, of the collections into 
three ; minerals, rocks, and metallurgical products, occupying one section ; the 
chemical collection proper, another; and models, drawings, diagrams, etc., the 
third. The specimens in the museum can be transmitted direcQy to the lecture 
theatre by means of a small truck, of the same height as the lecture table, run- 
ning on wheels with India-rubber tires. There are several other rooms on this 
floor, which it is not necessary to enumerate and describe specifically, being ap- 
plied to uses connected with the main object, and made convenient in their outfit, 
and accessible. 

The First Floor. As has been stated, the first floor contains the most im- 
portant rooms for manipulation, for only by this arrangement could the requisite 
amount of light be secured. The first room reached is the sj^acious Operation 
Room, lighted by the three middle windows of the front fa9ade, and communi- 
cating on the right and left with two magnificent Laboratories, having a row of 
colossal windows on each side. The first of these laboratories is intended for be- 
ginners, the other for more advanced students. Each of them has ample space 
for 24 students, and is capable of accommodating a greater number if required. 
These rooms are most completely provided with all the requisites for Avork ; in 
all the window pillars are evaporation niches, the flues of which communicate 
with the open air by chimney-pots, concealed behind the pillars of the attic run- 
ning along the roof of the building. The walls of the laboratories are also traversed 
by flues, ventilating the large recesses here provided for fitting up lengthy pieces 
of apparatus. 

From the great working laboratories for the beginners and advanced students 
branch out two galleries, nearly 100 feet long by 12 wide, one of which lies over 
the thoroughfare, and the other over the colonnade for open air work, each 
lighted by seven large windows. These galleries are not only useful as means of 
communication with the first floor and the apartments of the cross wing, but also 
for a variety of purposes requiring an amount of light which could not be other- 
wise secured. 

Among the rooms which it is not easy to locate and specify, by a simple de- 



284 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

Bcription, but connected with the operations prosecuted on this floor, are a Library, 
Laboratories for Ftisions and Ignitions, a Balance Room, a Laboratory for Scientific 
Research, a Gas Analysis Laboratory, a Photometric Room, a Private Laboratory, Coni' 
bustion Room, etc. 

Thk Basement. The basement contains also a large number of rooms de- 
voted to the objects of the institution ; such as the laboratories for medico-legal 
investigations and physiological research, a room for the rougher operations for 
the lectures, a repository for chemicals, store rooms, coal cellars, wash-rooms, 
and household cellarage for the director's residence. 

EXTERNAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE INSTITUTION. 

The principal fa9ade, in the Greorgen-S trass e, is of brick ; all the ornaments 
are terra-cotta from the celebrated works of March, of Charlottenburg. The 
ground floor is six feet above the level of the street and eighteen feet from floor 
to ceiling. The first or upper story has the same altitude ; and the attic story, 
together with the ballustrade crowning the roof, is 10| feet high. The whole 
building has, therefore, an elevation of 52^ feet above the level of the street; and 
the length upon this street is 1342- feet. 

The angles between the arches of the windows furnish spaces for fourteen 
medallions of large size to exhibit in relief a number of portraits of celebrated 
chemists. -As these are set at a height of eighteen feet from the street, it was 
necessary to make the likenesses over life size, the modeling of which was en- 
trusted to the sculptor, Mr. W. "Wolff, from whose models the medallions will be 
executed in terra-cotta by Messrs. March of Charlottenburg. 

The selection of the persons thus to be distinguished, was entrusted by the 
architect to Prof. Hoffman ; but as he desired the advice of others. Professors 
Dove, du Bois-Reymond, Gustav Magnus, Poggendoi-iF, Rammelsberg, Riess, 
and Gustav Rose, all members of the physico-mathematical class of the Royal 
Academy of Sciences, gave this question their joint consideration. At a meet- 
ing, held March 1, 1866, it was, in the first place, decided that it would be 
best to honor the present leaders of chemical science by placing their busts in 
the entrance hall of the institution, and to dedicate the monumental medallions 
of the fa9ade exclusively to the great teachers of the past. After considerable 
discussion, the following list was, with unanimity, ultimately adopted : 

Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, - - - 

Karl Wilhelm Scheele, . - - - 

Henry Cavendish, _ . - . 

Joseph Priestly, - - - . - 

John Dalton, - - - - - 

Claude Louis Berthollet, - - . - 

Louis Joseph Gay-Lussac, _ - - 

Humphrey Davy, - - ' - 

Jacob Berzelius, - - - - - 

Eilhard Mitscherlich, , . . . 

Martin Heinrich Klaproth, . . _ 

Hcinrich Rose, - ' _ 

Leopold Gmelin, - ' - 

Charles Gerhardt, - - 

Auguste Laurent, - - 

The- two last named chemists, united during their life time by ties of friend- 
ship, and having laid the foundation of the chemical views of the present day by 
their joint labors, are framed in the same medallion. 



Born. 


Died. 


1743 


1794 


1742 


178f 


1731 


181( 


1733 


1804 


1766 


1844 


1748 


182S 


1778 


185( 


1778 


182C 


1779 


184S 


1794 


186S 


1743 


1817 


1795 


1864 


1788 


185S 


1816 


1856 


1807 


1853 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 285 

THE AQUARIUM AT BERLIN. 

The first step towards realizing the long-cherished idea of founding an Aqua- 
rium on an extensive scale in Berlin, was taken July 8, 1867, when a joint-stock 
company, formed for this purpose, held its first meeting, when, chiefly through 
the exertions of a wealthy merchant of Berlin, F. Stehlschmidt, the sum of 
200,000 Prussian dollars was raised. Of the many plans submitted, the one by 
the architect, Wilhelm Luer, was accepted. The eminent zoologist, Dr. Alfred 
Brehm, was entrusted with the technical and scientific superintendence of the 
building, and the work was commenced at once. Great and manifold were the 
difficulties encountered in this undertaking. From the Ilartz and the Thcerin- 
gien mountains, from the banks of the Rhine and the valley of the Aar, from the 
mines of Silesia and Saxony the materials had to be brought, for all the pillars, 
vaults and walls of the building were to be of genuine specimens of various rocks 
and minerals to the exclusion of all artificial imitations. Great technical difficul- 
ties also presented themselves in ventilating, heating and lighting the edifice ; 
but by the indefatigable efforts of the men superintending the building, and by 
the thoroughness and eminent skill of the best technicians of Berlin employed in 
the work, all these difficulties were successfully overcome, and in the month of 
May, 1 869, the establishment was opened to the public. 

The aquarium proper occupies only a portion of the building, which covers an 
area of 13,650 square feet. It contains no less than 118 cages, reservoirs, and 
ponds, for the reception of the different animals ; the length of the galleries is 
r780 feet, and their height varies from 15 to 17 feet, the open aquaria holds 6,000 
cubic feet of water, and the reservoirs 13,220; 2,000 persons can, at' one time, 
without being inconveniently crowded, visit the institution. The number of 
specimens of living animals already now very large, is constantly being increased, 
and will soon reach 40,000, the highest number contemplated. 

The building is located on the corner of Schadow street, and that magnificent 
thoroughfare, " Unter den Linden." After having mounted a massive staircase 
the visitor enters through a glass-door, the desert or serpent's gallery, a broad and 
lofty hall, the walls of which are occupied by the cages with serpents and other 
amphibious animals. These cages are all very large, and convey as far as possi- 
ble a faithful idea of the localities in which the various animals are found. ■ Here 
are to be seen harmless European snakes as well as the rattle-snake, the moccasin- 
snake, the boa-constrictor, and many other varieties. This gallery opens into a 
ravine 31 feet broad and 55 feet high, called the geological grotto, whose walls, in a 
hitherto unsurpassed manner, form an exact representation of the different geo- 
logical layers of the earth's surface, all composed of genuine specimens ; a cas- 
cade, whose foaming waters tumble over the moss and fern-grown rocks forms 
the back ground of this fairy-grotto ; the visitor mounts a balcony, from which an 
excellent view of the romantic scene below may be obtained ; parrots and other 
birds of brilliant plumage are resting on the projecting rocks, or on the branches 
of the many tropical trees, and down among the rocks at the bottom of the cliff 
turtles have their home. A broad stone-staircase of ten steps leads from the 
geological grotto to the primeval forest of the tropics ; in the centre of this hall 
is a magnificent cage of airy wire-work 28 feet high and 44 feet in diameter; 
more than 1,200 birds, amongst the rest 25 varieties of parrots inhabit this cage; 
round about there is a broad and high walk of natural rock, in the clefts of which 
there are cages, reservoirs, and small ponds. There is an alligator-pond with ten 
alligators, a turtle-pond, a reservoir for nest-building, fishes and cages with 



286 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA. 

sweet-singing birds, cages with flying squirrels, deser^^lice, eagles, and monkeys. 
On leaving this hall a wide perspective opens, and we enter the polar or arctic 
grotto, after having passed through the fresh-ioater grotto, inhabited by fresh- 
water fish and singing birds. There murmuring streams of water arc flowing 
between the rocks. From this grotto we descend a spiral staircase to the bottom 
of the great ocean. On our Avay thither we pass reservoirs .in the rocky walls, 
representing the different kinds of pisciculture, with illustrations of the French 
system, KufFs system, and Brehm's system. Before entering the large ocean 
aquarium we pass the beaver-pond, where some beavers are building their artifi- 
cial structures. In the basins of a long gallery of natural rock we see all those 
fishes which belong to fresh-water, but which, at certain times of the year, go out 
into the ocean ; then follows a large number of reservoirs illustrating the plants 
and animals of the different seas, first the North sea, then the Baltic-reservoir, 
and in the centre an immense aquarium representing the Atlantic ocean with its 
bays and gulfs ; through a narrow entrance called the Strait of Gibralter, we 
reach the last of the series, the Mediterranean reservoir. — Uher Land und Meer. 



Elementary and Technical Education for England. 

The result of an examination of the great industrial districts of France, 
Switzerland, and Germany, and of the technical institutions which supply them 
with engineers and foremen, and of the public schools which give to all the 
workmen, in most prosperous sections, a good elementary education, Mr. Sam- 
uelson, in his Letter on Technical Education, embodies as follows : 

First, as to Elemental Education. Let no child under 12 be allowed to work 
until it can read and write. Make it the duty of every parent to see that its 
children have the means of elementary instruction. 

Encourage elementary schools by special grants to establish advanced classes. 

Assist the pupils of elementary schools who have shown remarkable ability to 
continue their education in a superior school. 

Secondly, as to Technical Education. Give a thoroughly scientific training to a 
small number of young men to qualify them as professors of science. Supple- 
ment local efforts to establish or to extend secondary or superior scientific schools, 
by building grants, and by the endowment or partial endowment of professor- 
ships. Let one condition of assistance to a scientific school be, that a perfecting 
school {(foiibildwigsschule) shall be affiliated to it; and of the endowment of a 
professorship, that the professor shall teach in the perfecting school. 

Mr. Samuelson evidently favors the. introduction of the superior mental train- 
ing of the gymnasium into the preparation of pupils for the polytechnic schools, 
as well as a larger infusion of literature into the Gewerbe Schulen. Li speaking ' 
of the Gewerbe Schule of Barmen, in "Westphalia : 

It has about 200 pupils, five-sixths of whom leave the school at the end of 
three years (in the second class), to enter into some industrial or mercantile oc- 
cupation, the other sixth remain and generally go from the school to a Polytech- 
nic institution, not unfrequently serving a short apprenticeship of one or two 
years, in a workshop, between the termination of their school career, and their 
entrance upon the course of higher instruction. The third and fourth classes, 
forming the lower school at Barmen, include French, history, and geography, 
arithmetic, algebra, natural philosophy, geometry, and drawing. These studies 
are continued in the second class, with the addition of chendstry, and tl:e exten^ 
sion of drawing to machine details. In the first class, mineralogy, building, con- 
struction, and mechanics, theoretical and applied, and practical work in the shop, 
are added. 

Mr. Samuelson does not favor the system of apprenticeship schools on the 
part of the government. " They fall properly within the province of benevolent 
individuals and societies, and their success will depend on the judgment with 
which they are organized and superintended." ^...^ 



SPECIAL nSTRUCTION IN SAXONY. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The Kingdom of Saxony, on an area of 6,777 English square 
miles, in 1864 had a population of 2,343,994, of which number 
1,248,677 were engaged in mechanical and manufacturing industries, 
559,013 in agriculture, and 172,946 in commerce. 

The total annual expenditure of the government of the Kingdom 
of Saxony during the financial period 1863-66, amounted to 12,356,- 
352 thalers, of which sum about 300,000 thalers were expended 
in public instruction, independent of all local expenditure, which 
amounted to abou^ 1,000,000 thalers. A system of public instruc- 
tion in Saxony has been in operation since 1580, and under its benef- 
icent influence there has grown up a precious national inheritance of 
school habits, which now secures the regular attendance of all chil- 
dren of the legal school age, at some school, public or private, and 
furnishes the higher institutions of learning, and the numerous 
special schools of agriculture, architecture, commerce, mming, and 
other industries, with well-prepared quota of students. Mr. Mun- 
della, member of parliament, and large employer of laborers in 
England and Saxony, in a recent speech in Nottingham (his place of 
residence), said that he had never found a native born Saxon who 
could not read and write. 

The institutions of public instruction, administered by the minister 
of education and ecclesiastical affaks, are as follows ; 

1. Primary Scfiook. Of these there were in 1867, 1,976 schools, with 3,996 
teachers, and 400,229 scholars (199,446 boys, and 2,783 girls); 93 Sunday 
schools, designed to complete the elementaiy education, ^vith 7,024 scholars ; 
and 80 schools for poor children in cities. • 

2. Secondary Schools. There were in 1868, 9 gymnasia, ^vith 2,066 scholars, 
and 159 teachers; 7 gymnasia with real-classes, with 1,440 scholars, and 166 
teachers; 3 real-schools and progymnasia combined, with 874 scholars, and 54 
teachers; 3 real-schools, with 1,183 scholars, and 55 teachers; making a total of 
22 secondary schools, with 5,563 scholars, and 434 teachers. 

3. Supe)-ior Schools. The University at Leipsic, in 1867-68 had 111 professors, 
and 1,190 students (297 theology, 362 law, 181 medicine, 350 philosophy and 
philology). 

(287) 



288 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN SAXONY. 

4. Special and Professional Schools. 

3 Public commercial schools, with 177 scholars. 
15 Commercial schools for apprentices. 

1 Commercial school for young ladies, with 112 pupils, and 9 teachers. 
I Polytechnic school, at Dresden, with 360 students, and 28 teachers; 

and connected with this school there is a modeling and ornamental 

drawing school, with 16 scholars. 
1 Higher industrial school, at Chemnitz, with 225 pupils, and 19 teachers. 

Connected with this school there is 1 royal work-masters' school, with 

82 ischolars, and 10 teachers. 
5 Baugewerkenschulen (architectural schools for masons and carpenters^, 

with 548 pupils, and about 20 teachers. 
1 Higher weaving school, at Chemnitz, with 33 pupils, and 4 teachers. 
1 Academy of forestry and agriculture, with 13 teachers, and 91 students. 
1 Agricultural academy, with 38 students. 
1 Mining academy, with 13 professors, and 51 students. 

1 School for practical miners, with about 60 pupils. 

2 Mining schools, with 64 pupils. 

2 Stenographic institution, with 130 pupils. 

1 Normal school for training teachers in gymnastics, with 10 teachers, 

and a varying number of pupils. 
1 Royal military school, with 124 scholars. 

1 Royal veterinary school, with 39 students, and 9 teachers. 

4 Nautical schools (for pilots on the Elbe), with 60 to 70 pupils. 

2 Music schools, with about 80 pupils. 

7 Weaving schools, with about 550 pupils. 

2 Fringe-making schools, with about 300 pupils. 

1 Tailors', or Mode academy, with 38 pupils, and 5 teachers. 

3 Straw-working schools. 

30 Lace-making and embroidering schools. 

2 Schools for deaf mutes, with 208 pupils, and 28 teacners. 

2 Schools for the blind, one with 128 pupils, at Dresden, and a prepara- 
tory school, at Hubertsburg, with 17 pupils. 

2 Academies of fine arts, one at Dresden, founded in 1705, with 136 stu- 
dents, and a second, at Leipsic, founded in 1764, with 100 pupils. 

2 Academies of arts. / 

1 Conservatorio of music, with 146 students, and 14 teachers. 
12 Teachers' seminaries, ^ith 1,177 students, and 164 teachers. 



SYSTEM OF SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 



As preparing for a higher technical career, we will notice, first, a 
class of schools which belong also to the general system of public in- 
struction. 

I.-THE REAL SCHOOLS. 
I.— Object. 

These schools may be said to correspond to the American or English 
High Schools, so far as the latter are designed for a good general edu- 
cation, with the exception of the classical department. Here flock 
together all those who want an education superior to that which is ac- 
quired in the elementary schools and are not destined for the university ; 
e. g., such as wish to be officers in the postal or custom service, or archi- 
tects, farmers, engineers, or artists, in order to pursue a higher course 
in one of the professional academies, and all such as desire to enter 
business life with a cultivated mind. It should be understood that the 
graduate of a gymnasium (college) is by no means prevented from 
entering the polytechnic school, the academy for miners, the academy for 
foresters and farmers, and the academy of arts ; but, for this purpose, the 
"Real School is to be preferred, because mathematics and modern languages 
are more particularly attended to, whilst in the gymnasium the English 
is not obligatory, and in some colleges mathematics and French are con- 
sidered of less importance, and treated accordingly. In Freiberg and 
Tharand the graduate of a gymnasium is at once admitted ; the gradu- 
ate of a Real School conditionally, if he has a good record in mathe- 
matics. 

2. — Number and Location. 

There are seven Real Schools in Saxony, each with a large number 
of pupils; in all, 1,892 pupils, and 105 teachers in the last year. The 
schools in Dresden, (2,) in Leipsic, and Chemnitz are city schools, and 
supported by the municipalities ; the last mentioned with a state grant. 
In Annaberg, Plauen, and Zittau are royal schools; the two latter joined 
to the gymnasium ; the first mentioned, as well as that in Chemnitz, com- 
bined with a pro-gymnasium of three classes. The Royal School in 
Annaberg, with 13 teachers, (salaries: 1,200, 800, 900,800, 700 
thalers, etc) and 220 pupils, expended, in 1866, 8,482 thalers, and re- 

* Prepared for the Commissioner of Education by Dr. Hermann Wimmer, Dresden, 
19 289 



290 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

ceived from tne state 5,200 thalers. The Real School in Neustadt, 
Dresden, with 16 teachers, expends yearly 12,500; the other in Dres- 
den, 10,000; that in Leipsic, (the first in Saxony, founded 1834,) with 
20 teachers, 16,600 the lers. The tuition fee in Leipsic and Chemnitz 
is 20-30, in Dresden 30-36 thalers. 

The regulation of 1860, which caused a greater uniformity in those 
schools of a comparatively new date, and formerly of a different char- 
acter, requires six classes, (the pupil to have completed his 10th year,) 
establishes a maturitdts examination prescribing the needed require- 
ments, and gives the approved graduates the right to enter without 
further examination the above-named academies, or to enter the post 
ofiice, custom house or telegraph office. At this examination the prin- 
cipal of the polytecbnic school presides. 

3. — Classes and Plan of Instruction. 

Of the six classes the lower are generally crowded, and therefore 
divided into parallel classes, since the regulation does not allow more 
than 40 pupils in one class. Thus, the 5th class in Chemnitz has four 
parallel classes with about 30 pupils in each, the 4th of three, the 6th and 
3d of two parallel classes, whilst the first class has 13 and the second 
15 pupils in all. This fact is explained by the circumstance that for 
most pupils the Ileal School is the highest school they attend before 
entering, at their fourteenth year of age, on their commercial or techni- 
cal apprenticeship, whilst the small number of pupils in the highest 
classes consists only of such as wish to enjoy the benefits of the exami- 
nation as graduates, most of them with the intention of continuing their 
education in the professional academies, except the university. For 
our purpose, therefore, it will be sufficient to point out the studies of 
the highest class, which may best show the attainments of a graduate of 
these schools. 

First or highest class, (in Chemnitz :) 

Religion^ 2 hours a week. 

German, 5 hours.— a. History of literature; read two dramatic pieces of 
Schiller and Lessinor. h. Rhythm and the various kinds of poetry ; practical 
exercises, c. Review of the compositions written by the pupils once a month. 
d. Exercises in free elocution and in declamation, with a verbal criticism made 
by the pupils. 

French. 4 hours.— Grammar finished ; read the Arare of Moliere ; free compo- 
sitions ; extemporalia ; exercises in speaking. 

English, 3 hours. — a. Read Shakspeare's Julius Caesar, Dickens' Christmas 
Carol, b. Grammar, c. Exercises in writing; a composition every third week, 
and an extemporale weekly ; exercises in speaking. 

History, 2 hours. — Modern history ; review of the history of ancient times and 
middle ages. 

Geography, 3 hours. — a. political ; Western Asia, Africa and Germany, (polit- 
ically and physically.) h. Mathematical ; the apparent and real movements of the 
celestial bodies ; the solar system and the fixed stars. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 291 

Natural Uistory, 1 hour. — Mineraloory. 

Chemistry, 3 hours. — Review and further study of inorganic chemistry, with 
particular reference to metals and their associations. 

Natural Philosophy^ 2 hours.— Mechanics ; some parts of the theory of light. 

Arithmetic, 4 hours. — Logarithms reviewed and continued ; application of the 
same to numerical accounts ; use of hiil/stvinkd and Gauss^ Table ; equations of the 
2d and 3d degree; algebraic functions; general qualities and approximate solu- 
tion of higher equations; the arithmetical and geometrical progressions, {reihen;) 
interest, rents, sinking funds, and insurance. 

Geometry, 3 hours. — Trigonometry concluded; stereometry; review of planim- 
etry and trigonometry. 

Surveying, 1 afternoon in summer. — Description and use of the single surveying 
implements; measuring of straight and curved lines; surveying of single and 
continuous grounds ; profiles ; drawing of plans. 

About Lati7i, the Regulative says that though very desirable for all pupils, it 
is obligatory only on such as will pass the maturitdts examination ; for all others 
facultative^ i. c, left to choice. 

The general plan of instruction, as given in the Regulative, is as follows : 

VL V. IV. III. IL r. 

, -Hours per Week to Each Study ^ 

Reliffion 4 4 3 3 2 2 

German 4 4 4 3 3-4 3-4 

Latin 6 4 3 3 3 3 

Fmiich - 6 7 4 4 4 

Fnglish - - - 4 3 3 

Giojirapliy 2 2 2 2 2 2 

Historv 2 2 2 2 2 2 

Natural Hisforv 2 2 2 2 11 

Natural Pliilosophy - - - 2 3 2 

Chcmistrv - - - - 2 3 

Arithmetic 4 4 4 2 2 1 

Algebra - - - 3 3 3 

Mathematics - - 2 3 3 3 

Drawing 2 2 2 2 2 2 

Callisiraphy.... 2 .2 1 - - - 

Singing 1 1 1 1 1 1 

35-3G 36-37 36 33 33 29 

Gymnastics 2 2 2 2 2 2 

Gymnastics are considered as recreation. 

II.-COMMERCIAL SCHOOIiS. 

I. — PUBLIC COMMERCIAL SCHOOL. 

1 . — Number and Location. 

There are three public commercial schools in Saxony — in Leipsic 
since 1831, in Chemnitz since 1848, and in Dresden since 1854 — all 
founded by the Merchants' Associations of the respective towns. They 
belong, like all the following technical schools, except the two acade- 
mies in Frieberg and Tharand, to the Home Department, and the two 
former receive an annual supply to their expenses (rt) of 1,560 thalers, 
(b) of 800 thalers, with an additional supply of 200 thalers from 
the city funds. The annual expenditure was, in 1802, Leipsic, 12,- 
000; Chemnitz, 56,000; Dresden, 12,000 th. : in Dresden, entirely 

Documents. 
I. Re^itlatio f&r die Ruatschulen im K. Sarkscn. Dresden, IS6'J ; '2. ^rngrammevort Neustadt, 
Dresden, of 1867; 3. Pros^am-niR von Chemnitz, 1S67, 1866, and n\ 1864; 4. Plan of Lessons in 
the Real School ai Neust.iclt. Dresden. 



292 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

covered by the income of school-money, which amounted in 1866 to 

17,617 th., with a surplus of 1,075 th. over the expenses. 

The terms in Dresden are 120 th., or £18, for the first year; 100 th., 

or £15, for each of the succeeding years; in Leipsic, 150, 120, 100 

th., and in Chemnitz 80 thalers. Each pupil must remain at least one 

year. 

2. — Plan of Instruction. 

The commercial schools prepare their pupils for entrance into practi- 
cal business life, and have in view their complete preparatory training 
for mercantile pursuits in a course of three years. 

The plan of instruction is as follows : 

in. ir. I. 

First Year. Second Year. Third Year. 

Commercial science and law 12 3 

Political economy - - 2 

Book-keeping — merchants' accounts 1 2 2 . 

Correspondence - 2 2 

Commercial arithmetic 5 3 2 

Mathematics 3 3 2 

Natural history 3 _ _ 

Natural philosophy — 3 _ 

Mechanical technics - - 2 

Chemistry.... ,.., - - " 2 

Raw material of trade ..* - - 1 

Geography and statistics 2 2 2- 

History 2 2 2 

German language and literature 4 3 3 

English language and correspondence 4 4 4 

French " " " 444 

Italian, (not obligatory) - 2 2 

Calligraphy 2 1 - 

Drawing 2 2 2 

In the upper classes English and French are taught by natives. The 
collections of the school consist of a library, maps, apparatus, and sam- 
ples of goods. 

3. — Pupils. 

The number of pupils in Dresden was_, at Easter, 1867, 68, of which 
there were 25 foreigners^ (6 from Norway, 1 Sweden, 6 Russia, 2 France, 
2 England, 4 Holland, 2 Italy, etc. ;) in Leipsic 56, at Easter, 1865, 
(16 foreigners;) in Chemnitz, 1867, 53. 

The pupils visited in the course of the year many different factories 
in the neighborhood. 

In connection with these three higher commercial schools there are 

II. — COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS FOB APPRENTICES. 

Besides the three schools, there are twelve more in other towns of 
Saxony. Though belonging to a lower class of schools, to be men- 
tioned below, they cannot well be separated from the higher commer- 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 293 

cial scliools, because they have the same board of trustees, members of 
the Merchants' Association, the same teachers, and the same objects in 
view, though differing in degree and the time given to the several 
studies. 

The pupils have to pay in Leipsic 18, in Chemnitz 24, in Dresden 36 
thalers, if they are sons of members of the corporation ; if not, in 
Leipsic 24, in Dresden 36 thalers. The number of pupils in all three 
schools was 349, who are taught in 10-14 hours a week, (in Ldpsic, 
7-8, or 8-9, and 2-3,) in three classes of as many years. 

The plan of studies in Leipsic is as follows : 

IN. n. I. 

First Year. Second Year. Third Year. 

German language 2 11 

English language - - 2 2 

French language 2 2 2 

Merchants' accounts 3 2 2 

Commercial science. - 1 1 

Book-keeping, &c - 1 1 

Cornspondence - - 1 

Geography 11- 

Calligraphy 2 - - 

10 • 10 10 

The character of these schools is everywhere the same, though, of 
course, the three which are joined to the higher commercial schools 
enjoy greater advantages. I may mention that in Freiberg, where 
there is a separate school for apprentices in mercantile business, the ex- 
penditure of the last year was 1,921 thalers, except the expenses for 
the library and premium funds. 

III. — THE COMMERCIAL SCHOOL FOR YOUNG LA.DIES IN LEIPSIC. 

A commercial school was established in 1863 for young ladies who 
are more than 14 years old, and wish to acquire the knowledge needed 
for business life, (commerce, post office, telegraphing, etc.) It received 
from its beginning aid from the state of several hundred thalers a year, 
and a like sum from the town of Leipsic. so that 24 free and half-free 
scholarships could be established. Until Easter, 1867, it had in all 242 
female pupils; at present, 112 mfive classes, with nine teachers. The 
tuition fee is 36-48 thalers annually, and is now double what it was 



Documents. 

a. Public Commercial School, ^'C, in Leipsic : 1. Statutcn von 1830, p. 12; 2. Prospectus, 
186B; .3. M?7/Aer/wng:en, (cnminuiiicatioiis,) t)on Dr. 0'c9»iann, p. 23, 1805 ; 4. Haussregulatio 
for I. (liiglH'r.) abHieilung, 1867 ; 5. Sections plan for I, (liiglier,) abtheilung, 1866; 6. Sections 
planficr die II, abtheilung, 1868. 

b. Ful)licCominf:rciaI School in Dres(l<M) : 7. Projiratniiie. p. 55, 1867 ; 8. Dresden Comnicrciiil 
School, Eiifilisli nnd Dutch, 1^67; 9. 2 Sections plan iU'- I and U, 1837. 

c. Public Commercial School in Cliemnitz : 10. Programme, p. 28, 1837; 11. 2 Prospecte 
von I and U, 1867 ; 12. 2 Disciplinar (rules of di>-icipliiie) vorsckriftenfUr I and II, 18G7. 



294 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

in 1864. The course embraces two years, with 18-24 lessons a week, 
given from nine to twelve and three to six daily, and comprises all the 
branches taught in a commercial school, (German, French, Eng- 
lish, commercial arithmetic, book-keeping, correspondence, commercial 
science, political economy, commerce, history and geography, orna- 
mental drawing, etc.) Besides, there is a course in stenography, and 
a French club from 6 to 8 on two evenings for practice in French con- 
versation. It is not obligatory to join these two courses, and an extra 
charge is made. The French conversation in the club is conducted by 
a lady. Of the 242 ladies who passed through the course in the school 
during the first four years, 47 were 20-33 years old ; the rest, 14-19. 
Many of them found employment when leaving the school. 

Since the establishment of that school two more have sprung up, in 
Dresden, formed by a teacher of the Commercial School, and in Chem- 
nitz founded by the Trades' Union; but they rank more with the 
evening schools, (for continuing education,) to be mentioned hereafter. 
The school in Dresden has 10-12 pupils, who have to pay 24 thalers a 
year, and are instructed seven hours a week: in arithmetic, two; Ger- 
man, two; calligraphy, one; book-keeping, two; and commercial sci- 
ence^ one. 

III.-THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT DRESDEN. 
1 . — Origin-^ Receipts — Stipends . 

The Royal Polytechnic School was established in 1828*, called then 
the Technical Institution, with 11 teachers, all of whom were also em- 
ployed in other institutions of Dresden. But its growth was so rapid, 
especially after its present building had been erected (see annual .report 
of 1864-65) in 1846— for which the legislature had granted 70 000 tha- 
lers — that, in 1851, under the present excellent principal, Professor 
Hiilsse, it received its present name, and in 1853 had twenty-one teach- 
ers, most of whom belonged exclusively to the school. 

Now it has 28 teachers, 17 of them bearing the title professor, (Schu- 
bert, Geinity, Schneider, etc.,) beside nine subalterns, with 376 stu- 
dents. 

The Polytechnic School is under the immediate control of the Home 

Documents. 
1. Prospectus of the Commercial School for young ladies in Leipsic; 2. Report of the 
school; Easter, 1807; pp. 14-23. 

* There existed before that time in Saxony the Academy of Arts since 1764, (its " Indus- 
trial S.chool" was separated in 1828, and established as the Technical School ;) the Mining 
Academy, in Freiberg, since 1766, and the Forest Academy in TharamJ, 1816. Betojc that 
time Polytechnic Schools existed in Germany : in Prague, 1806; in Vienna, 1815; in Berlin, 
1825 ; in Carlsruhe, (Baden.) 1825 ; iu Nuremberg and Munich, 1825. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 295 

Department, and has a yearly income of 30,200 thalers, of which 23,000 
are received from the State, and the rest paid by the students in tuition 
fees. The latter sum would amount to 2,068 thalers more, if it waa 
not released to the poorer students. The expenses for teachers amount 
to 20,054 thalers; for the library, etc., 5,952 thalers, and other ex- 
penses, 4,552 thalers. 

The value of the library, of more than 10,000 volumes, and of the 
fifteen collections, is estimated at 65,000 thalers, and these are contin- 
ually growing, since the state pays annually for the library 1,350 tha- 
lers, and for the increase of the collections 3,000 thalers and more. 
For obtaining a correct estimate of the library, there is made, at the 
end of each year, a deduction of 5 per cent. 

The students have to pay 40 thalers a year, or 20 for each course of 
six months. Those who wish to attend the lessons only in one or sev- 
eral branches of instruction may be admitted and pay accordingly, viz : 
2 thalers annually for any one lesson a week; 10 thalers for construct- 
ing machines; 20 thalers for the practical exercises in surveying; 8 
thalers for one, 32 thalers for four or more, in exercises in the labora- 
tory. All that are not Saxons have to pay one-half more, i. e. , 60 tha- 
lers annually for the full course. 

This pay was released in the last year to 73 students, amounting to 
2,068 thalers. Nine students received out of state funds 842 thalers. 
From the various funds established in recent times by benefactors, 36 
students received together 1,610 thalers in the last year. Besides, one 
student, who had completed his studies, received 200 thalers for further 
improvement, either by travelling or studying in any university. The 
same person may have this grant for several years of not less than 100 
nor more than 300 thalers. This fund for " travel stipends " was 
founded 1853 by the professors of the school, and is growing fast by 
public lectures given by them for this purpose, and by private gifts. 

2. — Organization of Studies. 

The Polytechnic School is divided into two departments, the lower of 
which, called the general course, prepares for the professional depart- 
ments, and extends over three terms, each of six months. To enter the 
lowest class the aspirant must be at least sixteen years old, and must 
have either completed the full course in a real school or gymnasium, 
or of the third class in the Industrial School in Chemnitz, or show in an 
examination the same acquirements. This examination embraces, in 
mathematics, planimetry, stereometry, trigonometry, and equations of 
the third degree ; experimental philosophy; geometrical drawing, and 



296 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. ^ 

the elements of projection. The candidate may enter a higher class if 
showing the needed attainments. 

This general course has two classes, the lower of one " semester," the 
upper of two, five or one year, in all eighteen months. The plan of 
studies here will be easily understood from the studies in the following 
classes, and from the required attainments on admission. 

The professional course is divided into four sections: 

A. The Mechanic-Technical School, for constructing machines, etc. 

B. The Engineer School, for surveying, and for building railroads, 
bridges, etc. 

C. The Chemical School. 

D. The school for training teachers of mathematics, natural philoso- 
phy and technical branches. 

According to the plan of organization, the course of studies, and the 
hours for work to each study in each class, are as follows : 

Section A. — Mechanical Engineering. 

III. IL I. 

First Year. Second Year, Third Year. 

Higher mathematics 4-2 

" mechanics - 4 - 

Doctrine of " solidity " (/e5%A;ez^) - 4 wi. - 

Doctrine of machines 6 4 2 

Drawing and designing of machines 6-8 16 20 

Mechanical technology 4 3-4 3-4 

Hydraulics - 4 su. - 

Exercises in sketching 2-4 - . - 

Higher physics - - 2 

Mineralogy and petrography 4 - - 

Architecture (B) 2 - - 

Architectural drawing (B) 4 - - 

Political economy - - 4 

Elements of philosophy, short history of ph., 

logic, aesthetics, psychology - - 2 

History of literature 2 2- 

Section B. — Civil Engineering. 

Besides higher mathematics, higher mechanics, doctrine of ''solidity," hy- 
draulics, mechanical technology, mineralogy and petrography, political econ- 
omy, mental philosophy, history of literature, in which the classes of the re- 
spective years' course are combined with A, the following subjects are taught 
particularly in this section ; 

III. 11. I. 

First Year. Second Year. Third Year. 

Geodesy 5 wi. 4 wi. — 

Geodesy and astronomy — — 2 wi. 

Exercises in surveying ,... 1 day. The whole September. 

Drawing of plans 2-4 wi. 4 — 

Architecture, {A with B) .' 2-4 1-2 — 

Architectural drawing, CA with B). 4-8 — — 

Construction of roads, hydraulic architecture.... .... — 4 — 

Construction of bridges — — 4 

Designing platis — 12 16 

Geognosy — 3 — 

Geognostical excursions — 1 aftern'n su. — 

Measuring exercises, (in the room) — — 4 

Higiier physics — — 2 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 297 

Section C. — Chemistry, 

Mineralojry, general doctrine of raachiues, mechanical technology, political 
economy, history of literature — A. 

Geognosy, with excursions; architecture, with drawing — B. 

III. ir. I. 

First Year. Second Year. Third Year. 

Theoretical chomistry 2 2 2 , 

Chemical tecliiiolofry 2 2 2 

Chemical exercises 3 20 20 

Section D. — For Training Teachers. 

Higher mathematics and mechanics, hydraulics, doctrine of machines, mechan- 
ical technology, mineralogy, political economy, mental philosophy — A, 

Surveying, 5 hours ; geognosy, with excursions ; higher physics — A and B. 
Chemistry, 2 hours, less exercises, with C. 

iir. n. I. 

First Year. Second Year. Third Year. 

Higher physics.... - 2 2 besides 4 with A & B. 

Physical exercises - 4 4 

Besides, there are lessons for all, who choose, in stenography, 3 hours in winter ; 
French, 2-3 hours in several classes ; English, 2-3 hours in do. ; gymnastics, 2-3 
hours in do. 

For the students of the upper classes : Stone-cutting, 2 hours, (for B ;) book- 
keeping. 2 hours in winter; banking, (bills of exchange, ) 1 hour in winter; the- 
ory of fire-esiablishments, 3-4, (for A,) {feuerungs-anlagen ;) Saxon law, 2 hours 
for 1 in all sections; excursions to important manufactories in the neighborhood. 

The students are required in the last year to make the sketch of a 
factory establishment ; they are, therefore, for the vacations, recom- 
mended to a manufactory, in order to study it and prepare for their 
task. 

At the end of the last course, all sections pass a " closing examina- 
tion," as it is called, to which all who apply for it, and want a testimo- 
nial as graduates of the Polytechnic School, are admitted. The stu- 
dents have to solve the problems given in their respective branches,* 
from 4 to 6 hours being given to each composition. Besides, they have 
to show their practical skill, by laying before the examining committee 
designs and sketches, a chemical analysis, and a physical investigation. 
Of 246 applicants from 1852 to 1867, 234 received the desired testimo- 
nial. After .this examination, if passed, the graduate has to work 
practically with an engineer^ &c., and then, with satisfactory testimonials, 
both of the Polytechnic School and its master, with whom he must have 
worked at least three years, be it continually or by intervals, he is ad- 
mitted to the state examination for engineers. Until 1867, 141 per- 



* A. — Doctrine of mechanics, mechanical technology, liiglier mailiematics and mechanics, 
higher physics. 

B. — Civil engineering, (roads, hydraulics, bridirps, architecture in general, measuring and 
astronomy, higher matlicmatics and m''chanics. higiier physics, mineralocy and geognosy.) 

('. — Theoretical chemistry, chemical teclmology, mineralogy and geognosy. 

D.— Higher matiiematics and mechanics, higher physics, me'asuringand astronomy, theoreti 
cal chemistry, mineralogy and geognosy. 



«i98 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

sons applied for examination, and 38 were not admitted or did not suc- 
ceed. Of the 93 who succeeded, 56 became civil engineers, 6 me- 
chanical engineers, 12 architects, (haumeister,) and 19 inspectors of the 
fire insurance, as yet chiefly a matter of government in Saxony, and so 
far obligatory on all proprietors in the kingdom, besides the many pri- 
vate fire-insurance companies here. 

The committee of the state examination consists partly of professors 
of the Polytechnic School, to whom is added the professor of architec- 
ture from the Academy of Arts, partly of practical engineers and 
architects in the highest positions in their respective professions. 

The higher architectural school (bauschule) is not joined here, as else- 
where, to the Polytechnic Institution, but to the Academy of Fine 
Arts, which is described hereafter. But the students of architecture 
in the academy have to attend the mathematical lessons in the Poly- 
technic School, if they wish to pass the said state examination for en- 
gineers and architects. Hence the professor of architecture in the 
academy is a member of the examining committee. 

Joined to the Polytechnic School is a — 

3. — Modelling and Ornamental Drawing School. 

It is intended to train (a) good modellers for the industrial branches, 
viz, for decorative forming in wood and stone ; for iron foundries, &c.; (5,) 
ornamental drawers for weaving and printing, and to give opportunity 
to get a general instruction in decorative, porcelain and plate painting, 
lithography, engraving, &c. The time of the whole course is generally 
five years, but may be shorter, if the pupil enters well prepared. For 
admission the pupil must be at least fifteen years old ; nothing but a 
good elementary education is required, though the knowledge of the 
respective trade is desired. Generally they are admitted by way of 
trial in the first course of six months. The pay is six thalers annually 
for a Saxon, and nine thalers for a foreigner. The pupils may attend 
the lessons of the Polytechnic School, and if satisfactorily prepared, 
have to attend the teachers on anatomy in the Academy of Arts, and 
in the Veterinary school. 

Of the above-mentioned 376 students, there were in the professional 
schools 134; in A, 43 ; B, 69 ; C, 18; D, 4 ; in the general course, 
141 ; for single brainches, 85, and 16 in the Ornamental Drawing 
School. 

Documents. 
l.'Pian of organization of tlie Polytecbnifi School, 1865, p. 67; 2. Prospect of 1867; 3. Die 
Pohjtechnische Srhule wdhrevd der erstcn 25 Jahre, von Prof, Hubse, 1853, p. 54; 4. Pro- 
piamrnes and Reports until 1867, [thirteen ;] 5. Die Baugcwerkenschule in Dresden, 1837 to, 
1862. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 299 

On the Baugewerhenschule, i, c, school for masons and carpenters, 
being no proper part of the Polytechnic School, nor in the same build- 
ing now, though under the same principal, (Professor Hiilsse,) see 
below. 

From 1852 to 1866 the closing examination in the Polytechnic 
School was attended by 246, 12 of whom received no testimonial. Of 
the 234, there belonged 70 to the Mechanical School, (A;) 117 to the 
Engineering School, (B ;) 18 to the Chemical School, (C ;) 29 to the 
section for teachers, (D.) 

Though the three academies in Dresden, Freiling, and Tharand 
come next in rank, the 

IV.-HIGHER INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT CHEMNITZ 

deserves a place here as being nearest related to the Polytechnic Schocd, 
though not having so high an aim. Founded in 1836, and having 
four courses, (classes,) of one year each, its object is to prepare for a 
technical or agricultural career, and may be compared to the general 
course of the Polytechnic School ; but it has two classes below the 
required attainments of the lowest class there, and wants the two highest 
classes of its professional- department. Hence the pupils are admitted 
when 14 years old, instead of 16, and the graduates of the Real Schools 
enter at once the second class, omitting the two lowest ones. To show 
the importance of this school even to the lower classes, we mention that 
of 18 boys who left the third class, i. e., the second from below, five de- 
voted themselves to agriculture, two to dyeing, one, respectively, became 
appreieur, cotton-spinner, constructor of machines, miller, brewer, 
merchant, and apothecary ; one went to a Polytechnic School, and of 
two the profession chosen was not known. 

The pupils are either full scholars or pursue only single branches of 
instruction. Full scholars have to pay 24 thalers annually ; partial 
scholars pay 2 thalers for any one-hour lesson a year ; if they attend 
three or more different lessons also, 24 thalers in all. The expenses for 
books amount to 12-15 thalers a year. There were in the last year 
225 pupils, and, besides the principal. Prof. Bottcher, 18 teachers, 5 
of them with the title of professor. It is a Royal School, and received, 
in 1862, 10,000 thalers from the state, (Home Department.) 

2. — Organization of Studies. 

The school is divided into several sections, according to the profession 
chosen by the pupils. 

Section A. — a. For Mechanical Engineering. 



300 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY 

Section A. — b. For Chemical Engineering ; i. e., for sugar refining, calico print- • 
ing, &c. — 4 years. 

Section B. for any Chemical business without the application of machines, as 
Boap-boiling, dyeing, coloring, &c— 3 years. The highest class corresponding to 
II of A. 

Section C, for Farming — likewise 3 years; all combined in general branches. 

There is added a course of Manufactural Drawing, [fahrikzeichnen,) in two 
classes, with 25 pupils. 

The studies in A and B being, on the whole line, the corresponding 
(see above) classes in the Polytechnic School, (the present principal of 
the latter was formerly principal in Chemnitz,) I shall point out here 
the studies of Section C, the Agricultural Section, having added that 
all who have passed through the course of the 3d class may^ without 
examination, enter the lowest class of the Polytechnic School ; from 
the 2d class they may enter the last term of the general course ; from 
the 1st class they may enter the lowest class of the professional course, 
or if practical skill is proved, the second year's course of the same, but 
at its beginning. 

Section C. — Agricultural School. 
Fourth Class or First Year : 

{a.) Common to all sections of that class. 

1. Arithmetic, 6 hours. — With Hofmann'' s Aufgahm, 1 and 2 parts; the four 
rules; interest; chain rule; involution* extracting square and cube roots ; alge- 

'braic fractions; equations with one unknown quantity. 

2. Geometry, A, \xo\xx^. — Lines; angles; area of regular polygons and of circles ; 
equality and proportion of surfaces ; contents of figures. 

3. Natural Philosophy, 6 hours in summer, 4 in winter. — With Fnsmann's Fie- 
ments of Physics. General introduction — climatology, doctrine of heat, magnet- 
ism, and electricity. 

4. Drawing, (free-hand exercises,) 6 hours. — From geometrical bodies, plaster 
models, (method of Bupuis,) with pencil or chalk, chiefly in outlines. 

5. Geometrical Drawing, 4 hours — Plain drawing, as preparing for projecting 
and mechanical drawing ; exercises in painting, with India ink. 

6. German language. 4 hours. -^ With Gotzinger's Grammar. 
(5.) Agricultural Scjaool 

T. Natural History, 4 hours in summer. — Botany, with particular regard to' such 
plants as are important to common use ; outlines of the physiology of plants. In 
winter, zoology, with outlines of anatomy and animal physiology, {mammalia.) 

Third Class or Second Year : 

[a.) With all sections. 

1. General Chemistry, 8 hours. — Inorganic chemistry ; organic chemistry ; ele- 
mentary analysis of organic bodies ; the more important vegetable and animal 
matter, as fibre, starch, sugar, organic acids and bases, oils, colors, bones, flesh, 
sugar, urine, etc. and their products of decomposition, (fermentation, distillation, 
etc.;) their quality and use ; their relation to living vegetable and animal bodies. 

2. German, 4 hours. — Two of these are grammar, and two oral and written ex- 
ercises, alternating with reading of dramatic pieces. 

(6.) Agricultural section. 

3; Arithmetic, 2 hours. — Equations, with several unknown quantities ; equations 
of the second degree; logarithms; arithmetical and geometrical progressions; 
interest on interest, etc. 

4. Geometry, 2 hours. — Plain trigonometry ; stereometry. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 301 

5. Natural Philosophij, 2 hours. — Solid, liquid, and aerial bodies; acoustics; 
optics. 

6. Botany, 4 hours in summer. — With particular regard to such wild-growing 
plants as are important for agriculture, with excursions. 

7. Zoology^ 2 hours in winter. — With particular regard to useful and injurious 
animals. 

8. Mineralogy, 4 hours in winter. — Crystallography ; physical and chemical 
qualities of minerals in general ; physiography of minerals, with particular regard 
to such as are the component parts of the mould, (soil.) 

9. Knowledge of machines and technology^ 4 hours in winter. — Description of the 
chief motors and parts of mnchines, and of the manufacturing in wood and iron. 

10. Mechanical drawing, 4 hours in summer; in winter, 2 hours. — Brief de- 
scription of parallel projection ; drawing of agricultural utensils and machinery. 

11. Practical (jeon\,etry, (surveying.) — In summer, one afternoon, in several 
divisions, each consisting of 5-6 pupils. 

12. Mercantile Arithmetic, 2 hours in summer. — Explanation of the Leipsic Ex- 
change List (courszetiel ;) calculations of interest, of stocks and shares, invoice, &c. 

13. Book-keeping and Correspondence, 2 hours in summer, 4 hours in winter. — 
Theoretical and practical with regard to business concerns occurring on a farm of 
middle size, and to brewery, distillery, &c., besides topographical drawing, 
belonging to 10, combined with the II class of section A. 

Second Class or Third Year, and last in this section : 

(a.) W^ith all sections. 

1. German Language and Literature, 4 hours. — Two of them in history of litera- 
ture ; one in oral and written exercises, with records ; one in popular logic and 
rhetoric. 

(%.) Agricultural section. 

2. Physiology of Plants, 4 lessons in summer. — Anatomy of cultivated plants 
explained by microscopic illustrations ; general ph. of cultivated plants ; influence 
of soil and climate, etc.; doctrines of soil and manure; watering and draining; 
raising and propagating of plants; crossing; varieties, etc., with practical exer- 
cises. In winter — special physiology of plants; systematic description of the 
cultivated plants and of the best methods of cultivating them. 

3. Physiology of Animals, 2 lessons in summer. — Anatomy of doraestis animals. 
In winter 4 hours — general physiology of domestic animals ; cattle breeding ; the 
plastic process ; excretion of milk ; the functions of nerves and muscles ; special 
physiology of domestic animals; the specific qualities; the production of flesh, 
milk, fat, wool ; muscular power with regard to feeding ; the hoof of the horse j 
diseases of animals ; practical exercises. 

4. Farming, 4 hours. — Principles of rural economy ; capital and labor, etc.; 
requisites of farming ; organization and management of a farm ; buildings, uten- 
sils, manure; cattle breeding; agricultural book-keeping ; agricultural valuation. 

5. Agricultural Architecture, 2 hours. — Making of bricks, pipes, air and water 
cement, burning of lime, etc.; best construction of buildings, barns, stables, etc. 

6. Practical Geometry, 1 afternoon in summer — surveying of larger grounds. 
In winter — theory of field surveying. 

V. Geognosy : 2 hours in summer, with excursions. 

8. Agricultural Chemistry, 4 lessons in summer, 2 lessons in winter. — Inorganic 
and organic chemistry reviewed and completed, with particular regard to agricul- 
ture. 

Besides, there are — 

Chemical Exercises with other sections, 4 in summer and 4-8 hours in winter. 

Technical Chemistry, with section B, in 2 hours ; especially on manufacturing 
of starch, sugar, vinegar, or brewing, distilling, etc. 

All pupils of the Industrial School nave opportunity to learn French, in 5 
classes, 3 lessons a week ; English, in 4 classes, 3 lessons a week ; history and 
geography. 14 hours for the 4th class, which all pupils must attend who enter not 
sufficiently prepared in these subjects. 



302 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

Joined wiih this school, and therefore to be mentioned here, is the 
so-called — 

3. ROYAL tVORKMASTERS' SCHOOL. 

[Formerly in Freiberg ; for the last 15 years in Chemnitz.) 

It has in view to train millwrights, makers and inspectors of wells 
and water-works, as well as fo^-emen in engine factories and spinning- 
mills. 

The journeyman-pupil, on admission, must be at least 16 years old, 
and have worked two years with a master, and produce a testimonial 
from him. 

The course, consisting of three half-year classes, commences on the 
first of October and ends at Easter of the second year — -18 months. 
The pupil has to pay six thalers for six months; and poor and worthy 
pupils of the school may, as in other schools, pay nothing at all. Books 
and stationery cost about ten thalers per annum. The number of schol- 
ars amounts to 82, with 10 teachers, one of whom, with the title of pro- 
fessor, particularly belongs to this school. It received, in 1862, an 
annual supply from the state of 1,450 thalers. 

The plan of lessons is : 

in. IT. I. 

Ut H. r. 2d H. r. 3d H. T. 

Arithmetic *i - - 

Mathematics and mechanics, (logarithms, plane 

trigonometry, statics) - 8 - 

Mechanics _ _ 4 

Geometry, (stereometry) 5 - - 

Surveying-, (measuring of field and water) - 4 - 

Geometrical drawing and projection 8 - - 

.Natural philosophy and chemistry 4 2 - 

Ornamental drawing 4 - .4 

Architectural drawing - 4 - 

Mechanical drawing - 8 8 

Construction ; - 2 6 

Mechanical technology - 4 - 

Construction of mills, (for millers) - 2 2 

Spinning and weaving, (for the respective jour- 
neyman-pupils) - — ■ 4 

Construction of pipes and wells, (for conduit- 
masters) — - -4 

German 4 4 _ 

Book-keeping - _ 2 

The Royal Workmasters' School in Chemnitz has had from 1855 to 
to 1866, in all, 326 pupils, of whom there were 206 from Saxony, (25 
Chemnitz;') 55 from Thuringia, 59 from Prussia. 8 from Scbleswig- 
Holstein, 8 from Austria, 5 from Russia, 4 from Anhalt, 5 from Wur- 
tenjiberg, 3 from Lubeck, 2 from Fmnce^ 1 from Bavr»ria, 1 from Bre- 
men, 1 from America. Of thnse 326, there were 239 constructors of 
machinery, and iron workmen in iri'Mcral ; 5f2 constructors of mills, mill- 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 303 

Wrights and millers; 17 spinners, weavers, and appreteurs ; 18 of va- 
rious trades, as watchmakers, cabinet-makers^ founders, tinkers, gird- 
lers, copper-smiths, masons, stocking-manufacturers, gardeners, &c. 

The full course has been passed by 157 pupils. 

There is joined one more school to the Royal Industrial School at 
Chemnitz, a so-called 

4.— ^BACGEWERKENSCHULE. 

{Architectural School for Masons and Carpenters .) 

There are five such schools in Saxony, one of them mentioned as 
being under the same management as the Polytechnic School at Dres- 
den, another joined to the Academy of Arts in Leipsic, and two inde- 
pendent ones in Plauen and Zittau. This seems to be the proper place 
to speak of this class of schools. 

These schools are intended to train good carpenters and mason mas- 
ters, and require for admission the beginning of apprenticeships at least 
for six months. 

The course embraces the time of three winters, (in Leipsic of two,) 
so4hat in summer the pupils work with their master ; only in Leipsic 
and Zittau there is a summer course established for more advanced stu- 
dents. The number of pupils in all five schools was, 1865-1866, 
548; (in Chemnitz, 109; in Zittau, 1.49, &c.) In Leipsic the average 
number in winter is 88 ; in summer, 25-30. 

The expenditure for these schools by the Home Department is, ai>- 
Bually, 7,550 thalers ; (for Leipsic, 1,850 thalers.) On the average, 
the winter-course term of a pupil costs 21 thalers, of which 171^^0 ^^^ 
paid by the state, and 3fo by the pupil. The proper pay of the pupil 
is 5 thalers for the term of six months. 

Of the 736 pupils who attended the school in Dresden in the first 25 
years, (1837-'62,) there attended 191 during one winter term, 
200 during two winter terms, 250 during three, 90 during four, and 
5 during five. 

Most of the students repeated the third course, and some, by compul- 
sion, the first or second course. 

Of the 117 pupils last winter in Dresden, there were 87 masons, 28 
carpenters, and 2 stone-cutters ; of whom 51 were journeymen, and G6 
apprentices. 

Of the ten teachers in Chemnitz, (seven in Leipsic and Dresden,) 
one professor is exclusively employed in this school ; another professor, 
common to this and the Workmasters' School, and the rest employed in 
the Home Industrial School. 



304 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

The. plan of studies in Chemnitz is as follows : 

III. II. I. 

First W. T. Second TV. T. Third W. T. 

Arithmetic, (quadratic equations) T - - 

Geometry, (stereometry) 5 - 

National phiilosophy ... 4 - - 

Mechanics - 4 2 

German lanp:uage 4.2 2 

General architecture 4 2 - 

Architectural drawing 6 4 4 

Ornamental drawing ^ 4 4 

Projection 4 2 - 

Embossing in clay — - 3 

Modelling : - - 3 

Perspective - 2 2 

ca%°e"J;,,}-p-«-i^ { : t : 

Construction^ (continuing the course on ma- 
sonry.) — - 4 

Designing of architectural plans... — 6 8 

Estimating of the costs - — 2 

There is an examination at the close of each winter term, when the 
pupil may get a testimonial from the school of his attainments, in order 
to be admitted to the examinations for masters of architecture. 

The plan of studies in the summer term at Leipsic is : 

1. Architectural drawing, 12 lessons a week. 

2. Drawing, (free-hand practice,) 4 hours. 

3. Linear perspective, including construction of shades, &c., 4 hours. 

4. Architectural style of middle ages, 4 hours. 

5. History of architecture, with regard to masons and carpenters, 4 hours. 

6. Reviewing exercises in construction, 4 hours. 

7. Trigonometry and higher equations, with application to architecture, 4 
hours. 

8. Guidance to solving problems of arithmetic and construing geometry, 4 
hours. 

9. Doctrine of trade, including laws of exchange, -2 hours. 

10. German orthography and compositions, exercises in field-surveying: 4 hours. 

According to the prospectus of the school in Leipsic, an appropriate 
preparation is obtained in this school for such as wish to continue their 
scientific-technical or artistic-architectural, either in the Polytechnic 
School or in the Academy of Arts at Dresden. 

The Royal Committee of Examination for such architects as are' 
trained in the Workmasters' School, i. e., for master masons and master 
carpenters, (bauhand werker ,) Qonsists in Dresden of eight members, 
one of whom is a member of the municipality, (who presides;) one 
the chief professor of the Workmasters' School; one a master mason; 
one a master carpenter, with as many substitutes. 

Second Winter Term : 

1. The simple principles of mechanics, with the application of the same to 
architectural subjects, with exercises, 6 hours. 

2. Doctrine of construction of buildings in their stone, wood, and iron parts, 6 
hours. 



SPECIAL SCnOOLS IN SAXONY. 305 

3. Agricxdtitral architecture, 4 hours. 

4. Architectural drawing^ with exercises in projectino^ ground-plans, 2 hours. 

5. Doctrine of making estimates of costs, with an instruction in architectural 
law, 4 hours. 

6. Gervian, embracing correspondence with private persons and magistrates ; 
compositions and free discussion, 4 hours. 

7. Book-keeping and laws of exchange, 2 hours. 

8. Modelling and embossing in clay, 4 hours. 

Practical instruction in the Baugewerkcn does not come within the 
purpose of the institution, yet, as far as is possible in the limited time, 
there are modelling exercises for masons, carpenters, and stone-cutters 
in the workshop of the Institution during the free time and on Sundays. 

The proper course of two winter terms in Leipsic is as follows, 
(lessons, 8-12 and 2-6 :) 

First Winter Term : 

1. Arithmetic, including the elements of algebra, 6 hours a week. 

2. Descriptive Geometry, Stfreomeiry. and Rectangular Trigonometry, 4 hours. 

3. General Architecture, as introductor}- to the subject of building materials and 
implements, as well as the purposes, parts, arrangements, requisites, and deficien- 
cies of buildings, 6 hours. 

4. Drawing, both froe-hand and geomrtrical drawing, projections, with the 
principles of the construction of shadf, from models and papers, 8 hours. 

5. Architectural Drawing, for learning the needed manual skill in drawing the 
different parts of a building and constructions from papers, and after a given 
scale, 12 hours. 

6. Archifcc'iiral doctrine of forms, or drawing of the most important arch 
forms, (styles,) with illustrations on the black-board, 4 hours. 

7. GeriJian language. 4: hours. 

8. Modelling and einbossing in clay, 4 hours. 

v.— THE HIGHER WEAVING SCHOOL AT CHEMISITZ. 

1. — History and Object. 

The Higher Weaving School at Chemnitz was founded in 1857, and 
was so prosperous that the town of Chemnitz, assisted by the state, 
erected, in 1865, a large and convenient building for the same, at a 
cost of 26,037 thalers, the interest of which at the rate of 6 per cent., 
(1,562 thalers,) to be paid by the school to the town, (for which the 
latter is bound to keep it in order,) has been guaranteed, and thus far 
paid by the ^linister of the Interior. Before that time the state had 
given an annual grant of 500 thalers, of which 260 thalers were ex- 
pended for the hired rooms, so that 240 thalers remained for the ex- 
penditure of the school, which now must be brought up by the income 
from tuition fees. 



Documents relating to this Scliool. 
1. The Higher Industrial School at Chemnitz, proaramnie of 1867, containinn a report on the 
Workmaptcr t^chool and on the Architectural Scliool; 2. Prospectus of tiie same, iu German, 
1867; 3. Prospeetusofthe Workmastt-rs' School, 1867 ; 4. Mitlheil-ungenHberdieBausewerken- 
schule von 1837, 6/s 1862, pp. 14; 5. Annual reports on the same in the Prorrrammfs of the 
Polytechnic School, [twelve ;] 6. Plan of lessons in the Bau^ewerkcnschule at Leipsic 
[wiitun in German,! 1857 1868; 7. Prospectus of the same, [do.,] 1867-1868; 8. School laws in 
the same, [do.,] 1867-1868. 



306 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

The annual expenditure amounts to 3,000 thalers. The pupil has to 
pay for the full year's course 90 thalers ; for six months, 60 thalers. 
For patterns and the necessary weaving material he has to pay, for six 
months, 10 thalers in advance; if more be needed in that time, he has 
to supply the remainder. But the woven clothes the student receives 
as his property at the end of the course. 

The Directory consists of a member of the municipality, (at present 
the president, Adv. Schmidt,) of a professor of the Royal Workmas- 
ters' School, and two proprietors of weaving factories. 

The institution is intended to train, by scientific instruction and prac- 
tical exercises, workmasters and manufacturers for all kinds of weaving, 
as well as to impart to young men who will devote themselves to the 
manufacturing trade, either as buyers or sellers, an accurate knowledge 
of manufacturing, and thus the ability of estimating the merchandise. 
For this purpose the school has — 

a. One shaft-room, with 22 hand-looms, and all auxiliary machines 
for spooling, shearing, &c. 

h. One Jacquard-room, with 16 Jacquard machine-looms, and 2 ma- 
chines for stiffening by gumming, (hartenschlag ,') spooling-wheels, 
chenille machines, &c. 

c. One machine-room, with a steam-engine and boiler ; seven looms 
{Jcraft) of English and German construction — some with Jacquard ma- 
chines ; one hand-weaving l»om ; one spooling machine^ and one beam- 
loom (haum) — all this worth about 4,000 thalers. 

There were in the last summer term thirty-three pupils (seventeen 
foreigners) and four teachers, with one master-weaver assisting in the 
practical exercises. 

2.— Course of Instruction. 

The course of instruction one year, in two terms and classes. , In- 
struction is given from 8 to 12 A. M., and 2 to 4 P. M. daily, four 
times a week. Each lesson is at least of two hours ; in the morning, 
generally of four continuous hours 

First term, (of six months :) 

1. Lectures on weaving material, two hours 

2. Lectures on construction and .systems of the various hand-weaving looms, 
and of the auxiliary implements, two hours. 

3. Free-hand drawing, (outlines, designing of patterns,) and chromatics, 
(doctrine of colors,) four hours. 

4. Analysis {decomposition) of pattern, making of cartoons, and calculation 
of the respective stuff for hand and Jacquard weaving, with the appropriate in- 
struction in ^'appretur'' (finishing) and its machines, eighteen hours. 

5. Exercises m shaft weaving, six hours. 

Second term, (class :) 
1. Composition of patterns for hand and Jacquard weaving, four hours. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 307 

2. Lectures on mechanic looms, and on the auxiliary machines for mechanic 
weaving, fonr hours. 

3. Continuation of analysis {decomposiiio7i) of Jacquard stuffs, velvets, 
gauzes and ribbons, eight hours. 

4. Drawing, four hours. 

5. Exercises in weaving on looms of various construction, twelve hours. 

The parents of the pupils receive quarterly censuren, on application, 
of the attainments and moral conduct of their sons. 

O'a leaving school, after having finished the course, the student re- 
ceives a testimonial. The best are honored with prizes or commenda- 
tory testimonials. 

AGRI(;ULTURE IN SAXONY. 

The state grants for agriculture in general 20,000 thalers yearly, 
not including the academies in Tharand and Leipsic, which re- 
ceived each 16,000 thalers. Half of that sum is given to the five dis- 
trict associations, (Jcreisvereine,') which they have to account for in a 
regularly drawn up register of annual expenditure; the other 10,000 
serve to pay the expenses of the experimental stations, ( Versuchs-sfa- 
tlonen,) of the general secretary for the agricultural associations (Dr. 
Reuniug, privy counsellor of the government) and their office, of the lec- 
tures in the associations, &c. Of the experimental stations, which were 
first founded in Saxony, some are kept and supported by government, as 
the one in Chemnitz, joined to the Industrial (Agricultural) School there, 
with 1,200 thalers; another (physiological) joined to the Veterinary 
School in Dresden with 900 thalers ; others are aided directly and indi- 
rectly by government, as Poramritz, with 600 thalers; Mockern, near 
Leipsic, with 500 thalers. Fanning schools, such as are in Wurtem- 
berg and Prussia, do not exist in Saxony. Having a merely practical 
aim, to be attained by working and school instruction, the former is not 
considered necessary here, and the latter impracticable; likewise the 
supplementary schools for farming, (fortbild/nigs schulen,') which have 
sprung up here in the last twenty-five years, and have been partially 
aided by government, were, with the exception of two, given up, and 
left to their own resources. 

Besides the Agricultural Academies,* much reliance for promoting 

*In the se-'sion of tho Diet in 1867 it wns proposfd by the deputies, and as good as agre' d to 
by goveriinjent, that the agricultural section in Thaia'id should be sej^arated Ircm the acad- 
emy, and probalily tran- leVrpfl to Piagwitz, near l.eip-ic, in orJer to b'- conneeieil with the 
universiiy. Besides, I am lerainded here or" t le agricultural section in the Industrial Si-hool 
at (hcrrnilz, of the Veterinarv School, and mi'nt*oii ihe inst tution I'nr horse breedi grthe 
stallion being sent thencf at proper times througliout the couutrj'; in Moritzburg, near^^Dres- 
den, with a slate grant of 30,000 th *ers. 

Documents. 

1. Prosperity of the H'sher Weaving .-School at Chemnitz ; 2. Plan of Lessons; 3. Letter 
from the President of the Directory, Adv. Schmidt. 



308 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

the interests of agriculture is laid by the Saxon government on associa- 
tions. To work through them efficiently, first, a monthly official mag' 
azine for these associations is issued, and edited by the general secre- 
tary, which has been very successful. Also, scientific lectures are held, 
chiefly by chemists, at the experimental stations, without having special 
travelling teachers employed for this purpose, as is the case in other 
countries. Finally, there are Agricultural Commissaries for benefiting 
farms, who are instructed not only to hold lectures in the associations, but 
also to assist the farmers with their advice. This is done by adjusting 
farms, by projections of draining, construction of meadows, &c. Pro- 
prietors of small farms receive this advice gratis. This institution has 
been of great importance, for, by it, model farms in the hands of pri- 
vate parties have been formed in great number, whereas the model 
farms founded by the government in Saxony generally did not realize 
the hopes. 

The associations are quite independent. There are at present three 
hundred. These unite to form district associations, the committees of 
which are composed of the presidents of the former. Deputies of the 
district associations form the Council of Agriculture, which is a con- 
sulting board for government. Deputies of this council have to look 
after the interests of the schools, of forestry, natural sciences, horse- 
breeding, and horticulture.* It is not necessary to add that there are 
frequent agricultural exhibitions in the districts and in the country. 

Besides the direct and indirect aid to the agricultural interests of the 
kingdom, the government renders still more important help by provid- 
ing schools where scientific agriculturists can be trained. 

VI.— THE ACADEMY OF FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE. 
1. — Establishment^ Organization and Admission. 

This academy was founded in 1811 by H. Cotta, and established as 
a state institution in 1815. The original building belonged to Cotta, 
and was bought for 7,000 thalers in 1845 ; but the present house was 
constructed in 1847 at an expense of 45,133 thalers. 

The agricultural section was added in 1830, with 4 students, (in 
1816, 62 students of forestry;) in 1837 there were 24 students of for- 
estry and 26 of agriculture. From America there were, from 1852 to 



* The botanical garden in Dresden has about twenty-five thousand cultivated plants, and 
sends awav, on an avoragi^, three thousand packages of seed annually, receiving nearly the 
same amoui.t. It serves as a scientific and cducationnl institution, and is open all d;iy to any 
visitor. Nearly the same may be said about the botanical garden in the university at Leipsic, 

Document. 
Letter from the General Secretary of Agriculture, Dr. Reuning. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 309 

1865, 24 students — 14 of forestry and 10 of agriculture ; from England, 
none of forestr}-, 14 of agriculture. On the average, there have been 
admitted in the summer 28 students, (15 Saxons,) and in the winter, 
15, (3 Saxons.) 

H. Cotta died in 1844. The present principal is J. Fr. Judeich, to 
whom we are indebted for a presentation copy of the Tharander Jahr- 
huch of 1866. The principal of the agricultural department is Dr. 
Schober ; the administration of general affairs, however, is always 
entrusted to the principal of the forest department. Schober, since 
1852, in Tharaud, has written the history of the academy to be found 
in the above-mentioned book, which was published at the semi-centennial 
anniversary. 

The grounds belonging to the academy (forest of Tharand, a botanical 
garden, and the farm) cover an area of 10,928 Saxon acres. The 
library consists of 670 books on forestry, 70 on huntsmanship, 719 on 
agriculture, 31 on horticulture, 85 on veterinary science; the rest on 
other sciences, with 65 periodical publications on forestry, 91 on agri- 
culture, &c. 

^The collection for foresters contains 132 different instruments and a 
technological collection of 390 pieces ; for huntsmanship, 63 plaster- 
tables, with game tracks, and a well-arranged shooting stand. The 
agricultural collection has 90 utensils and machines, 98 models, 18 
sorts of apparatus, not to mention the botanical, zoological and min- 
eralogical collections of all kinds. The physical cabinet contains an 
apparatus of 112 ph. machines. 

In the budget of 1864-1866, the annual expenses were estimated at 
14,850 tbalers, to which the state (the two academies in Tharand and 
Freiberg belong to the financial department) granted 13,650 thalers 
per annum, expecting an income from the students of 1,200 thalers. 

The expenses were, ia thalers, (three English shillings:) 

10. 150 for salaries, 950 for the library, 250 for the gardens, 900 for the chemical 
laboratory, 350 thalers to poor students, 600 for ihe building?, 200 for the 
furnimre, 110 for printing, &c,, 370 for excursions, 50 for expeiiraents in the 
woods, 320 for fuel, light, &c., lOO for aiding scientific travels, 500 for agricul- 
tural experiments. 

With the two principals, who are the first professors in their respective 
departments, there are thirteen teachers, seven of whom bear the title 
of professor, and six other inferior officers, with ninety-one students in 
1866. 

Every student in either department has to pay, if a Saxon, 50 thalers 
yearly ; if not, 75 for the whole instruction, besides an entrance fee of 
10 thalers, (Saxons, 6| thalers,) and 3-15 thalers for the use of the 



310 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

laboratory during a ^'semester^^ or six-months' term. There are six 
free scholars, six half-free, with stipends, though not as large as in 
Leipsic, but sufficient for the limited i;umber of students, who also, gen- 
erally speaking, are less dependent. These stipendiaries receive from 
20 to 50 thalers per annum. Some riflemen of the royal army, ii 
they be practically prepared at least for one year in the service of a 
forester, may be admitted as free scholars and receive some aid for board 
and fuel. As in all schools which are supported by the state, the tui- 
tion fee may be remitted to any poor student. 

On admission, each student must be at least seventeen years old, and 
so far prepared as to be benefited by the lectures. It is desired that 
the aspirants should work one year before entering on a farm or with a 
forester. Saxons, who wish to be royal officers of the forest, have to 
produce a testimonial of maturity from a gymnasium, or from the In- 
dustrial School at Chemnitz, or from a real school ; in the last case with 
a good mark in mathematics. They must also have worked one year 
with a forester. 

2. — Course of Studies. 

Instruction in either section is divided into two annual courses, which 
must have been completed by such as want to be officers of the forests. 
The professors " keep themselves in perpetual intercourse with the stu- 
dents, and superintend their study hours and general conduct." After 
each semester, summer or winter term, the students receive censuren. 
The Saxons are required to pass an examination at the same time. 

The plan of studies for both sections during the two courses has been, 
since 1857, as follows, (Schober, 1866, p. 98 :) 

First Year. Second Year. 

Mathematics for foresters 6 h. ins. — 

Mathematics for agriculturists , 2 ia s. — 

Measuring for foresters 2 in w. 1 aft'nins. 

Measuring for agriculturists 1 in w. 1 aft'n in s. ' 

Special mathematics for foresters 2 in w. — 

Mechanics for both sections., — 2 h. in w. 

Architecture, specially for agriculturists — 2 in w. 

Architectural drawing 3-4, s. & w. 3-4, s. & w. 

Natural philosophy 3 in w. — 

Meteorology — 2 in w. 

Chemistrj^, general, with technology 4 in s. — 

Agricultural chemistry (doctrine of soil) 4 in w. — 

Chemical exercises — 2 aft'ns in s. & w. 

natural history : 

Mineralogy '. 5 h. in s. 2 aft'ns in s. & w. 

Min. excursions 2 in s. — 

Geognosy — 3 h, in s. 

Botany, general 3 in s. — 

Physiology of plants — Sins. 

Botany for foresters — 2 in s. 

Review of natural history *. ; — 1 in w. 

Excursions 1 afternoon in s. — 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 311 

First Year. Second Year. 

Zoolog}' 3 h. iu W. — 

Entomology, (general doctrine of insects) 1 in s. — 

Entomology for foresters .. — 3 in w. 

Entomology for agriculturists — 2 in w. 

Science of J or t sir y : 

Outlines 3 in s. — 

Protection of forests {forstschutz) 2 in w. — 

Administration of hunting grounds {jagdver- 

wallung) 1 in w. — 

Cultivation of woods — Sins. 

Improvement of forests, with technology — 3 in s. 

Management of forests — 2 in w. 

History of forestry and huntsraanship, with 

literaturCv — 2 in w. 

State forest economy, with the principles of 

political economy — 2 in w. 

Exercises in valuation — 4 in s. 

„ . , . f 1 day in s. — 

Practical exercises | 4_g ^ .^^ ^ _ 

Science of agriculture : 

Encyclopaedia 1 in w. — 

Agricultural physiology of plants 4 in s. — 

Cattle breeding 3 in w. — 

Political economy — 4 in s. 

Management of farms — 3 in w. 

i • 1^ 1 • f 1 day in s, — 

Agricultural excursion \4-6h. inw. — 

^ Veterinary science : 

Exterior or good points of domestic animals 2 h. in s. — 

Anatomy of domestic animals 2 in w. — 

Physiology " " — 1 h. in w. 

Diseases '' " — 2 in s. 

Regimen (care of health) of domestic animals. — 2 in s. 

Shoeing of horses — 1 in w. 

Horticulture : 

Cultivation of fruits and vines — 2 h. in s. 

Cultivation of vegetables — 2 in w. 

Science of the law for both sections — 3 in w. 

3. — Examination. 

At Easter there is an examination for such as wish to leave the acad- 
emy as graduates, with a testimonial. All who wish to be royal officers 
have to pass the full examination, which embraces two compositions 
written in the last winter term on a subject chosen by the student and 
on another given by the principal. Then they have to show their skill 
in drawing by producing topographical and other forest plans, or an 
architectural or mechanical drawing and the design of a plan ; then on 
each branch to answer dictated questions, written within a certain 
time in presence of two professors ; and if their writings have been 
approved, to pass an oral examination in mathematics, botany, 
physiology of plants, zoology and entomology, mineralogy and geog- 
nosy, physics and meteorology, chemistry and doctrine of soil, science 
of forestry or agriculture. Three censuren are given, besides those for 
application and moral conduct, in sciences — "excellent," "good," 



312 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

"sufficient." The third or last censur, however, is not sufficient for 
being admitted to the state examination_, but they are allowed for that 
purpose to pass again the above-mentioned examination after a third 
year's course in the academy. " Volunteers," as foreigners or Saxons 
who want no employment, may pass the fall examination, or, if they 
choose, be examined in single branches, in which they desire to have a 
testimonial of the academy, according to the Regulative for the said 
examination published in 1853. 

VII.-THE AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY IN PLAGWITZ, NEAR LEIPSIC. 
1. — Statistics. 

The Agricultural Academy in Plagwitz was founded in 1851, in 
Lutzschena, 10 English miles from Leipsic, but, in 1861, was transferred 
to Plagwitz, in the vicinity of Leipsic, and constituted there as a part 
of the university. Most teachers are professors in the university, and 
the students have to attend in both lecture-rooms at Plagwitz and 
Leipsic, distant 25 minutes. The present principal is Professor Birn- 
baum. 

The farm consists of 483 Saxon acres=l,086 Prussian acres, and is 
the property of Dr. Heine_, a rich gentleman, who, by cultivating the 
grounds and covering them with buildings, has nearly joined Plagwitz 
to Leipsic. The liberal offer of that f^irm for the purposes of an agri- 
cultural academy was accepted in 1861 by the government. There are 
on the farm a tile kiln, a steam brewery, and near it a manufactory of 
agricultural machines and utensils. 

The annual expenditure is 5,980 thalers, to which the state grants 
as yet but 1,000 thalers. 

The number of students since 1851 has been on the average 46 per 
annum ; in all, 79 from Saxony, 105 from Prussia, 43 from Bohemia, 
48 from Bussia, (36 of whom are from the German Baltic provinces,) 
&c. At present there are 38 students. 

The whole course embraces three semi-annual terms ; but for those 
who are insufficiently prepared a preparatory half-year's course in Plag- 
witz is added. A certain age is not required, but it is desired that the 
student be at least 18 years old, and should have spent at least six 
months on a well-managed farm. 

The pay for the preparatory course in Plagwitz is 60 thalers for the 
following courses : 15 thalers for the semester, besides the different 



DocuMient?. 
1. Tharander Jahrbuch, (festschrift.) lS66,Tpp. 478, containing a history of the academy hy Dr. 
Scho!)er; 2. General Plan of the Royf.1 Academy in 'J'harant, 1863; '.i. Laws of Discipline; 4. 
Plan of Studies, 1867-1868; 5. Regulative for the last examination, 1853. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 313 

fees to be paid to the professors of the university; from 2-5 thalers for a 
branch of instruction, and 10 thalers for the chemical exercises. 
2. — Course of Studies. 
The preparatory course in Plagwitz is as follows : 

General agriculture, 4 hours, by the principal. 

History and literature of agriculture, 2 hours, by the principal. 

Inorgauic chemistry, 4 hours, by Dr. Heppe. 

Exercises in the laboratory, 8 hours, by Ur. Heppe. 

Mineralogy and geognosy, 2 hours, by Dr. Heppe. 

Anatomy and morphology of plants, 2 hours, by Dr. Frank. 

Anatomy of domestic animals, with good points of horses, and shoeing, 4 hours. 

Book-keeping, 2 hours. 

Surveying, on Saturday a. m. 

Practical agricultural exercises, Saturday, p. m., by the principal. 

Besides, a conversatorium, i. e. a conversational drill, on Thursday 
evening, with all the students and with friends of agriculture, on agri- 
cultural questions, exercises, and excursions, when the principal is 
assisted by several teachers. 

The regular course at Plagwitz and Leipsic is : 

First term, (of six months :) 
A. Cultivation of plants, (soil, manure, meadows, &c.,) 4 hours. 
2. Doctrine of soil, with valuation, 2 hours. 

Second term : 

1. Cjtttle breeding, with knowledge of wool, &c., 4 hours. 

2. Feeding cattle, (expenditure.) 
Third term : 

1. Doctrine of managing farms, (balance between exhaustion and compensa- 
tion of fields, meadows, &c..) 2 hours. 

2. Valuation of crops, (for buying farms or having them to rent, or, in case of 
employment, for making estimates in due form,) 4 hours. 

This last and most important division combines a review of all the 
subjects before treated. 

All these lectures on agriculture are given by the principal. 

The auxiliary sciences may be studied in lectures at the university, 



Political economy, 4 lectures weekly, by Prof. Roscher. 

Agricultural chemistry, 2 lectures, by Prof. Knop. 

Exercises in the Agricultural Laboratory in Leipsic, conducted by the same 
professor and two assistants, (hours adlibitum.) 

ExT^erimental philosophy, 3 lectures, in winter, by Prof Zollner. 

Meteorology, 2 lectures, in summer, by Prof. Zollner. 

Physiology of feeding, 4 lectures, by Dr. Huppert. 

Botany, with excursions, 3 lectures, by Dr. Frank. 

Physiology of plants and use of the microscope, 4 lectures, by Dr. Frank. 

Technology, 4 lectures, in winter, by Dr. Heppe. 

Regimen of domestic animals, 4 lectures, in summer, privatim, and on other gen- 
eral branches, such as mechanics, mathematics, chemistry, zoology, &c., by other 
professors. 

■ 3. — Examination. 

There is at the end of each term an examination^ (according to the 



314 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

statutes sanctioned by government,) to which all are admitted who ap- 
ply for it after having studied in the academy at least two terms — one 
year. Before the examina,tion the candidate has to solve accurately a 
problem in writing a-t home, but must solemnly declare that it has been 
done without the help of others. Then he has to answer, in the pres- 
ence of professors, also in writing, two questions of less compass than 
the one above mentioned. The oral examination embraces also agricul- 
tural science and the auxiliary sciences, of which, however, the student 
may choose two himself. It lasts two hours and a half. The pay for 
the examination is 10 thalers, to be half remitted in case the candidate 
does not succeed. 

MINING AND MINER'S SCHOOLS. 

VIII.-THE MINING ACADEMY IN FREIBEBQ. 

I. — History and General Observations. 

The Mining Academy at Freiberg was established in 1766. Its 
founders and benefactors were Von Heynitz, afterwards Prussian Min- 
ister, and Von Oppel, President of the Mining Department. Of the 
seven presidents who succeeded Mr. Oppel, the three last may be men- 
tioned above all: Herder, 1819-1838; Freiesleben, 1842; and Von 
Beust, brother of the well-known Austrian Minister, who now leaves 
his place to accept a similar position in Austria. 

The chief office for all miners (the Oherbergamt) in Freiberg, under 
the control of the Secretary of the Treasury, consists of a board of directors 
of the mines in Saxony, (Oherherg rathe,) and has, besides the superin- 
tendence of all mining affairs in Saxony, the direction of this academy, 
so that the president of that ho&rd (Oberherghauptmann') is at the same 
time the chief director of the academy. 

To the names of the presidents to whom the academy is much in- 
debted for its prosperity there may be added from the great number of 
professors the name of one, the centennial anniversary of whose f)irth- 
day was celebrated by the academy in 1850, viz, A. G. Werner, profes- 
sor, 1775 ; died, 1817. Other celebrated names, together with the 
titles of what they have published, may be found pp. 1-43 of the "His- 
tory of the Academy." 

The grant for the first establishment amounted to no more than 1,400 
thalers, 1,000 of which were expended for Oppel's library and collec- 
tions. The expenditure of the year 1766 amounted to 1,535 thalers; 
470 for instruction ; 623 for library, collections, inspection ; 400 for 

Documents. 
1. The Agricultural Academy in Plagwitz. Leipsic, by Prof. Birnbaum, pp. 72; 2. Written 
communications on tlie expenditure. Statutes. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 315 

stipends, (free scholarships;) 40 for prizes; but in 18G7 the expendi- 
ture amounted to 16,567 thalers, (10,278 for instruction and inspec- 
tion ; 3,187 for the library, &c.,) 4,507 being the income of the acac^ 
emy, so that the state had to add r2,000 thalers. 

In 1765 the academy was lodged in Oppel's house, consisting of 
three hired rooms on the ground floor, viz, one lecture room, a cabinet 
of ores, and a room for books and models. In 1792 the house was bought 
for 4,000 thalers. This same house is to this day the academy build- 
ing, but renewed and enlarged by adding the neighboring houses: 
3,526 thalers for a laboratory in 1797 ; 6,000 fur a house and its ad- 
justing in 1818 ; 1,950 for a house in 1835; 27,280 thalers for de- 
molishing the last mentioned house and a part of the old one, and for 
building on their place a new one; 18,516 for enlarging the building 
in 1857; 8,120 for the metallurgical laboratory in 1862; 9,234 for a 
chemical room in the same year. It is, however, agreed that a new 
building on an open place would have better served the purpose than 
the present arrangement, especially since the light has been obstructed 
by a large house raised on the opposite side in spite of all offers made 
to the owner of the grounds by the state. 

The library and the fifteen collections are valued at 125,000 thalers; 
the library at 30,000; the classified collection of minerals, one of the 
five, 35,000 ; Werner's Mineral Museum, 18,000 ; for geognosy, 6,000 ; 
fossils, 4,500 ; for geography, 5,000, &c. It may be worth mentioning 
that the academy has also a sale collection of saleable minerals as old as 
the academy itself, not originally intended as a source of income, but 
valued as a means of intercourse and commerce with other countries, 
and for showing the students the best way of making collections. The 
name of the present administrator of the sale-room is II B. Wappler. 

There were, in 1866, 13 professors with 51 students. Since its estab- 
lishment in 1766, 1,225 students from Saxony; 782 students from 
Germany, without Saxony ; 326 students from Europe, without Ger- 
many ; 132 students from America, &c.; total, 2,465 students. 

The students are in part supported by the state, who must be Saxons, 
and are expected to accept no employment in any other country, or if thc}^ 
do, to return the pecuniary aid they may have received. They have to 
pay, besides, a matriculation fee of 3 thalers, 6 thalers for the practi- 
cal course, and for academical instruction 50 thalers annually, of which 
any poor student may get, except in the first year, an abatement or the 
allowance to pay it later, besides receiving money from the stipend 
funds ; or such as study at their own expense have to pay 6 thalers 
when matriculated, and about 47 thalers annually to the academy, and 



316 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

the different fees paid to the professors for the lectures and exercises, viz, 
mathematics, 20 thalers ; geometry, 20 ; assaying, 30 ; mineralogy, 25 ; 
theoretical chemistry, 25; practical chemistry, 30, &c., annually. 

For admission, the aspirant must be at least 16 years old, and bring 
good testimonials of conduct. The former class of students (Saxons) 
must have a testimonial of graduation from a gymnasium, or the general 
course of the Polytechnic School, or the Industrial School in Chemnitz, 
or a Real School; in the last case, as in Tharand, the student must 
have a good grade in mathematics ; if not, he has to undergo the 
examination for. admission. Those who study at their own expense 
must produce, as the general expression is, proofs of satisfactory prep- 
aration for academical studies. 

The Saxon students are required to wear the prescribed mining dross. 

2. — Plan of Studies. 

The course begins on the first Tuesday in October, and ends with the 
last week of July. The full course is not limited, but usually embraces 
from three to four years. 

The different branches taught by lectures and exercises are — 

1. Mathematics, (cubic equations, trigonometry, analytical geometr}-, ) 4 lectures 
a week. 

h. Elements of diflferential and integral calculus, and the principal part ot 
higher mechanics, 4 lectures. 

2. Descriptive geometry, 4 lectures. 

3. Elementary mechanics, in 2 courses : a, general, 4 lectures ; 5, mining me- 
chanics, 3 lectures. 

4. Theory of mining machines : Construction, a, general, 2 lectures ; J, spe- 
cial, 4 lectures. 

5. Surveying of mines, {markscheidekunst:) a, general, 2 lectures ; b, practical, 
5 lectures. 

6. Chemistry: a, theoretical, 4 lectures ; 5, practical, 4 lectures ; 3, an-alytical, 
4 lectures. 

. 1. Metallurgy : general, 4 lectures. 

8. Science of foundries, {eisenhutten,) 2 lectures. 

9. Assaying, {probirkunst :) a, dry, 6 lectures; b, practical, 15 hours ; c, liquid, 
2 lectures. 

10. Use of the blow-pipe, 2 lectures ; exercises, 4 hours. 

11. Mineralogy, 5 lectures; exercises, 2 hours. 

12. Crystallography, 1 lecture. 

13. Physics, 4 lectures. 

14. Geology, 5 lectures. 

15. Science of fossils, 2 lectures. 

16. Science of the layers (or beds) and veins of ore, ierzlagerstdtten,) 2 lec- 
tures. 

17. Science of mining': a, 5 lectures; b, 5 lectures. 

18. Architecture, civil, 3 lectures. 

19. Rights and laws of mining, 1 4 lectures 

20. Commercial style for miners, J 

21. Book-keeping, 2 lectures. 
22'. Drawing, 14 hours. 

23. French, 4 lectures. 

24. Chemical technology, 1, (privatcur.) 

25. History of architecture, 2, (private.) 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 317 

The Monday of each week is chiefly devoted to descending into th^ 
mines, visiting the smelting houses, to geological excursions, &c. 

3 . — Examination . 

The theoretical instruction is, as in the university, given by lectures, 
and the student has the choice. The Saxon students have to pass an 
examination at the close of each year, and to present their journals or 
day-books, in which they are required to register, during the whole 
study-time, their observations on theoretical and practical subjects. 

The students who wish to get a public employment in Saxony must 
pass a state examination, in which no more than three students at once 
are examined before a board of examiners, consisting of the president 
of mining affairs, of one counsellor of the Oherhergamt, one of the 
Oberhuttenamt, chief officer of the foundries, one of the Bergamt, (all 
three chosen by the Secretary of the Treasury,) and one of the examin- 
ing professors. Such students as wish, after their examination, to study 
law in Leipsic, are, if not graduates of a gymnasium, examined in the 
gymnasium of Freiberg before they are allowed to do so. 

The state examination at the end of the course embraces — 
1 . — For Miners. 

Mineralogy ; geognosy, with the science of the beds or strata of ores ; science 
of mining ; elementary mechanics; mathematics; book-keeping; mining law; 
general art of surveying mines, (subterraneous geometry;) natural philosophy ; 
drawing. Besides, the students have to testifv to their diligent attendance of 
practical surveying of mines, general chemistry, metallurgy, {huttenkunde,) and 
civil architecture, and may apply to be examined also in these four branches. 

2. — For Surveyors of 3Iines, [markscheider .) 

General and special surveying of mines ; mineralogy, limited to the principal 
knowledge of characteristics ; geognosy and science of the beds or layers of ore, 
{crzlagerstdtten ,-) mining law; drawing; natural philosophy ; science of mining 
and mathematics. 

3. — For Machinists. 

Science of mining; natural philosophy; civil architecture; book-keeping; 
general surveying of mines ; drawing; higlier mathematics ; elementary mechan- 
ics ; construction of machinery. Besides, they have to testify to their attendance 
on the lectures on general chemistry, metallurgy, mineralogy and geognosy. 

4. — For Metallurgists, {huttenlente.) 

Theoretical and analytical chemistry ; dry and wet liquid assaying; use of the 
blow-pipe; metallurgy; natural philosophy; mineralogy; elementary mechan- 
ics; Rvt of clesLtiing ores, {aufbereitung;) book-keeping; drawing; mathematics. 
Besides, they have to testify to their attendance of the lectures on geognosy, civil 
architecture, mining law, and science of mining. 

At the examination they have to lay before the commission drawings 
of a larger size. 

Documents. 
1. Festschrift der Berg-Academie in Freiberg, IS66. pp. 366, price lli thaler; 2. Regulative 
Freibere, 1860; 3. Vbersichl der Vorlcsumrcn. lbG7-68. 



318 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

The oral examination lasts one day. On the second day they are 
examined («) in drawing, especially in sketching from models, &c.; 
(6,) in making short compositions on given themes, to be done rapidly 
without any help, and may be connected with the drawing exercises, 
by which compositions the student has to show that he is able to explain 
himself appropriately and fully on a given subject without help and 
promptly. The censuren in the testimonial have three degrees — ' ' excel- 
lent,"" good," "satisfactory" — for all branches, out of which, with 
particular regard to the respective chief discipline, the principal censur 
is made up, if the student succeeded. 

IX.-SCHOOLS FOE PRACTICAL MINERS. 

{In Freiberg.) 

There are two such schools in Saxony, in Freiberg and in Zwickau, 
the latter for coal-miners, both controlled by the hergamt in Freiberg, 
(with the higher boards, the Oherhergamt in Freiberg and the Ministry 
of Finances.) The former receives from the state about 800 thalers a 
year; the latter was founded and is supported by the proprietors of coal 
mines at Zwickau. These mining schools (hergschulen) of a lower 
rank have in view to train inferior of&cers, as workmasteVs, surveyors, 
and sub-inspectors of the (royal) mines. The number of pupils in 
Freiberg varies according to the wants of the government, but cannot 
exceed 60. 

On admission, the pupils must be 17-22 years old, and have had the 
education of an elementary school in plain handwriting, the elements 
of arithmetic, including fractions, correct writing after a dictation, and 
some skill in drawing, and must have worked in a mine at le.ast one 
year, and continue to work during their studies. Not to interrupt their 
work nor to lessen their wagos, the lesson hours are all in the afternoon 
or evening, and arrangements are made with their masters that they 
may, on school-days, ascend, and cease working somewhat earlier, if 
far off from school ; and may, on permission from the principal, without 
loss stay away a whole day in order to descend a shaft somewhere else. 

The course of instruction comprises four years, in as many classes, 
six to seven hours a week. 

4:th Class — first year : 

1. German, 2 hours a week. 

2. Arithmetic, (algebra, equations with two unknown quantities,) 2 hours a 
week. 

3. Drawing, 2 hours a week. 
■3d Class — second year : 

1. Mineralogy, with an abridgment of geognosy, 3 hours a week. 

2. Geometry and trigonometry, 2 hours a week. , 

3. Drawing, 2 hours a weelv. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 319 

2d Class — third year : 

1. Natural i)hilosophy, elements of, applied ; mathematics, and popular doc- 
trine of machines, 2 hours a week. 

2. Science of mining, 2 hours a week. 

3. Drawinjr, 2 hours a week. * 
\st Class — fourth year: 

1. Surveying of mines, 1st part. 2 hours a week. 

2. " " 2d part, 2 hours a week. 

3. Mineralog-ical exercises, 1 hour a week. 

4. Book-keeping, I hour a week. 

5. Drawing, 1 hour a week. 

The school in Zwickau for coal miners is organized after the pattern 
in Freiberg, with four years' courses, but with one school day in the 
week. 

For continuing elementary education the attendance at Sunday schools 
(evening schools) is required. 

For their moral conduct, application, and attainments, the pupils re- 
ceive, at the end of the fourth year, a testimonial, which will be of 
influence on their being employed as inferior officers of the mines. 

Also some smelters, but not more than three, may be allowed to 
attend the mining school without being obliged to take the full course 
of.rfour years or to attend all lessons. They must be recommended by 
the Oberhilttenamt , i. e. chief board, to superintend the furnaces, and 
pass the examination of admission, as required of the mining scholars. 

The mining school had, in the last year, in the four classes, 60 pupils. 

The school receives from the state an annual grant of 902 thalers, 
besides 40 thalers from the district funds. 

There is also a mining school at Altenberg, which, in 1866, had 4 
pupils, who were instructed in six lessons a week. 

X.-STENOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION AT DRESDEN. 

It was first established in 1834, when the stenographer, Wigard, 
(disciple of Gabelsberger, in Munich,) was appointed by government as 
stenographer for the sessions of the legislature, and obliged, at the same 
time, to instruct gratuitously a limited number of pupils in semi-annual 
courses, one hour and a half daily. In the first course, and until 1839, 
the number of pupils was limited to fourteen. In 1839 the Royal 
Stenographic lustitution received its present organization, not much 
altered by the regulative of 1850. In 1840 the number of pupils in- 
creased to 35, in parallel classes of no more than 18 pupils ; in 1842 
to 57, &c. Ins'ruotion is given by different members of the institution 
in each course, by one chosen always by the government, (Home De- 
Document. 

Bestimmungen (statute?) der F'-ciberscr Bergschule, (drawn np in 1S68.) 



320 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

partment,) who generally receives for it a fee of 70 thalers, in addition 
to his salary, as member of the Stenographic Institution, of 500 to 800 
thalers. 

Instruction is given one hour daily for 8-10 months of the year. It 
embraces the science and rules of the stenographic system, and practi- 
cal exercises in writing from dictation. In each course there are two 
examinations, at the end of the theoretical and of the practical instruc- 
tion. The end of the course is reached when the majority of pupils are 
(1) perfectly familiar with the system (of Gabelsberger) and the steno- 
graphic orthography ; (2,) able to read fluently their own writings ; and, 
(3,) have acquired some skill in stenographic writing of discourses. 

The beginning of a course must be duly advertised in public papers 
by the principal. The names of those who have applied, with the ap- 
proval of the president, are to be submitted for decision to the ministry. 
Such as have taken the full course of a gymnasium (college) and of the 
university are preferred. The two examinations are held at the time 
appointed by the ministry, in the presence of the principal and of two 
other stenographers ; and in case the president has been himself the 
teacher, of some other officer in his stead. 

The number of pupils instructed last year in four courses by four 
teachers was 114. 

Besides, there are Forthildungscurse, i. e., courses for continuing 
the study of stenography, consisting of a series of practical exercises 
during the six months Last year instruction was given in four 
divisions to 130 pupils by the principal, Professor Heyde, who, more- 
over, had to instruct officially seventeen gendarmes. 

; In these courses four writing-matches take place, the first of which 
lasts fifteen, the second twenty, the third twenty-five, and the last thirty 
minutes. Practical stenographers are excluded. In the first match forty 
words are to be written in a minute, and in the last match, seventy to 
eighty words. Every one has to read instantly his writing, to which, 
as well as to the observation of the rules of the system, especially of 
orthography, and to the hand- writing, particular regard is paid in the 
distribution of prizes. The three prizes consist of books, worth five 
thalers, two thalers, and less ; but diplomas are added, and the names 
published in the Dresden Journal. Only such competitors have to ex- 
pect a prize who have partaken in the last and two previous matches, 
and have, also, regularly attended the other exercises. Moreover, in- 
struction was given in the Polytechnic School to eight pupils ; in the 
Vitzihum Gymnasium, to 14; in the Commercial School, to 18; and to 
several private classes. The rooms were in the State House 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 321 

Those who wish to know more about this very liberally endowed in- 
stitution, with its president, Hiisse, Royal Counsellor, the principal, 
Heyde — in all eight stenographers of the first class, of whom several 
bear the title of professor, and three assistants — and about its organ- 
ization, (a,) for the legislative, (of course omitted in this account;) (6,) 
for instruction for the same purpose ; (c,) for the dissemination of Ga- 
belsberger's system, in opposition to the system of Stolze, adopted in 
Prussia and in Dresden, maintained by a small association founded 
in 1852, are referred to the documents given in note. 

XI.-THE NORMAL SCHOOL FOR TRAINING TEACHERS OF GYMNASTICS. 
1. — History and General Observations. 

This institution was founded by the government (Ministry of Public 
Education) in 1819, at Dresden, and is supported by the same, for the 
purpose of obtaining a sufficient number of able teachers of gymnastics 
in the public schools. The first impulse toward introducing gymnastics 
into the public schools had been given by Prof. Werner, who established 
a gymnastic institution in 1830 at Dresden. This private school was 
closed with the departure of Werner to Dresden in 1839, but it had 
been so far successful for Saxony that after 1837 the government and 
legislature granted a certain sum for the instruction of gymnastics in 
several chief schools of the kingdom. Thus it was that this Normal 
School for obtaining teachers was established 17 years ago. 

The new building, considered as a pattern establishment, was erected, 
1863, at the expense of 45,415 thalers, viz : for gymnastic hall, 12,000 ; 
fitting of the hall and of the grounds, with implements, 1,519, 882 
thalers, &c. Its ground-plan may be seen in the document mentioned 
below, with a description of the premises and of the technical arrange- 
ments, pp. 21-28. 

The course of instruction, in which teachers of all kinds of schools 
may gratuitously partake, begins in October, and embraces one year. 
The pupils are as yet chiefly young teachers in the primary schools at 
Dresden, who, after finishing their course, are employed as teachers of 
gymnastics (in most cases not exclusively) at Dresden or other towns 
of Saxony. Occasionally, teachers in other parts of Saxony come to 
Dresden for the purpose of joining this institution. 

Documents. 
1. Correspondenzblatt des Kgl. Stenographischen Institufs,lSQ4:, pp. 33, in4to, ('''ontainin? the 
hii^tory of the Institute, and the Reinilativps ; 2. C.italogne of the Library, (with l,10f^ sten- 
ographic wo, ks, (not volumes,) and 40i> more ;) 3- Taschenbuck fUr Gabelsberger Stenographeny 
1868, pp. 74, (with an account of all G&belsberger's associations in the world.) 



322 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 



-Practical Theoretical Exercises. 



Not to disturb too much the teachers in their school-work, they have 
their gymnastic lessons on the afternoons of Wednesday and Saturday, 
when the public schools are closed ; in winter in the gymnasium hall, ia 
summer on the gymnasium grounds. The practical exercises are fol- 
lowed by theoretical lectures on the history, systems, and methods of 
gymnastics. Besides, on two evenings of the week, certain hours are 
given to further exercises in gymnastics. In summer, the master of a 
swimming establishment is employed to teach 30 teachers, pupils of this 
Normal School. 

The said gymnastic lessons and exercises, with the principal, Dr. 
Kloss, are accompanied by lectures and exercises in anthropology by 
Prof. Giinther in winter ; on two evenings, anatomy and physiology ; 
in summer, dietetics. After the anatomical course, application is made 
by exercising the pupils in bathing-trowsers. Moreover, the teacher- 
pupils may, at other times, attend the exercises of the school-classes, 
(see below,) when they also find opportunity to assist. 

At the end of the course there is an examination, in which all who 
think themselves sufficiently prepared, even if they have not been pu- 
pils of the Normal School, may partake. It consists of a trial lesson, 
of an oral examination on theory of gymnastics and on anthropology, 
and of a practical examination — all this in the presence of a counsellor 
of the Ministry of Public Education, lasting 2-3 hours. A composi- 
tion on a theme given by the lioyal Commissary is to be delivered two 
weeks before the public examination. There was another course es- 
tablished in 1860 of four to five weeks, generally in September and 
October, to benefit teachers not residing in Dresden, who either in- 
struct already or are preparing to instruct in gymnastics. They receive 
leave of absence, and often are assisted by the government in bearing 
the expenses of travel and board. These pupil-teachers have from 4 
to 5 lessons daily, and also pass an easy examination as teachers of 
gymnastics in elementary schools. 

From 1850 till 1864 the full year's course was taken by 168 pupils ; 
the examination was passed by 12 more=r=180. 

From 1860 to 1864 the short course of 4 to 5 weeks was taken by 35 
pupils, and 6 more were examined as teachers of gymnastics in ele- 
mentary schools=41 persons. 

In the same building, and under the same direction, instruction in 
gymnastics is given to four classes of the Teachers' Seminary, 67 pu- 
pils ; to seven classes of the Gymnasium, 294 ; to the first boys' school, 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 323 

in four classes, 188; and likewise to four classes of the first girls' 
school, 1G7. Other schools have their exercises on other premises. 
The principal is assisted by 10 teachers, several of whom are teachers 
in the respective schools. 

XII.-IIOYAL MILITARY SCHOOL. 
1. — Organization and Admission. 

The Royal Military School at Dresden was reorganized in 1867, after 
the war, and organized like the schools of the same rank in Prussia. 
Formerly it consisted of two separate schools, the artillery school and 
the Cadettencorps, both completing the education of their pupils; but 
now a higher academy in Prussia must be attended for finishing the 
professional education, either in Berlin, Erfurt, &c. 

By the new "regulative," the Cadettencorps in Saxony consists of 
six classes, and has (1,) 20 free scholars; (2,) 84 half-free scholars; (3,) 
20 not free scholars — in all, 124. Besides these, " volunteers" maybe 
admitted ; but, if foreigners, without any claim to being admitted after- 
wards to the royal army. 

For admission to any of the 124 places^ the sons of officers of the 
army, killed or invalid, or of such subalterns as have served 25 years, 
and of civil officers of high merits, are preferred to others. 

The aspirant must have completed his 11th year of age, and not be 
over 18 years of age. 

In general the boys must have, if 11 years old, the requisite know- 
ledge of Quinta; if 12, of Quarta; if 13, of Quarta; if 14, of Tertia; 
if 15-17, of Secunda, of a gymnasium, (college.) 

On admission, every pupil has to pay 100 thalers for a full equip- 
ment, for books, &c.; and to bring with him 12 shirts, 18 pairs of 
stockings, 18 handkerchiefs, 6 drawers, 1 pair of house shoes, 2 white 
cotton night-jackets. 

During his stay every pupil has to pay, (besides 25 thalers for books 
when transferred to III,) annually, (a,) 50 thalers, if a free scholar ; (6,) 

110 if half free; (c,) 210 if not free; {d,) 260 if a Saxon '^ volun- 
teer;" and, (e,) 300 if a foreign "volunteer." 

2 . — Course of Instruction . 

The course of instruction in the Military School embraces six years, 
with six classes, of which, as was said before, VI, (the last,) V, IV, and 

111 correspond to V, IV, and III in a gymnasium, II and I to lower 

Document. 
Bericht Hber (report on) die Kgl. Turnlehrer Bildangsanstalt, von Dr. Kloss, 1854, pp. 34, 
(witli a representation of the grounds and buildings.) 



324 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

and upper Secunda, with the only difference, that instead of Greek, in- 
struction is given in English and in the elements of a military education. 
It will be, therefore, sufficient to mention the course of instruction in 
the highest class as given in the new regulation. 

1. Religion. (The number of lesson hours is not stated.) 

2. Latin: Written exercises ; Livy, Ovid, Virgil. 

3. German: History of literature ; explanation of dramatic pieces ; free dis- 
courses, with a verbal resume, and debates. 

4. French : Translations ; extemporalia ; compositions ; exercises in speaking. 

5. Mathematics: Progressions; logarithms, and their application ; applying of 
algebra to geometry ; trigonometry; elements of stereometry. 

6. English : Oral and wrirten exercises ; free discourses on historical and geo- 
graphical subjects ; review of the same in English ; reading of poetr3^ 

7. History: Modern history ; review ofuniversal history ; history of Northern 
Germany. 

8. Geography : Mathematical and physical geography ; review of political ge- 
ography, with particular regard to Northern Germany. 

9 Natural philosophy: Electricity, mngnetism, sound and light. 

10. Drawing of plans; finishing the designs of the survey. 

11. Surveying : Topographical surveying on a large scale ; drawing of grounds ; 
eroquiren. 

12. Free-hand drawing. (Not obligatory.) 

Those cadets to whom, in consequence of the examination at the end 
of the course, the testimonial of maturity for ensigncy can be given, are 
presented to his Majesty as "characterized" ensigns, wTiilst all others 
who do not answer the demands have to perform, in some other way, 
their legal service in the army. 

XIIL-THE ROYAL VETERINARY SCHOOL. 
1 . — Organization. 

The Royal Veterinary School was founded as a private school, 1774, 
apd in 1780 raised to a public institution, at first only to train squadron 
farriers for the Saxon army ;. now, it has in view the education of vete- 
rinary surgeons in scientific and practical knowledge, as well as instruct- 
ing smiths in the shoeing of horses. For these purposes it has, in three 
buildings, a hoi^pifal for all kinds of domestic animals ; a workshop for 
shoeing ; a zootomical establishment for dissecting animals ; an apothe- 
cary's shop for learning pharmacy ; collections of veterinary utensils and 
model shoes; a zootomical cabinet, with more than 3,000 preparations; 
a library of about 3,200 volumes, and a chemical laboratory for experi- 
mental exercises. 

The course o\ instruction embraces three years, in three classes. The 
pupils of the higher classes receive, as far as possible, lodgings free in 
the institution. There are nine teachers: one professor of the practical 

Document. 
Auszn^ aus dem (ahridc^inent) Regulatia von Jahre, 1836, fUr das Kgh S&chsische Cadetten- 
corps. Dresden, 1867. Pp. 18. 



SPECFAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 325 

veterinary science, and chief of all veterinary surgeons in Saxony; one 
prot\ ssor of zootomy and zoophysiology ; one apothecary and professor 
of physics and chemistry; one prosector; one assistant in the hospital; 
two in the experimental laboratory ; one teacher of shoeing, and one for 
preparatory lessons. 

The expenditure amounts to 11,310 thalers, of which the state pays 
8,780 thalers. 

The pupils pay 20 thalers annually. They must, for admission, be 
at least 18 years old, and healthy, and either have a testimonial of ma- 
turity from a real school, or have been at least six months in the se- 
cunda of a gymnasium, or pass an examination. Hospitants, or such 
as wish to attend the lectures without being admitted to the practical 
exercises or to the closing examination, are admitted on application 
without the aforesaid requirements. There were in all 39 pupils last 
year, (16 in the highest class;) now^ 34 pupils and 10 hospitants ; 
moreover, 17 civil and 10 military pupils in shoeing of horses. The 
course, beginning on the 1st of October, embraces three years — for such 
as have studied in another veterinary school, one year — before being ad- 
mitted to the examination. 

2. — Examination. 

This examination comprises — 

1 . The shoeing of horses. 

2. Analomv : Enterology, demonstration of single parts of the body, and mak- 
ing of an anatomical preparation. 

3. Surgery: Performing (by lot) of two operations. 

4. Clinics : Examining and attending one exterior and one interior disease, and 
making a composition thereupon or a report of dissection. 

5. A composition on a given theme, taken from veterinary science, and written 
in the presence of a professor. 

6. An oral examination, embracing all theoretical sciences taught in the school. 

The objects of instruction are divided into three classes, viz : 

A . Preparatory sciences : 

1. General hodegetics. (How to study.) 

2. Composition and elocution. 

3. Mathematics : a, algebra ; 6, lower geometry 

B. Natural sciences : 

1. Botany. 

2. Zoology. 

3. (jeology and mineralogy. 

4. Niitural philosophy. 

5. Chemistry, inorganic and organic. 

C. Special chief sciences : 

1. tlistory of veterinary science. 

2. Encyclopaedia and methodology. 

3. Anatoiiiy : o, general, as brief introduction to physiology ; 6, special ; c, pa- 
thological, with re^iard chiefly to police and judicial veterinary science. 

4 Physiology, taught in its whole extent, but always as a foundation to die- 
tetics and pathology. 



326 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXON VT. 

6. Pharmacology: a, drugs; 6, effects of medicaments ; c, preparing of medi- 
caments. The apothecary shop visited. 

6. Dietetics and cattle breeding, with exterieur. 
1. Shoeing of horses. 

8. Pathology and therapeutics. 

9. Surgery. 

10. Science of operations. 

11. Obstetrics. 

12. Veterinary science for police and judicial affairs ; exercises in writing com- 
positions. 

The examination mentioned above, which gives the right to practise, 
was passed by nine students, and two more who had not succeeded in a 
former examination and repeated the same. Two higher examinations, 
in order to be a veterinary surgeon of a lower or higher district, were 
passed successfully by four surgeons. Two persons were examined as 
military farriers. In shoeing, the examination before the royal com- 
mittees in Dresden, Leipsic, Zwickau, and Lusatia, was passed by 195 
persons, of whom 59 smith-journeymen were rejected. 

The direction of the school, the examination of the students, and the 
inspection over all veterinary surgeons in Saxony^ as well as the pass- 
ing of judgments, if needed, on all veterinary affairs, are entrusted to a 
Royal Commission for Veterinary Affairs, consisting of a commissary of 
the Ministry of the Interior, (Home Department,) and of two professors 
of the school, (Haubner and Leisering.) In veterinary affairs extraor- 
dinary members may be added to the commission, according to the 
character of the question, as the general secretary of the Agricultural 
Associations, (the Privy Counsellor, Dr. Reuning,) the Chief Equerry 
of the state, an officer of the cavalry, and the chief farrier of the army. 

As Saxony is divided into many districts, with a physician in each, 
who is appointed by government, (generally with a small salary,) and 
has to serve in all cases belonging to judicial or administrative cogni- 
zance, &c., so there are several veterinary districts of a larger compass. 

3. — Statistics. 

The annual report of the commission of 1866-67 shows that in that 
year 540 horses, 6 ruminant animals, 13 pigs, 308 dogs, 7 cats, and 9 
fowls — in all 883 animals — have been treated in the clinics of the school, 
442 of which were dismissed cured and 162 in a better state. In the 
itinerant clinics, 1,408 animals were attended. The external clinics 
comprised 234 animals.. One hundred and seventy-five animals were 
dissected. 

Documents. 
1. Bestimmungen den besuch der Thierarzneischul'c betreffend; 2. Tint err ichfsplan, ("Plan of 
Studii-s,; ()[). 12, with s()m« notes l»y Prof. Leisering; 3. Laws ("or the Pupils of tlie Viterinary 
School, pp. 24 ; 4. Annual Report oti Vett;riiiary Affairs in Saxony for the year 1863, Cllth 
year,; by the Royal Conunissiou, by Charles IJaubaer, pp. 78. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 327 

XIV.-SUPPLEMBNTARY SCHOOLS. 

Evening and supplementary schools, for by this name we may call 
all those schools winch are intended for practical workmen, apprentices 
and journeymen, who may, without being interrupted in their daily 
work, supply any deficiencies in their general education, and acquire 
some knowledge and skill appropriate to their respective trades. 

SUNDAY SCHOOLS. 

In this class must first be mentioned the great mass of Sunday schools, 
as they are called here, because instruction is generally given on Sun- 
day afternoon by one or more teachers of the public schools. Those 
which aim at continuing general education are under the care of the 
Ministry of Public Education, (A ;) whilst those of a more industrial 
character are supported so far as it may be necessary and superintended 
by the Ministry of the Interior, (B.) 

1. The Sunday schools (A) founded and supported by associations or 
municipalities received, in 1865, a State grant amounting to 3,035 tha- 
lers=ll,381 francs. There were 93 such schools, attended in the said 
ygar by 7,021 pupils, with 299 teachers. By the latest account, in the 
annual report of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry in the district 
of Dresden for 1867,* the Sunday schools in the seventeen towns of the 
district (Dresden, Freiberg, Meissen, &c.) had 1,415 pupils, (733 ap- 
prentices,) with 56 teachers, in 46 classes, and 115 weekly lessons. In 
these seventeen towns instruction was given in — 

Lessons. Towns. 

Drawing 40 All. 

Modeling 2 1 

Aritlimetic , 28 All. 

Gtometry 6 6 

Natural science 6 6 

Natural bistory 1 I 

Book-keeping 1 1 

History and geography 6 6 

German composition 15 12 

Calligraphy 16 14 

They received from the State 525 thalers, (in 12 towns;) from the 
municipalities, 307, (in 11 towns;) from the guilds, 102, (7 towns;) 
from the industrial associations, 69, (7 towns;) from a school association 
in Dresden, 147; in Freiberg, 98 thalers; voluntary grants, 76, (in 
3 towns;) in all, 1,723 thalers, and expended 1,244 thalers. The 
pupil, in nearly all the towns, pays a trifling entrance fee. To be more 

• Tliere are four such Chambers, in Dresden, Leipsic, Cliemnitz, Plauen, besides Lnsatia, 
and as many annual reports. The report of Drfsdeii, mt'niioiied above, contains, on -O'J pp., 
1, Opinions"; 2, Statemenis of facts concerning all kinds ot commerce and manufactures, men- 
tioning.' most accurately the amount of tiie difterent raw productions and maiinfactureil goods 
in tiie district, as well as tlie railroad and postal commerce, lac; Schools, p. 188 — 195. 



328 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

particular, the Sunday school in Dresden, founded 181.6 by a Free 
Masons' lodge, is supported by an association consisting of 168 members, 
including 14 guilds and 2 Masonic lodges. It had last year an income 
of 729 and an expenditure of 404 thalers, 377 of which were paid to 
teachers. The school was attended during the year by 256 pupils. 
The entrance fee amounts to one thaler, (in one town J thaler, in one 
town J, in some J thaler, in others no pay at all.) 

2. The Sunday schools (B) of a more special character are established 
in the manufacturing towns or villages. There were, some years ago, 
20 such schools, with 6,326 pupils and 140 teachers. The annual 
expenditure was then 8,554 thalers, to which the state (Ministry of the 
Interior) granted 3,295. Of these schools, the most important is the 
Sunday school in Chemnitz, founded in 1830, and kept by the Trades' 
Union^ with 1,376 pupils in 1868, who were instructed by 40 teachers, 
in 48 classes, at an expense of 2,200 thalers, to which the state grants 
1,000 thalers and the town of Chemnitz 200 thalers. Lessons are given 
on Sunday A. M., 10 to 12, (20 classes,) and P. M., 1 to 3, (24 
classes. Four classes (book-keeping, history and geography, and 
French) are held in the evenings of week-days from 7 to 9 o'clock. 
The different objects are — 

1. Drawing, in 21 classes, viz : 

a. Meciiiinical, in 7 classes. 

b. Free-hand, in 7 classes. 

c. From plaster models, 1 class. 

d. From nature, 1 class. 

t. Architectural, 3 classes. 
/. Ornamental, 2 classes. 

2. Arithmetic, in *7 classes. 

3. Geometry, in 1 class. 

4. Chemistry and natural philosophy, in 1 class. 

5. Stenography, in 1 class. 

6. Book-keeping, in 1 class. 

7. History and geography, in 1 class. 

8. German language and calligraphy, in 10 classes. 

9. German composition, in 3 classes. 
10. French, in 2 classes. 

There was added to it in 1865 a supplementary school for young 
ladies, as has been already mentioned. They are instructed in German 
correspondence, (2 lessons,) commercial arithmetic, (2,) and in book- 
keeping, (2,) on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, from 4 to 6. The 
course embraces one year, and is attended on the average by 30 female 
pupils. 

Documents. 
1. 'Annual report of the Chamber of Commerce in the district of Drejideii, 1S67, pp. 209 ; 2. 
Report oil ihe Sunday school in Dresden, on its half-centennial anniversary, pp. 16 ; 3. Letter 
of the principal of tlie Sunday scliool in Chemnitz ; 4. Expps6 on public education in Saxony, 
pp. 11. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 329 



EVENING SCHOOLS 



To this class of schools belong — 

3, The Commercial Schools for apprentices, spoken of above. 

4. The Ornamental Drawing School, which is joined to the Home 
Industrial School in Chemnitz, and has been spoken of in connection 
with the same. 

The Drawing Schools in Seiffen, &c. 

6. The Industrial School in Dresden. This school was founded in 
1861 by the Trades Union, and embraces four sections, viz : Two for 
apprentices and journeymen, (111 pupils:) one for established trades- 
men, (18 ;) one for female pupils, (12.) The charge for the full course 
is 12 thalers a year; for single branches, 4-8 thalers; balance is remit- 
ted to poor pupils. The school received 200 thalers from the state, 
200 from the town, and 215 from the Trades Union. The pupils are 
instructed by seven teachers in seven classes, 7J-9J in the evening and 
on Sundays. Instruction is given in drawing, four lessons; arithme- 
tic, four lessons ; modelings four lessons; German, four lessons; calli- 
graphy, one lesson; book-keeping, two lessons; geometry, two lessons; 
natural philosophy and chemistry, two lessons. There are more such 
schools in Saxony. 

6. The Workingmen's Association for Education in Dresden has 350 
pupil-members, one-third of whom are less than 18 years old. In- 
struction is given by six teachers: in arithmetic, two lessons; drawing, 
three lessons; German, one lesson; French, two lessons; English, twc 
lessons; singing, two lessons ; and gymnastics, four lessons. The as 
sociation receives from the town 100 thalers, and has'to raise annually 
GOO thalers. 

7. The Mining Schools in Freiberg and Zwickau also belong to this 
class of schools. They are spoken of after the Academy for jNliners in 
Freiberg. Another mining school exists in Altenberg, with 4 pupils, 
who are instructed in six lessons a week. 

8. Four Nautical Schools have been established to give ihe necessary 
instruction for the pilot's examination. The schools are kept in the 
winter, when shipping on the Elbe is interrupted. They have 40-70 
pupils, who pay one thaler for each course, and thus receive an annual 
state grant of 350 thalers. 

9. Two Music Schools are established and supported by govern- 
ment in two small towns where the chief trade is the manufacturing of 
musical instruments, and carried on on a large scale, even with America. 
They have about 80 pupils. 

10. Seven Weaving Schools give nearly the same instruction as the 



330 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

two higher weaviog schools in Chemnitz (spoken of above) and 
Glauchau, but on a reduced scale. They have about 550 pupils, and 
receive from the state 290 thalers a year. 

11. Two Fringe-making Schools, in Annaberg and a neighboring 
town, have each 150 pupils, and receive a state grant of 350 thalers. 

12. The Tailors' Academy, in Dresden, founded by an association of 
tailors from all parts of Germany, was inaugurated last year in a mag- 
nificent building, and commenced its courses the 2d of January, 1868. 
Besides the scientific course of one year, with 5-7 lessons daily and 3-5 
hours exercises, for which the pupil pays 100 thalers, (boarding 180- 
240 thalers,) the prospectus mentions five practical lessons from six 
weeks to six months. In 1866 the school had five teachers and 38 pu- 
pils. The institution, with which the school is and has been connected, 
bears, since 1862, the name of "^ European Academy of Modes." The 
magazine is edited by the academy in German, French, and English, 
with ten different titles : Australian Observer, Season of Fashion for 
Gentlemen^ Telegraph, (for the United States and Canada,) r Observa- 
teur, &c. The association consists at present of 14 directors, residing 
in Berlin, London, New York, Paris, Petersburg, Vienna, and 408 
members. The chief directory consists of three members, chosen for 
life, (Miiller, in Dresden, the head and soul of all,) and has its perma- 
nent seat in Dresden. The library contains 900 volumes for this special 
branch, and the collections contain all sorts of models, gearing-ma- 
chines, measuring apparatus, and other inventions. 

Industrial schools for children who attend the elementary schools. 

Spinning schools in some parts of Lusatia, three of which receive an 
annual state grant of 150 thalers. 

Straw -working schools, three of which receive a grant of 100 thalers. 

Lace-making and embroidering schools have been likewise established 
for children who attend this elementary school, chiefly in the poorest 
parts of the Ore Mountains. There are about 30 such schools, with 
1,600 to 1,900 children, with an annual state grant of 4,000 thalers. 
For all of them an inspector is appointed, who has also the care of 
training the needed (female) teachers. 

SCHOOL FOR DEAF MUTES AND THE BLIND IN DRESDEN AND LEIPSIC, 

The school in Leipsic was established by Heinicke in 1778, who 
transferred it there from Eppendorf, near Hamburg ; it was one of the 
first, if not the first in Germany. There are 50 boys and 50 girls, 
instructed by 12 male and 2 female teachers. The expenditure is 
13,000 thalers. The school in Dresden has 63 boys and 45 girls, with 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 331 

12 male and 2 female teachers, and now all deaf and dumb persons in 
Saxony enjoy the advantages of education. 

Besides, there is in Dresden an asylum for deaf and dumb girls, 
supported by an association, where a limited number of girls find a 
refuge for life. 

THE SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND IN DRESDEN. 

This school was founded in 1809, and has about 111 pupils. The 
expenditure is about 15,448, with an income of 16,042 thalers. The 
funds of the school amount to 42,615 thalers; those for the blind who 
have left the school, to 43,000 thalers, and other funds to 46,800 
thalers. Families have to pay 64 thalers a year ; communities, 32 thalers 
for each pupil. 

The preparatory school in Hubertsburg was opened in 1862. It 
has 17 children until their 11th year of age, (the pay is 64 thalers,) 
besides 3 ordinary male teachers and 3 female teachers. There are in 
Dresden 2 teachers of music and singing, 1 of basket makiug, 1 of 
rope making, and 1 of shoemaking ; in Hubertsburg, besides the 
principal, 1 of bonnet making and 1 of knitting. 

ACADEMIES OF FINE ARTS. 
I. — THE ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS IN DRESDEN. 

1. — General Observations. 

The Academy of Fine Arts, (^Academie der hildenden Kiinste,') es- 
tablished in 1705 as an academy of painting, was, in 1764, changed to 
the Academy of Arts, and received in 1836 its present organization. 
Its admiaittration is entrusted to an academical^council, the honorary 
president of which is H. R. H. Prince George. The council consists 
of a lloyal Commissary, at present the Secretary of the Treasury, a coun- 
sellor of the government as secretary, and nine professors. The same 
council is the directory of the Academy of Arts in Leipsic. 

There being no special principal of the academy in Dresden, the 
superintendence of studies and discipline is entrusted temporarily to 
one of the professors, who is at present, 1868, Gustavus Heine, pro- 
fessor of architecture. 

The academy consists of two sections, viz, the Academy of Arts, 
{Jcuiutalcademie ,) and the Architectural School, (hauschule.) There 
are in all twenty-one professors, two of whom are employed mostly in 
the Polytechnic and in the Veterinary School. 

The number of students in 1866 was, in the first section, 95, with 41 
not Saxons; in the Architectural Academy, 41, with 10 foreigners; 



332 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

in all, 136 students, with 51 foreigners. The academy is situated 
on the BriiJilsche Terrasse, and at the same place, during three 
summer months, holds its well-known annual exhibition. The income 
from the exhibition is half applied to purchasing good paintings, 
exhibited by Saxon artists, to be placed in the picture gallery ; half 
of it to the fund for supporting orphans and widows of artists. 
This fund was founded without any particular capital in 183G, and 
has increased to the present araouHt of 25,900 thalers, and in the 
last few years has expended for relief annually 800 thalers ; besides, it 
is worth mentioning, that, for promoting art in Saxony, the state granted, 
in 1858, 5,000, afterwards 10,000 thalers annually for constructing 
excellent monumental works, which grant will probably be continued 
henceforth by the government and legislature. 

The budget of the home department shows an annual expenditure 
for the academy of 18,030 thalers. The students pay an entrance fee 
of 5 thalers, and annually 6 thalers in the lowest class ; 10 thalers in all 
other classes. 

Students who have exhibited artistical or architectural works, or 
models of some merit, are rewarded at the end of the exhibition by 
medals or diplomas. One of them receives a {reisestipendiiim) stipend 
for travelling (to Florence and Rome, and on application to the council, 
to other cities) of 1,200 thalers ; 600 for each of the two years for 
which it is granted. The great gold medal is considered of equal worth 
as the stipend. 

The summer term in the proper Academy of Arts begins April 15 ; 
the winter term, November 1 ; in the Architectural Academy, October 
1, and in some cases a student may be admitted here on the first of 
March. 

II. — THE ACADEMY OF ARTS— Kunstacudemie. — section I. 

The full course of the academy has three annual courses, (classes,) 
called. III, the Drawing Hall, (zeichnensaal ;) II, the Plaster Hall, 
(gypssaal;) and, I, (the highest class,) the Painting Hall, (malersaal.) 
Besides those classes, there exist for the higher training of the advanced 
students seven "ateliers;" two for historical painting, I, (Profs. Hubner 
and Schnorr ;) one for landscape painting, (Ludwig Richter ;) one for stat- 
uary, (Hahnet;) one for engraving, (Gruner;) one for wood cutting, 
(Buikner ;) and one for architecture, (Nicolai. ) The collections of art in 
Dresden, of so great importance to the future artists, are too well known 
to be pointed out here. The plan of studies is as follows ; 

Lower Class — Drawing Hall — under the Direction of Three Professors. 
Drawing of single parts of the human body and of whole figures from copies; 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 333 

first instruction in drawing from plaster models; 9-12 and 2-4 daily, except 
Saturday afternoon. 

Middle Class — Plaster Hall — under the Direction of Three Professors. 

Dra\vin<i from statues and from sinp;le parts of them in plaster casts, and every 
fourib week first instruct ion in drawing from the living model; 8-12 and 2-4, and 
in some months 5-7 daily, except Saturday afternoon. 

Upper Class — Painting Hall. 

Drawing and painting from pictures and from nature, 8-12 and 2-4 daily, 
except Saturday, only in winter, (Uciober 1 till May) — one professor ; drawing and 
modeling from the living model and from garnienls, iMay till the end of September, 
8-10 and 2-4 daily ; in winter, daily, 5-7, (to the tnd of February) — 4 professors. 
The students of this class may attend ihe course in the lower classes, so far as the 
room allows. 

Ateliers. 

The admission of students in the ateliers is left to the judgment of the 
abovc-mcntioced directory of the respective ateliers and to the academ- 
ical council. The student of an atelier has to attend any instruction 
which the director of his atelier may think appropriate. 

Scientific Instruction. 

a. For all students of the two higher classes and of the ateliers, except the 
students of the Architectural School : 

1. Lectures on muscle- and bones, in winter. 

2. Anatomy of d.)mestic animals, especially of horses, in the Veterinary School. 
6. For all classes, except the architects : 

1. Lectures on history of art, in winter. 

2. General history, in winter. 

3. Linear perspective, and the perspective of shade and light, in summer and 
winter, on two days, 8-10 A. M. Vacations, besides the holiday weeks, the whole 
mouth of August. 

III. — THE ARCmTECTURAL ACADEMY, OR SECTION B. 

{Bauschule.) 
Instruction from October 1 until February 28, and from March 1 to 
August 31. 

The plan of studies is as follows : 

1. Exercises in projection ; construction of shades ; geometrical representation 
of single parts of a building, of tLe ordeis of columns, of ground plans, as well 
as of whole delineations, from approved models ; independent construction of 
plans after given programmes; composing of ornaments, ''and similiir exercises." 

2. Drawing, with pencil and Indian ink, of ornaments from papers and plaster- 
models ; exercises in applying perspective, with painting in water colors, &('. 

3. Doctrine of iron construction, in application to the different kinds of archi- 
tecture. 

These exercises take place daily, 8-12 and 2-5, (in summer 2-4,) 
under the direction of three professors. 
Besides, there are lectures — 

1. On the estimating of the costs of a building {hauauschldge) two hours a week 
in win'er. 

2. Mathematics, four hours in winter. 
,3 History of architecture, two hours ) , . , 
' 4 Lecluris on perspective, two huu.s V^ummer and winter 



334 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

The more advanced students, generally after the third year, work in the 
above-mentioned ateliers of Prof. Nicoki, and prepare themselves there 
for the practical application of architectural science. For admission, 
all students of architecture must testify that they have successfully at- 
tended either the general course of the Polytechnic School or made the 
full course of an Industrial or of a lower Architectural School, {hau- 
gewerlcenschule, for masons and carpenters, see above,) or at least have 
attained the same knowledge which "is acquired in the above-named 
classes or schools. 

For finishing the education in mathematics and in construction of 
roads, bridges, and hydraulic works, the Polytechnic School may be at- 
tended in the higher classes of its professional department. This is, 
however, necessary for all who wish to pass the state examination, 
which has been mentioned, after three years of practical work. The 
instruction in architecture at the Academy of Arts aims at a higher 
artistic education, while all students who want a scientific foundation 
for their practical and technical studies are recommended to the Poly- 
technic School, 

To show the equal standing of the two sections of the Academy of 
Fine Arts, and, so far as it is possible, the requisites for a prize work 
of art, (the competitors being from the academy in Dresden and from 
that in Leipsic, the latter, however, having no architectural academy.) 
we add that the artistic branches, which are considered in granting the 
highest prize, (stipend for travelling of 1,200 thalers for two years, at 
600 thalers for each, or the great gold medal,) are set down in the 
"Programme on Academical Prizes, 1864," in the following order: 

A. Architecture. (See below.) 

B. Statuary. (A statue at least 4 feet high, or a, haut-relief of two or more figures 
at least 2^ feet high, which may be executed in plaster.) 

C. Painting. (A perfect oil painting of history, t/enre, or landscape, including 
the sea, witti at least half-length figures.) 

D. Engraving in copper. 

a. A copper plate from a historical painting, linear-shaped, at least 120 square 
inches large, from such paintings as have not yet been sufficiently engraved. 

b. Do., a landscape etched and executed by the chisel, of such worth that it 
may be considered equal to a historical painting, and tbe figures, if there 
be any on the engraving, at least 2 inches high. 

In architecture, the plan of a building is required which is destined 
to serve a higher purpose than common houses. The director of the 
architectural atelier may propose a certain programme for all competitors. 

The plan must embrace — 

a. The requisite outlines, and, if needed, the topographical plan. 

b. The sketches (elevations, aufschnitte) of the principal fa9ades. 

c. Tbe tr msepts [durchschnitle) necessary for illustration. 

d. Details on an accommodating scale. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 335 

€. A written exposition of the objects on which the organism of the work is 
based, in two copies, one for the Academical Council and one to be laid by the 
side of the exhibited object. 

II. — THE ACADEMY OP ARTS IN LEIPSIC. 

1 . — Organization. 

The Academy of Arts at Leipsic was founded in the same year, 1764, 
with the academy in Dresden, and is placed under the Academical 
Council in Dresden. 

According to the written statements of the principal. Professor Tager, 
it contains — 

1. A copying room, [copirsaal,) in which the students draw from 
originals and make the needed preparatory studies in anatomy. 

2. A plaster room, {gypssaal,) where students draw from casts of 
antique statues. 

3. Living-model room (actsaal) and atelier. In this highest class 
the students draw from portraits and living models ; also they make their 
own compositions in cartoons and oil paintings. The more advanced 
students of the second class are allowed to join in these studies in winter, 
from 5 to 7 P. M. 

2. — Tuition and Studies. 

The annual tuition fee in the two lower classes is 6 thalers ; in the 
highest class 10 thalers ; but poor students may, after the first year, 
if provided with good testimonials from their teachers, attend gratis. 

The principal directs the studies of the highest class, and in the 
atelier. For the two lower classes there were formerly two teachers ; 
at present they have but one. 

It appears therefrom that it has no architectural section or academy 
like that in Dresden ; but, instead of it, there is an Architectural 
School for masons and carpenters (haugewerhenschule) joined to it, 
(principal architect, Zocker,) as there is one connected with the Poly- 
technic School, at least under the same principal, and one with the 
Industrial School at Chemnitz, though they have separate organizations. 
In regard to these architectural schools see above. 

Documents. 
1. Plans of studies in tlif two sections of tiie Academy of Fine Arts in Dresdeii ; 2. Prescrip- 
tions for students concerning studies and discipline in Dresden ; 3. On acaden)ifal prizes; 4. 
Two tosiirnoiiials as they are given to students after eacli six monitily term and to graduates ; 
5. A short account of tiie academy in Leipsic, written by Prof. Ja^er. 

No. 1 contains many valuable notes, written by Prof. Heine, in Dresden. 
There has been published at the centennial anniversary & festschrift^ written by Dr. Weiss- 
ner, the secretary of the academy, which contains its history. 



336 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN SAXONY. 

THE CONSERVATORIO OF MUSIC IN LEIPSIC 
1. — General Observations. 

This academy of music at Leipsic, sanctioned and supported by the 
favor of H. M. the King, was established at Easter, 1843, with the 
energetic and intelligent co-operation of the celebrated Mendelssohn 
Bartholdy. The object is the higher education in music. The instruc- 
tion it imparts embraces, theoretically and practically, all branches of 
music considered as an art and science. The supreme direction of the 
academy is in the hands of five trustees^ who form the " directory;" at 
present one is the Minister of Public Education, (not as such ;) another a 
member of the municipality, &c. 

For admission, the pupils pass an examination to show their qualifica- 
tions for understanding the lectures, and for a successful study of music. 
The number of pupils is at present 146, 91 males and 55 females, with 
14 teachers and one inspector. 

The fee for the whole instruction (excepting the orchestral instru- 
ments, double bass and wind instruments, for which a moderate extra 
fee is paid) is 80 thalers a year, paid quarterly in advance, besides an 
entrance fee of 3 thalers and one thaler to the castellan of the school. 
There are six free scholarships founded by the king, to be held by 
poor and talented Saxons for one year, which may be prolonged to two 
or three years. All pupils have to procure the instruments, (one piano, 
which may be hired by foreigners,) music and books at their own 
expense 

2. ^Studies. 

The theoretical instruction, given chiefly by M. Hauptmann', 1868, 
consists of a complete course on the theory of music and composition, 
which is completed in three years. More advanced pupils, who are at 
once placed in the upper classes, may complete the study in a shorter 
time, but they are required to attend at the same time the lessons in the 
lower classes as reviews. It comprises the following subjects : 

a. Uarmony, in 15 classes : During the first year, harmony, and part writiDo; ; in 
the second, continuation of harmony and counterpoint; in the third, condnuation 
of harmony, double counterpoint and fugue. 

b Form and composition, in 6 classes : Oral instruction and exercises, including 
vocal and instrumental composition in their various forms and treatment, analysis 
of classical musical works. 

c. Playing from score : Conducting, with practical exercises. 

d. Italian language for those who purpose to devote themselves to the higher 
branches of solo singing. 

Moreover, lectures on musical subjects, such as the history of ancient 
and modern music, aesthetics of music, &c. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN SAXE-ALTENBUKG. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, on an area of 509 English square 
miles, in 1864 had a population of 141,839, who are almost exclu- 
sively engaged in agriculture 

The total annual expenditure of the government of Saxe-Alten- 
burg during the financial period 1862-64, amounted to 800,343 
thalers. 

The institutions of public instruction are administered by the min- 
ister of education and ecclesiastical affairs, who is at the same time 
minister of the ducal house. 

. 1. Primary Schooh. Of these there were 179 schools, with 
21,798 scholars, and about 190 teachers; 1 infants' asylum, with 80 
children. 

2. Secondary Schools. There is one gymnasium, with 189 schol- 
ars, and 12 teachers; 1 progymnasium, with 183 scholars, and 7 
teachers; 1 higher burgher school, wdth 191 scholars, and 11 teach- 
ers, besides 7 burgher schools, with two classes ; the Carolinum, with 
4 classes, and 80 pupils ; besides several schools of girls, of the 
highest grade and reputation. 

3. Superior School. University students resort to Jena. 

4. Special and professional Schools. 

1 Teachers' seminary, at Altenburg, with 32 students. 

7 Industrial {forthildung) schools, with about 350 pupils. 

1 Commercial school, at Altenburg. 

1 Agricultural colony, or asylum, ( George ^ Mary House,) for 
neglected children. 

1 Agricultural winter school. 

1 Institution for the widows and orphans of teachers. 

1 Institution for the deaf and dumb. 
Belonging to the primary schools, there is the Amelia Institute at 
Alt-enburg, with 80 pupils ; another at Kahla, with 40 pupils ; 3 
kindergarten, at Kahla, Ronueburg, and Altenburg, with a total of 
95 children. There are several private schools for young children, 
of great excellence. 

(333) 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTIOl^ IN SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Tne Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, on an area of 816 English 
square miles, had in 1864, a population of 164,527, chiefly engaged 
in agriculture. 

The total annual expenditure in the financial period 1861-65, 
amounted to 992,169 thalers, of which sum about 30,0(V> thalers 
were expended for primary instruction, and 8,000 for secondary 
instruction. The annual expense for the. salaries of common school 
teachers in 1866, was 72,000 thalers. 

The institutions of public instruction are administered by the min- 
ister of state, and embrace : 

1. Primary Schools, Of these there were in 1864, 223 schools, 
with 355 teachers, and 22,609 scholars. 

2. Secondary Schools, There are 2 gymnasia, with 35 teachers, 
and 606 scholars ; 2 real schools, with 23 teachers, and 449 scholars ; 
3 higher burgher schools, with 27 teachers, and 1,254 scholars; 2 
higher girls' schools, with 23 teachers, and 256 scholars. 

3. Superior Schools. University students resort to Jena* 

4. Special and Professional Schools, 

3 Teachers' seminaries, with about 90 students, and about 
25 teachers. 

1 School for architects and carpenters ; 1 supplementary school 
for mechanics ; 1 school for machine-building, — with 
about 150 scholars, and upwards of 20 teachers. Be- 
sides this great institute, there are several schools for 
mechanics receiving aid from the state. 

1 Deaf mute institute, with 1 4 inmates. 

1 Commercial school, with 5 teachers, and 110 pupils. 

1 Agricultural school. 

1 Music schooL 

1 Orphan asylum, at Friedrichroda, founded in 1712. 

3 Kindergarten, with 150 children. 

1 Rescue institution. 
Salzman's Institute at Schnepfenthal, Dietendorfer Institute, Ma- 
ria Institute at Gotha, have a high reputation. 
(334) 



SPECIAL mSTRUCTIOIf IN SAXE-MEINIXGEMILDBURGHAUSEN. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The duchy of Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghansen, on an area of 033 
English square miles, in 1864 had a population of 178,005, of 
whom the majority are engaged in agriculture, 549 in mining, 1,472 
in por<5elain manufactories, and about 8,000 in the manufacture of 
wooden toys. 

The total annual expenditure of the government of Saxe-Meinin- 
gen in the financial period 1862-65, amounted to 1,845,042 florins, 
of which 16,000 florins were expended for primary schools, besides 
the income (14,000 florins) from the crown lands. The main ex- 
pense falls on the local districts. 
^ The institutions of public instruction are administered by the min- 
ister of education and ecclesiastical affairs, (who at the same time is 
minister of justice, who is assisted in the inspection of schools by a 
council consisting of two clergymen, and one layman, who must have 
been a teacher), and include : 

1. Primary Schools. Of these there were in 1864, 285, with 
29,250 scholars, and 406 teachers: — that is, about 1 school to every 
620 inhabitants ; 102 scholars to every school, and 2 teachers to every 
school. 

2. Secondary Schools. 2 gymnasia, with 310 scholars, and 22 
teachers; 2 real schools, with 290 scholars, and 19 teachers; 1 
higher girls' school, with 50 scholars, and 7 teachers. 

3. Superior Schools^ University pupils resort to Jena. 

4. Special and Professional Schools. 

1 Agricultural school, and 4 model farms. 
1 Teachers' seminary, with 9 teachers, and 52 students. 
1 Industrial school, with about 20 pupils. 
1 Deaf mute institute, with from 15 to 20 inmates. 
1 Reform school, with about 24 pupils. 
3 Public asylums for orphans. 
1 Asylum for the orphans of teachers. 
1 Home for neglected children. 
10 Kindergarten, after Froebel's method. 

(a35) 



SPECIAL IXSTRUCTIOX IN SAXE-WEIMAR. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The Grand-duchy of Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach, on an area of 1,421 
English square miles, in 18G4 had a population of 280,201, of which 
number 92,702 were engaged in agriculture, 137,603 in industrial 
pursuits, and 9,855 were engaged in commerce. 

The total annual expenditure of the government of Saxe-Weimar 
in 1864-65, amounted to 1,658,668 thalers, of which 40,000 thalers 
were expended for primary schools, 25,835 for secondary schools, and 
5,090 for special schools. 

The institutions of public instruction are administered hj the min- 
ister of the interior, who at the same time is minister of the grand- 
ducal house, and minister of foreign affairs. 

1. Primary Schools. Of these there were 678, with about 50,000 
scholars, and about 700 teachers ; besides 77 repetition schools. 

2. Secondary Schools. There are 2 gymnasia, with 572 scholars, 
and 39 teachers; 2 real schools, with 337 scholars, and 18 teachers; 
4 higher burgher schools, with 1,517 scholars, and 35 teachers; 1 
higher girls' school, with 135 scholars, and 25 teachers. Besides 
these, there are 2 private boys' schools, with about 200 scholars, and 
38 teachers, as also 2 private girls' schools. 

3. Superior Schools. The University at Jena, common for all the 
Thuringen States, with four faculties (theology, law, medicine, phi- 
losophy), had 440 students, and 67 professors. 

4. Special and Professional Schools. 

2 Teachers' seminaries, with 302 students. 
2 Schools of architecture and carpentry. 
1 School of forestry, and 1 School of agriculture. 
1 Commercial academy. 
1 School of pharmacy. 
1 Institute (Falk's) for neglected children. 
10 Kindergarten. 

1 Institute for deaf mutes ; 1 Institute for the blind, at Weimar. 
77 Forlibldang, or supplementary schools. 
Orphans, 1,200, are placed in families, and attend the public schools 
with other children. 

(336) 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The kingdom of Wurtemberg, on an area of 7,840 English square 
miles, in 1867, had 1,778,478 inhabitants, of which number 276,000 
were employed in agriculture, 225,000 in mechanical pursuits, and 
48,000 as day-laborers, &c. 

The total annual expenditure of the government of Wurtemberg 
during the financial period 1864-65 was 17,064,236 florins, of which 
226,270 fl. were expended for elementary public instruction. The 
institutions of public instruction are administered by the Minister 
of Education and of Ecclesiastical Affairs. 

1. Primary Schools.— 0^ these there were, in 1865, 2,168, with 2,T21 teach- 
ers "and 230,712 pupils. Besides these there were 691 evening-schools, intended 
for further instruction in those branches of study which find a special apphca- 
tion in practical life; and 142 infant schools, with 8,953 children. 

2. Secondary Schools. — There were, in 1868, 4 gymnasiums, with 635 schol- 
ars and 76 teachers; 3 gymnasia with real-school classes, with 1,438 scholars 
and 92 teachers; 5 lyceuras, with 574 scholars and 38 teachers; 9 real-schools, 
with 2,006 scholars and 100 teachers — making a total of 21 secondary schools, 
with 4,653 scholars and 306 teachers. 

3. Superior Schools. — The university at Tubingen, in four faculties, [theology, 
law, medicine, philosophy,] had 78 professors and 785 students. Besides the 
theological faculty of Tubingen, numbering 331 students, there are 4 Protestant 
theological seminaries, with upwards of 100 students and 26 teachers. 

4. Special and Professional Schools. — 3 Teachers' seminaries, with 230 stu- 
dents and 23 teachers; 1 technical university, with 49 teachers and 468 stu- 
dents; 1 college for the building trades, with 26 teachers and 578 students; 
108 higher trade-schools, with 425 teachers and 8,264 pupils; 1 academy of 
agriculture and forestry, with 123 students and 21 teachers; 3 farm-schools, 
with 12 pupils; 523 finishing farming schools, classes, &c., attended by 12,040 
persons; 1 veterinary college, with 6 professors and 57 pupils; 1 school of art, 
with 8 teachers and 55 pupils; 1,450 industrial schools, with 52,157 pupils. 

5. Supplementarij Schools and Agencies. — Wurtemberg has a large number of 
Sunday-schools, infant-schools, orphan asylums, rescue institutions, working- 
men's unions for debates, lectures, reading rooms, evening schools, recreations, 
savings bank, life and accident insurance, &c. of its members and their appren- 
tices, and other appliances for reaching the juvenile population, so that it is the 
boast of her educators that this government has more nearly solved the problem 
of universal education thMi any State of Europe. 

22 



338 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 



SYSTEM AND INSTITUTIONS OF TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. 

Wiirteraberg, without possessing a system of technical instruction 
under a special ministry, has most of the agencies and institutions 
which are considered desirable or necessary for this purpose in the 
present industrial condition of the population. 

I. There is a system of public schools, so distributed and admin- 
istered as not only to solve more nearly the problem* of universal 
education than that of any otber State, but to make special tech- 
nical instruction practicable and economical. 

The laws forbid the employment of very young persons in factory 
or other labor, unless they have been at school, or can obtain fur- 
ther instruction while so employed ; and for this purpose, in every 
manufacturing or mechanical population, there is a special school 
for this class of children. 

II. As an indispensable instrument in technical instruction, pro- 
vision is made for all persons over twelve years of age to acquire 
skill in drawing, by imparting to all teachers the ability to give in- 
struction in this branch, and introduce it into every school of gen- 
eral and special education. 

III. Trade-schools to the number of 108 (varying in their studies 
according to the demand) are so distributed through all the centers 
of population as to meet practically the wants of every trade. 

IV. A College for building trades, with 26 teachers. 

y. A Technical University at Stuttgard, with 49 teacbers, giving 
instruction, (1) in architecture ; (2) engineering ; (3) machinery ; 
(4) chemistry in its applications to manufactures, mines, metallurgy, 
and pharmacy. 

yi. Colleges and Courses for Agriculture, Forestry, and Rural 
Economy generally, including the great institution at Hohenh6im, 
three schools of practical farming, a school for gardening, a chair in 
the university, and 360 evening schools, besides practical lectures 
and conferences, scattered through the country. 

yil. A yeterinary College at Stuttgard. 

yill. A School of Art, embracing every facility of drawing, mod- 
eling, landscape, water and oil painting, and statuary. 

IX. Special Instruction in Commerce in the Real Schools. 

X. Central Museum of Industrial Art. 

In connection with the Industrial Museum there is a collection of 
models in aid of instruction in drawing, design, and modeling, and 
a workshop for reproducing them in plaster, from which any article 
on the catalogue can be ordered at the cost price to the molder. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 339 

AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. 

There are in Wurtemberg the Ibllowing dittereut sources of agricultural 
instruction : — 

1. The roj'^al agricultural and forestry institute at Hohenheim. 

2. Three scliool farms at Ellwangen, Ochsenhausen, Kirchberg. 

3. An agricultural chair at Tubingen. 

4. A veterinary school at Stuttgard. 

5. Apprenticeships on the large private farms. 

6. Agricultural improvement schools, which vary in their aims and methods 
in different localities, viz. : in the winter of 1866-67, one hundred and seventy 
voluntary schools, with three thousand two hundred and sixty-six pupils; 
three hundred and sixty obligatory evening schools in which agricultural instruc- 
tion was given, with seven thousand nine hundred and thirteen pupils, the so- 
called agricultural evening meetings in sixty communities, with fourteen hundred 
and sixty-one visitors, and seventy-eight reading circles, with two thousand and 
thirty-four members. 

7. Lectures by practical farmers and agriculturists, employed by the depart- 
ment to visit difterent sections, discuss special subjects, and cooperate with the 
local agricultural association in special improvement. 

8. Free distribution of agricultural reports and philosophical experiments 
among agricultural schools, associations, clubs, reading-rooms and libraries. 

^9. Special instruction to home pupils in the institute. 

The institute at Hohenheim is by far the most important of these, and was 
the starting point of public interference in this branch of instruction. The 
person to whom it, and therefore the cause of agricultural education not only 
in Wurtemberg but in the world, owes its origin, was Schwerz, who was born 
at Coblentz, June 11, 1759. He founded the institute in 1818, and died Sept. 3,; 
1828. He brought with him to the school, a system of agriculture based on the 
practice of the Flemish cultivators, a system which has since been gradually 
superseded by one involving larger and more scientific operations. 

The school farms of Ellwangen and Ochsenhausen date as recently as 1842, 
the funds having been subscribed for the purpose of erecting a monument to 
the king, and being at his request applied to this purpose. 

The apprentices on the large private farms are, in general, preparing them- 
selves to enter the Hohenheim school. 

The instruction given at the Tubingen university is not only highly scientific 
but very practical in its character, but for a class of students, however, with 
whom agriculture is to be rather a taste than a serious employment. 



INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY.* 

Hohenheim is seven miles from Stuttgard, the capital of the kingdom of 

"Wurtemberg, the road lying through vineyards and orchards and royal forests. 

Long before my arrival at head-quarters, it was easy to see that I was riding 

through tlie fields of the institute. The fruit trees were' labeled and numbered, 

•Abridged from Report of Secretary C. L. Flint to the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, on 
the Agricultural Schools of Europe, 1863. 



840 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WIJRTEMBERG. 



the fields and the rotation upon them were indicated by stakes and cards, and 
every thing gave evidence of thrift and skill and scientific management. What 
capital roads ! Nothing but a royal decree could have lined them every where 
with cherry and apple and pear-trees, stretching away as far as the eye could 
reach. No fences mar the open landscape, either along the highway or on the 
division lines. There is a little footpath that leads through the woods, a 
beautiful, shaded walk to Kleinhohenheim. 

Conducted on the same estate, and under the same general direction, the 
Royal Institute at Hohenheim consists of: 

1. The institute or school of agriculture, for young gentlemen. 

2. The school of forestry. 

3. The school of practical farming, for the sons of peasants. 

. The lands, plantations, gardens and nurseries connected with the old chateati 
(eight hundred and twenty-five acres,) are wholly devoted to the purposes of 
the three establishments, and serve professors as well as pupils for illustration 
and experiment ; while the extensive royal forests (over five thousand acres,) 
in the neighborhood and lengthy excursions made every year, give a wide 
range of observation, especially for students in the management of forests. 

HISTORICAL DEYELOPMENT. 

The Agricultural Institute, at Hohenheim originated, in a measure, from the 
establishment of the agricultural society of Wurtemberg, in 1817, when the 
necessity of a model farm and an institute of instruction and experiment 
became strikingly apparent, as a means of the development and the elevation 
of agriculture in the estimation of the people. 

The success and popularity of the school founded in 1806 by the illustrious 
Thaer, at Moglin, in Prussia, had no doubt contributed largely to this feeling 
among the agriculturists of "Wurtemberg. Thaer's enterprise was undertaken 
at first on his own private account, and so continued till the year 1819, thirteen 
years after its commencement. It so happened that the introduction and spread 
of fiue-wooled or Merino sheep into Northern Europe, and especially upon the 
farm at Moglin, near Berlin, concurred to attract to this private effort a large 
share of public attention, while the reputation of Thaer rapidly grew at home 
and abroad, not only as a consequence of the success of his school, but likewise 
from his valuable publications. His school was therefore taken under the 
patronage of the government, as a royal academy, but the management of the 
estate still remained at the risk and expense of the owners, the instruction only 
being paid by the government. This led to a mixed arrangement, the evils of 
which very soon began to develop themselves, and in time to be avoided at 
Holienheim, where the whole establishment was taken under the control of the 
government, and located upon a royal domain. 

A part of this domain happening, at that time, to be under lease, it was 
necessary to begin the instruction, on the small adjoining estate of Carlshof, 
consisting of only two hundred and fifty-five acres. A small beginning was 
therefore a matter of necessity, and this was to continue till the year 1822, 
when the broad estates of Hohenheim would be at the service of the institute, 
at the head of which stood Schwerz, who was placed by the confidence of the 
king in full control of the property, with only the assistance of a farm inspector 
and two of his pupils. He assumed direction in 1818, with eight pupils, 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 341 

personally arranged every thing, and even managed tlie finances of the school, 
which, for the first two years, remained on this simple foundation, as a purely 
agricultural institute. 

In the year 1820, the school for the management of forests, which had 
previously existed at Stuttgard, was removed to Carlshof and placed under the 
direction of Schwertz, though still independent for all the purposes of instruc- 
tion. The greater number of students were then, as they are at present, 
students of agriculture, — one hundred and twenty-four agricultural students and 
but thirty-seven foresters. 

The limited number of foresters may be owing in part to the rigorous con- 
ditions of admission to the forest school, the applicants for whicli must have 
practiced in the management of woods for at least two years under a head 
steward of forests. It was thought that a general connection of instruction in 
forestry with that in agriculture, would have some important advantages, as, 
for instance,. for the pupils of the agricultural institute, who are either owners, 
or to become in future, stewards of large estates, in which the management of 
forests would often be of great importance, while the contact of a class of 
students who have to submit to a rigid examination on which their future 
success will largely depend, would be very useful, as an example of good 
conduct and studious habits, to students in the agricultural institute who are 
not obliged to work. It would be a desirable stunulant to exertion. Then the 
union would enable the two to give a wider range to the instruction in both, 
the students of each having an opportunity to avaU. themselves of lectures, 
which they could not otherwise have, so that the foresters, for instance, could 
get a general knowledge of agriculture, which they would not gam in a special 
school. 

Experience has accordmgly justified this change, and the arrangement still 
exists. 

The School of Practical Farming, AcJcerhauschule, was begun at the close of 
1818, with ten stout boys of fourteen years of age, from the orphans in Stutt- 
gard and other cities. These boys had but one instructor, who had to keep 
them at work and train them to the greatest possible activity, order, and good 
conduct. They received to some extent the theoretical instruction of the 
students in the higher institute, but in 1824 they began to have more or less 
theoretical instruction adapted to the capacity of each, and to their future 
designs. This practical school was modified in 1829, when the number was 
extended to twenty-five, and instead of taking orphans as heretofore, the sons 
of peasants especially were to be admitted, between the ages of sixteen and 
eighteen, who, as they were already famUiar with the ordinary routine of farm 
work, could be immediately useful on the farm, and taught the improved 
processes of agriculture in a shorter time. 

They are required to spend three years at Hohenheim, and must be natives 
of Wurtemberg. Thek instruction in the theory of agriculture is limited to 
two hours a day. 

SPECIAL COUESES. 

Besides the regular instruction in agriculture and forestry, there are several 
special courses. 

1. A school of gardening was established in 1 844 at the same place, but still 



342 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 

independent of the others. Six pupils only were admitted into this, and each 
must have attained the age of seventeen years. Each applicant must have 
spent three years as gardener or vintager, or attended the course at a farm 
school, and the garden school aimed in one course to perfect what had 
previously been begun in the art of gardening and fruit culture. Then, in 
addition, there were established at the same place, special courses for orchardiste, 
meadow husbandry, shepherds, and school teachers. 

2. The course for orchardists, which has been continued since 1850, wa3 
designed for young men of eighteen years and upward, who wished to prepare 
themselves for managers of the fruit trees belonging to the communes or 
parishes, of which there are immense numbers every where around the villages 
and highways of the kingdom. This course lasts from four to five weeks in 
the spring of each year, and a few days later in summer for practice in grafting. 
On account of the crowd of applicants to this course, in the last few years, 
from all parts of the kingdom, it became necessary to extend it to three courses 
a year, with from fifteen to twenty pupils in each, so that now this theoretic 
and practical instruction in fruit culture continues from the middle of March to 
the end of May, and a continuation of the course occurs also in August. 

3. The five weeks' course upon the technical management of meadows, has 
been continued regularly in the spring since 1855, whenever there has been a 
sufficient number of applicants. It includes the art of treating meadows, field 
drainage, the establishment of boundaries or practice in applied geometry, for 
those who wish to perfect themselves in farm engineering. The number of 
attendants on this course has averaged eight. 

4. The course of instruction for shepherds was opened for the first time in 
1855, and has continued uninterruptedly since, with an average of ten to 
twelve attendants. Applicants are required to be over twenty years old, and 
to have been in practice with shepherds four years. The course takes place in 
February and last four weeks. 

5. To these courses was added another in 1860, for school teachers, which is 
limited to three weeks in the autumn vacations of the public schools. The 
principal object is to provide the means of a continuation of their agricultural 
education, which was found to be needed in many parts of the country. Such 
teachers only are invited to attend this course as have busied themselves on 
their own or on the school grounds, with agricultural labors, in the formation of 
means for improvement in agricultural education. The instruction embraces 
the whole of agricultural labor, with special researches into' the imperfections 
and failings which appear in different parts of the country. The number who 
may attend each course is fixed at twenty-five. 

Instruction in the several courses is given partly by the regular corps of 
professors of the institute, and partly by persons from abroad who make a 
speciality of certain pursuits, who go to Hohenheim for the pui-pose, and the 
arrangement is such that the pupils' during their stay in Hohenheim are occu- 
pied the whole of each day, partly in hearing lectures, and partly in demonstra- 
tions in the field, in the stalls, in the collections, or in excursions, and partly in 
the solution of prescribed tasks. 

OCCASIONAL COURSES. 

In addition to the regular established course, occasional courses are given, as 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 343 

for instance, in 1853, a course upon silk culture, another on bee culture and on 
the nursery business. They took place in the afternoon of each Wednesday, 
from four to six, and were attended by twenty young men, mostly sub-teachers 
or assistants in the schools. In 1855, another course was given upon silk 
culture, designed for the pupils of the normal schools, of whom one hundred 
and thirty-four attended. A similar course of agricultural instruction was 
given in 1861 for the school teachers in the jurisdiction of Stuttgard, in which 
fifty-two teachers of the public schools engaged. The lectures were accom- 
panied by demonstrations in the field, and in the collections, an afternoon of 
each week, and the design was to prepare the teachers for holding evening 
agricultural schools in winter. And so in 1852-3, on the occasion of consider- 
able changes in the laws regardmg distilled liquors, two courses of instruction 
were given to the revenue officers upon the processes of distilling. One lasted 
ten da^'s and the other twelve, and was attended by over sixty officers of the 
revenue who desired the information. And so, also, a vast amount of labor is 
done, and information imparted in answer to letters and through numerous 
publications by the professors, all of which widen the circle of influence of the 
institution. 

MEANS OF INSTRUCTION. 

The means of instruction in the institute proper were limited, as already 
stated, at the foundation, to a physical and mathematical apparatus, an outfit 
foj the chemical laboratory, and a little natural history collection, for which the 
queen had contributed a thousand florins, and this was confined strictly to agri- 
culture. Still with the small number of pupils it was made the means of 
important instruction in special branches. As for the farm, a greatly improved 
arrangement of lands was adopted over that common in the neighborhood, 
either then or at present, Schwertz, who was born at Coblentz in 1759, and 
who was familiar with the agriculture of Belgium, where it was carried on in 
the highest perfection then known, not only got many improved implements 
from that quarter, but also a skillful foreman who was acquainted with their 
use, and could teach it to others. 

An implement manufactory formed a part of the design, one that should not 
only supply the wants of the farm with the best tools, but be the means of 
introducing the most improved implements into the country, and the institute 
was extremely fortunate in getting the right man for the place, one who had 
been with Fellenberg at Hofwyl, as an implement-maker, and who not only 
answered expectations, but soon won a high reputation for the implement 
branch of the estabhshment by the strength and goodness of the work. 

In 1852, and each year since, arrangements were made for the purpose of 
securing a more rapid and general spread of improved agricultural implements 
throughout the country, whereby master wheelwrights and smiths were pro- 
vided with an opportunity, by a stay of some six or ten days in the implement 
manufactory at Hohenheim, of becoming familiar by observation, handling, 
drawings, models, &c., with the course of business and the manner of manufac- 
ture there, and the master mechanic took it upon himself to give the requisite 
explanations. Up to this time no less than 77 master smiths, and 58 master 
wheelwrights have availed themselves of this opportunity to perfect themselves 
in their business. 



344 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 

But as imperfect and defective as were the arrangements at the outset, at 
•Hohenheim, there was one thing that neither the director nor the pupils were 
in want of, and that was an earnest love for their work, and an enthusiasm for 
the high reputation of the new institute. It was not the least of the merits of 
Schwertz that he knew how to infuse such an enthusiasm into all his pupils. 
Where such a spirit reigns great things are easily developed from small. Forty- 
five years have now passed away, and from the weak seed then planted a 
strong fruit-bearing tree has developed its wide-extended branches. From eight 
pupils in 1818, the number has increased to one hundred and fifty in 1863; 
and from one great professor the number has grown to twelve. 

Among the means of instruction presented at the institute may be mentioned, 
what has already been alluded to, the whole management of the farm, with its 
experimental fields, the implement manufactory, the workshops, the forests and 
hunting-parks, the nurseries, both native and exotic trees, the botanic garden, 
the library, and the different collections and apparatus designed especially for 
the purposes of instruction. 

The botanic garden was started in 1829, with an area of about ten acres. 
It was intended to serve the double purpose of instruction and ornament to the 
surroundings of the chateau. I spent a good deal of time in the various parts 
of this garden. It is laid out on a generous scale, with an agreeable, park-like 
aspect ; groups of trees, ornamental and useful shrubs, parterres of flowers and 
lawns well kept. A part of it is devoted to annuals, where an immense 
nupiber of varieties of wheat and other grains are cultivated ; each plot being 
labeled, so that the visitor may know, without a guide, what each contains. 
In another part are the perennials, especially those of economical value. A 
grass garden forms a part by itself, where the different species of grass are 
cultivated in little clumps, each labeled with its scientific and common name ; 
while an arboretum of considerable extent is, at all times, accessible for 
students and others. 

The library contains four thousand volumes on agriculture and forestry and 
their auxihary sciences, and is open twice a week. 

The collections are very extensive and valuable, more so than at any other 
institute of the kind that I visited. They consist of large collections of soils, 
manures, models of implements, and implements in full size ; admirable collec- 
tions of wools, kept in glass cases, among which are complete historical 
collections from the sheep kept on the farm for many years back, especially 
of the most celebrated bucks and ewes; collections of woods, minerals, petri- 
factions, &c. ; collections of seeds of fruits, herbariums, pathological and zoologi- 
cal collections, apparatus used in the lectures on physics, the chemical labora- 
tory, &c. 

The following is an outline of the course of instruction: — 

1. G-eneral field and plant culture. This includes a general introduction, the 
objects of cultivation and the connection of cattle breeding with farm opera- 
tions; also instructions upon chmates, soils, manures, implements, working the 
soil, multiplieation of plants, care of seeds, crops, preservation of farm products, 
accompanied by demonstrations in the field, the collections of models and 
machine shops. 

2. Special plant culture. 

3. Meadow cultivation. , 

4. Wine, hop and tobacco culture. • •. 

5. Fruit culture. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 



345 



6. Vegetable cultivation. 

7. Breeding of general farm stock — embracing domestic cattle and their 
necessity fur man, science of feeding and nourishment, care, uses, multiplica- 
tion, choice, &,c. 

8. Ho.se breeding, including the structure and anatomy of tlie horse ; with 
the assistance of a large collection of fine illustrations of the different breeds, 
and excursions made to the various royal studs in tlie kingdom. 

9. Ctittle breeding — \\uth demonstrations in the stalls, collections of models 
and cheese dairy. 

10. Sheep breeding, including instruction in regard to wools, demonstrations 
in tlie sheep stalls, in the wool and model collections, and in the wool market 
at Kirchheimer. 

11. Swine and poultry breeding, accompanied also by practical demonstra- 
tions in the pig-sties and collections. 

12. Silk culiure — including the care and cultivation of mulberries, the proper 
buildings, the treatment of silk-worms, &c. 

13. Bee culture. 

14. Practical agricultural instruction — embracing, in general, the duties of 
steward, landed property in its political and legal relations, pos;tiuii, climate, 
soil, farm buildings, &c.; capital, labor, and particularly the organization and 
direction of a farm ; choice of objects, estimation of requirements of manure, 
statistics, nourishment of plants, choice of stock, rotation, farm system, division 
of fields, transition from one course of cropping to another, &c. 

15. Taxation of farm property, 

16. Farm book-keeping. 

17. Agricultural technology — this course embraces, a year's instruction upon 
the manufacture of beet sugar, beer brewing, and the distillery of brandy in 
the winter term, and the manufacture of vinegar, starch, the grinding of meal 
tfle and brick-making, and wine and cider-making in the summer term, wit . 
the innumerable details connected with each. 

The auxiliary branches include : — 

1. Arithmetic and algebra. 

2. Theoretical geometry. 

3. Trigonometry. 

4. Practical geometry, which includes surveying, land measuring and level- 
ing. 

5. Estimation of the value of forest lands, beginning with the cubic contents 
of timber, tlie growth of single trees, whole forests, &c. 

6. Mechanics and physics. 

7. Chemistry in the winter term, general in the summer, agricultural 
chemistry, with practice and experiments in the laboratory. The lectures on 
agricultural chemistry treat, among other things, upon the composition of feed- 
ing substances, the theory of feeding. &c. 

8. Introduction to geology, the object being to give the student a full 
knowledge of all those minerals alluded to in the lectures on special geognosy, 
and which are of more or less importance as elements in the soil, and in organic 
bodies. 

9. Geognosy, science of minerals, composition, adhesion, hardness of rocks, 
their contents of water, air, warmth, &c. Structure of masses of rocks, groups, 
systems. &c. 

10. Introduction to botany and special economic botany, in connection with 
which weekly excursions are made during the summer, in the neighborhood of 
Hohenlieim, in addition to which are demonstrations in the botanic garden and 
the collections. 

11. Physiology, anatomy and pathology of plants — their anatomical composi- 
tion; elementary organs — the different forms of cells : the compound organs, 
the structure of the root, the stem, the leaves ; microscopic demonstrations — 
life of plants in general, assimilation, secretion; chemical composition of plants 
— the elements, organic and inorganic; the external conditions of plant life — 
influence of heat, light, and electricity on plants &c.; internal conditions of life. 
A pathological collection and a good microscope are constantly used in the 
demonstrations. 



346 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 

12. General zoology, with explanations by skeletons. 

13. Special zoology, with constant use of the zoological collections, in classes, 
famOies, breeds, &c. 

14. Veteriuary science, including the structure of domestic animals, with 
practical demonstrations. 

15. National economy. 

16. Laws relating to forests. 

17. Agricultural mechanics — building materials, foundations, structures, &c. 

18. Drawing of plants. 

These courses are so arranged that the pupil can go over their whole range 
in two terms, or one year, if he lias had suflBcient preparation at the outset; 
but generally it requires the regular course of two years of the institute. 

The course of instruction begins on the first of October, and the first, or 
winter term, continues till the tenth of March, when there are three weeks' vaca- 
tion, after which follows the summer term till the first of September. An 
examination takes place at the end of each year before the royal commis- 
sion, when prizes are distributed to such as have distinguished themselves by 
industry, good conduct and acquirements. 

The corps of instruction was constituted as follows in 1864: 

Dr. Riecke, professor of mathematics and physics. 

Karl Siemens, professor of agricultural technology and head-director of the 
implement manufactory. 

Dr. Fleischer, professor of geognosy and botany, and director of the botanic 
garden. 

Dr. JSTordlinger, principal teacher of forestry, and steward of the hunting 
grounds at Hohenheim. 

Dr. Emil Wolff, professor of chemistry, and director of the agricultural 
chemical laboratory. 

Dr. Rau, professor of agriculture, who lectures upon agriculture in general, 
plant culture, meadow management, vine, hop and tobacco culture, breeding of 
cattle, sheep, and smaller animals. 

Dr. Rueff, professor of veterinary science, who lectures upon zoology, horse- 
breeding, and silk culture. 

Professor Fischbach, second teacher of forestry and steward of the forests at 
Denkendorf 

Besides these, there is a teacher of book-keeping, another of national econ- 
omy and the laws of forests, a director of the garden school, who teaches fruit 
and root-culture, and a head-teacher, Mr. Kik, manager of the farm-school, who 
gives instruction in bee-culture. The farm inspector also conducts some agri- 
cultural exercises on the experimental field. 

These professors are appointed by the king, upon presentation to the Minister 
of the Interior, made by the general council of agricultxire. 

The salar}^ of the professors, like the pay of scientific and literary men gen- 
erally in Germany, is very small, scarcely adequate to their support, even on a 
very economical establishment. Tliis accounts for their prolific pens. They are 
compelled in very many, no doubt in the vast majority of cases, to write books, 
prepare articles for the scientific journals, and otherwise to eke out the means 
of a respectable support. 

The salary of the director amoimts to 2,500 florins, $1,025; that of three 
professors, each 1,500 florins, $615 ; one professor has but $533; three others 
have $492 each; another, $348; two assistant teachers, each $102. 

The students of the higher institute are admitted, after the age of eighteen, 
without examination, on certificate of willingness on the part of parents, and of 
industry and good conduct at the schools hitherto attended, and at any time 
during the year, and are held to no very rigid discipline, being required to 
attend three of the regular courses every week, which they may select. 

The lectures begin at six o'clock in the morning in summer and at seven' 
o'clock in the winter, and end at seven o'clock in the evening throughout the 
year. They continue with only two hours' intermission for dinner at noon. 
Two lectures, for different sections, are often going on at the same time. ■ 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. Q^tj 



INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING IN WURTEMBERG* 

In response to numerous inquiries from foreign governments, in regard to the 
system of public instruction in drawing in the popular schools, real-schools, and 
trade improvement schools of Wurtemberg, an investigation was ordered by the 
Ministry of the Church and of Education. The results of this investigation in 
regard to the teaching of this branch, so important to the industrial develop- 
ment of the country, we now proceed to lay before our readers. 

COMMON OR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, (VolJcSSChulen.) 

Drawing forms no part of the plan of instruction prescribed by the govern- 
ment (Sept. 29, 1836) for these institutions, but is ever}'^ where an optional 
branch, and its introduction into the school depends upon the action of the local 
authorities. The sole exception to this, is the case of seventeen of the so-called 
"middle schools," of the Protestant denomination, where it is obligatory. These 
are Volhsschultn with a somewhat enlarged curriculum. Apart from these, 
drawing lessons are given out of the regular school hours, on the half-holidays, 
"Wednesday and Saturday, and in some places, on Sunday, two hours in the 
week being assigned to them. In the country, these lessons are given during 
the winter only ; in cities in the summer also. No pupil is admitted to them 
before his eleventh year. 

In 1866, instruction in drawing was given in connection with 184 popular 
schools of the Protestant faith, and to 5,167 pupils, for the most part boys. Of 
those belonging to the Catholics, the number had risen to 134 at the beginning 
of the year 1868, (Jan. 1,) 25 of which were in the larger cities, (Oleramtsiddte,) 
18 in smaller cities, and 91 in the villages. In some of the smaller parishes of 
the cities, {Sfadfgemeinde,) the pupils of the Latin and popular schools unite to 
form a class in drawing, these being tlie only cases in which diflerent institu- 
tions unite for this purpose. 

There is at present (1868.) no prescribed graded and methodical system of 
teaching this branch, the thoroughness of the instruction being secured, how- 
ever, by regular inspection and certain extraordinary drawing courses for the 
teachers, to be described farther on. Linear and free-hand drawing is taught, 
and in some boys' schools of an advanced character, geometrical drawing also. 

The teachers employed are the drawing-masters of the trade improvement- 
schools in those cities where such a special class of instructors is employed; 
where this is not the case, and in the country, that regular or irregular teacher 
in the primary schools who is best qualified for this purpose. 

In regard to the salary, extra pay for this service is generally given by the 
commune, for which purpose it receives a certain annual subvention from the 
Government, only, however, in years when the exhibit at the treasury is favor- 
able. In the villages this extra pay amounts to about twenty florins (Rhenish,) 
but is proportionably greater in the cities, where however the duties of teaching 
drawing and the additional pay are very often connected with the trade im- 
provement schools. In some parishes, there is no extra pay, and the hours of 
drawing lessons are included in the thirty hours per week required of the 
teacher. 

* From the Supplement to the Wurtemberg Staatsanieiger, May 22, 1868. 



348 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 

The preparatory instruction for the teachers of the popular schools is gener- 
ally imparted during the regular course at the normal schools. Since 1860 this 
course has been extended by the addition of a three to six months' drawing- 
course to the regular period of study, to be free of expense to the twelve most 
gifted members of the class. The continual improvement of the teachers is 
secured by the following arrangement. Every year there is held, in different 
cities, terms of four to six weeks under the charge of the best drawing-masters, 
to which those teachers in the popular schools are summoned who either have 
already given drawing lessons or are about to begin them. The instructions of 
those to whom these classes are confided are that they are not only to recall 
what has already been learned by their pupils, but to assiduously endeavor to 
improve their method of drawing. They receive suitable pay from the govern- 
ment, and the teachers summoned to attend are allowed 1 florin and 20 or 30 
kreutzers daily for their traveling expenses, from the same source. The system 
has worked admirably, particularly within the experience of the Catholic school 
authorities ( Ohei'schulbehorde.) 

The cause of drawing-instrnction in the popular schools has been very essen- 
tially furthered by the biennial visits of inspection to which they, as well r.s the 
real and trade improvement schools, have been subjected. This inspection is 
conducted in the following manner. On the day when the visits of inspection 
of a real or trade improvement school are made, all those teachers of the pop- 
ular schools in the surrounding district where drawing is taught, resort thither, 
in order to lay the work done by their pupils before the Commissioner, who 
examines them and points out their defects, giving such advice, correction and 
instruction as may seem to him demanded in the several cases. 

The Commissioner reports to the upper school authorities, especially in regard 
to those teachers who, in his opinion, should be summoned to the above-men- 
tioned courses. Another incidental benefit of the labors of this Commissioner 
is that the school authorities have prevailed upon those communes not pro- 
vided with the proper helps (books, &c.) to instruction, to procure them. The 
great drawing-book of Professor Hqrdtle, with explanatory text, has been intro- 
duced into all the Catholic and most of the Protestant schools, this being partly 
due to the Central Board of Trade and Commerce, by whom the publication of 
the work was undertaken, and by whom it was distributed to the poorer par- 
ishes, half or all of the price being deducted. The studies of Deschner in Heil- 
bronn are also used, having been commended for some of the schools by the 
inspectors, and the old, imperfect studies are every where laid aside. 

The further experience of the inspectors will soon be sufficient to justify the 
fiilfillment of the plan, now being perfected, of publishing an elementary and 
properly-progressive work, containing such studies, both for free-hand and linear 
drawing, as shall answer the wants of the popular schools. 

EEAL-SCHOOLS. 

As in other branches of the real-school course, there is for the drawing 
classes a different organization in the different orders of institutions, namely the 
lower, with one, two or three classes, which include pupils as far as the four- 
teenth year, and those with seven or eight, with pupils between eight and six- 
teen years of age, giving special preparation for the Polytechnic. In the latter, • 
the higher real-schools, each of the first six classes covers a year ; the seventh 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMDERQ. 349 

and eiglith, each tlie same, two years, namely from the fourteenth to tlie six- 
teenth. The real-schools with three classes begin with the eighth year, and 
give two years to each class successively ; those with two, at the tenth year, 
and give two years to each class, while those with one class extend from the 
eleventh to the fourteenth. 

In all these schools, instruction is given in both geometrical and free-hand 
drawing. It is in every case considered an essential part of the course, and 
those communities among whom any branch of industry has been developed to 
a certain degree, regard it as particularly important, and foster it with jealous 
care. 

The regular age at which the lessons are begun is eleven, as it is considered 
that the defective development of the physical and mental organization would 
render an earlier introduction to the study fruitless, which, indeed, experiment 
has shown to be the case. The pupil is first initiated into free-hand drawing. 

The courses are continued until the pupil leaves the school, making the num- 
ber of , years five in the higher institutions, and three in the lower. In the 
former, four hours in the week are given to the subject; in the latter, three, 
although in particular communities, one hour more or less is the rule, according 
to local circumstances. 

Geometrical drawing is commonly entered upon « year later, and is pursued 
during two hours a week, except at the very first, when another hour is appro- 
priated in order to secure the laying of a good foundation. This branch is, 
ho^yever, not pursued in the one-class schools, which are generally located in 
the poorer parishes, and in which one teacher has the simultaneous charge of 
several divisions. 

The aim is very diverse in the different institutions, since there is no one of 
the branches of study in which the difierent capabilities of pupils are so evi- 
dent as in this. Instruction addressed to all of them at once is possible only 
at the very beginning. For with every step in advance, the special talent of 
each becomes moi'e prominent, and the task of the teacher then is to pay that 
attention needed in each individual case, without neglecting those explanations 
which ought to be addressed to the whole class in a body. But the difference 
in the character of the assistance in different cases, is less objectionable than in 
other departments of instruction. 

In regard to progreasion in the lessons, and the end to which it is sought to 
conduct the pupils, the following may be considered as a fair average example 
of the method adopted in difierent schools : 

A. Free-hand Drawing. 

(a.) From studies. — 1. Elementary free-hand drawing. Simple, plane, recti- 
linear figures ; simple, elegant outlines of leaves, vessels, and other objects, for 
the most part from drawings made on the blackboard. 2. More difficult out- 
lines from studies ; parts of the body, heads, &c. 

The object aimed at in working from studies is a correct outline. 

(?;.) From casts. — 3. Outlines from reliefs. 4. Shaded drawings from reliefs; 
for practice in shading, studies are used. 5. Outlines and shaded drawings 
from casts. 

The aim is, in this part of the course, the correct drawing of a cast in point 
of hght and shade. 

The higher real-school can conduct pupils through the whole of this course, 



360 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 

but in the lower class of institutions studies' only are used, and with these the 
instruction is often carried no farther than the first part, the copying from draw- 
ings on the board. The copies most used are those in Professor Herdtle's 
work, as edited by the Royal Trade School Commission. 

B. Geometrical Drawing. 

For details upon progression and the aim given to the courses, the reader 
may consult the "Programme of Instruction in linear drawing in the classical 
and real-schools of Wurtemberg," by the Upper Councilor of Studies, Fischer. 

The aim of this course is to give the pupil certain information, skill and 
habits, and to cultivate his taste. He is therefore (1) to learn geometrical 
terms, that he may understand a drawn and explained geometrical figure; (2) 
to cultivate order, neatness, exact and neat execution ; (3) to acquire sureness 
£tnd rapidity in the use of instruments, and in the application of practical points 
intended to facilitate certain processes (praktische Handgriffe und Vortheile;) 
(4) to become acquainted with the rectilinear and curved geometrical figures, 
the knowledge of which is particularly important to an artistic, scientific, tech- 
nical or aesthetic cultivation, in regard to their elements and the modes of 
drawing them. The subjects of instruction include, therefore, on the one hand 
the elementary exercises, as drawing a sti-aight line through two points, con- 
tinuing and equally dividing straight lines, drawing parallel lines, describing 
circles and arcs, bisecting arcs and angles, drawing perpendiculars to other 
lines, using the protractor and reduced scale, drawing tangents, constructing 
equilateral triangles and regular polygons, &c. ; on the other hand, the complex 
figures which are formed by combining the lines, angles, &c., studied in the ele- 
mentary exercises, and arranged as follows: 

(a.) Figures may be executed with the ruler or compass in such a manner as 
to necessitate the use of the free hand to complete them, the direction of the 
lines being indicated by points or tangents. 

(6.) All problems should also be exhibited in a completed condition, to afford 
the means of comparing the pupil's work. 

(c.) Tliey ought to clear up difficult points in scientific geometry, or present 
forms important in industry, or ornaments drawn from classic, Gothic or Arabic 
work. The teacher, by properly placing and explaining the studies, by watch- 
ing the pupil during his work, by criticising each completed piece, and by careful 
direction of individuals in regard to the minutiae of their tasks, must conduct 
and give animation to the work as a whole or in parts. 

The stages of the course are — 

1. In the first, easy figures, with application of the first elementary exercises, 
are drawn in pencil, and shaded with India ink. (Three months, but longer if 
the study of geometrical forms is entered upon.) 

2. In the second, larger sheets of paper are provided, and the drawings are 
completely shaded with India ink, care being taken to distinguish the difterent 
lines. (One year.) 

3. The figures drawn in the third stage call for the use of all the various ele- 
mentary operations ; they are always connected with higher geometry ; the 
pupil is allowed to make^ use of a text, or, where necessary, of a sketch. (Nine 
months.) 

4. In the fourth stage, the pupil is required to construct certain figures, of 
which he has the measurements only, or perhaps some few explanations from 



SPECIAL INSTKUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 35^ 

the teacher. These are geometrical studies particularly useful in drawinp:, tlie 
reduction of figures to another scale, the measurement of angles by employing 
continued fractions, regular quadrilaterals, the higher theory of circles, deter- 
mining the centre of gravity, ornaments, Gothic carving and inlaying, rosettes, 
&c. He. is to draw these by methods based on his own scientific knowledge, or 
from empirical means invented by himself. 

5. The fifth grade embraces (a) higher curves, to be constructed, produced, 
provided with tangents, &c., by tbe pupil himself; (b) drawing of plans; (c) 
ground and outline drawing, with a constant view to parallel perspective. 

The fourth and fifth grades are reserved for the upper real-school. 

The text-book used in these exercises is the collection of studies for geomet- 
rical drawing by the Superior Councilor of Studies, Fischer, There has appeared 
(1867) a third edition of this work, although it is not yet completed beyond the 
third grade of the course ; it was drawn up on commission from the Department 
of Classical and Real Schools of the Ministry of Religion and Education. Of 
course other means to illustrate the course and assist the teacher are not ex- 
cluded. 

Both the collection of studies for free-hand drawing published by Professor 
Herdtle, on commission from the Royal Commission for the Trade Improvement 
Schools, and the last named collection of studies, have been pubUshed and their 
method particularly recommended. Since, however, general instructions are 
much less valuable than proper personal suggestions in which the merits of the 
mpthod of the teacher addressed are recognized, and his errors pointed out, 
regular visits of inspection have been ofiered. 

The arrangement of the rooms where drawing is studied varies much, accord- 
ing to the pecuniary circumstances of the communes, since on them falls the 
greater part of the expenses of the real-schools. 

Sometimes the ordinary school-room is used without particular preparation 
of the desks, or with certain provisions, frames to hold the copies or models 
being placed upon the lower tier of seats or in some cases let down from the 
ceiling. In all the higher real-schools and many of the more important of the 
lower class, special rooms are provided for the class, with a northern light, 
many and high windows, so arranged that a regulated light shall fall from the 
left without interruption upon the work of each pupil. The plan of the room 
is such that the teacher can get at any one without disturbing the others. The 
drawing is done at small tables, or, in case models are used, broad tables, with 
curtains provided to make a suitable background. Three-legged stools are 
used for chairs, and simple supports are provided upon which the paper can be 
laid. 

The communes receive assistance from the State, which gladly contributes a 
larger or smaller sum, according to the needs of the case, towards fitting up 
these apartments. 

The instruction is generally intrusted to the principal teachers, {Hauptlehrer^) 
each professor teaching his own pupils, or the most capable in the whole corps 
instructing several or all of the classes, exchanging with the others some of the 
other branches previously taught by him. 

In all of the higher real-schools, however, and in some of the lower, espe- 
cially in cities where the need for instruction in this branch is felt by those not 
members of these institutions, and evening and Sunday improvement-schools 



352 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 

are founded, specially educated drawing-masters are engaged, who either devote 
their whole time to the school, or, and this is often the case when they teach 
only one branch of the art, fill some other profession at the same time, as tliat 
of architect or artist. 

The training of the teachers is most commonly obtained at the Polytechnic, 
sometimes also at the university. It is part of the examination of the candidate 
for a teachership in schools where realistic branches are taught, he being re- 
quired to show — 

1. In geometrical drawing — skill in the use of instruments and in the execu- 
tion of geometrical drawings. He is besides required to execute a drawing, 
solving some problem in descriptive geometry, with the addition of a designa- 
tion of the process of solution. 

2. In ftee-hand drawing, he must be able to execute correct and elegant out- 
lines from models, and must understand the treatment of shading. He must at 
the same time exhibit a portfolio of drawings from his own hand, and give oral 
explanations in regard to them. 

Improvement courses are instituted for those teachers who need them, held 
during the holidays or during furloughs granted for this purpose, extending 
from six weeks to several months. They must devote all this time to study at 
the Polytechnic, the winter building school, or in the so-called open drawing- 
rooms, which are fitted up in several cities to meet the needs that may arise in 
the local industries, and are under the supervision of the professors or superin- 
tendents there stationed. For this purpose they receive a varying subvention 
from the Government. They are directed not only to cultivate their own skill 
in drawing, but to acquire the art of conducting a course in a properly pro- 
gressive manner, and to do this they must visit the drawing- schools held by 
the best teachers and the different classes for pupils of different ages. 

The correct and advantageous method secured by these means is carefully 
regulated and supported by regular biennial, or, where necessary, annual visits 
of inspection ordered by the Department of Classical and Real Schools, in con- 
junction with the Trade Improvement Schools Commission. Every teacher 
sends, in response to a certain special scheme of interrogations, an annual 
report, containing a full catalogue of his pupils, a report of their general prog- 
ress and what they have accomplished, of the obtaining of new apparatus for 
which there is special provision in the budget of the commune, details in regard 
to his own studies, changes in the school-rooms, and all similar matters. This 
report is placed in the hands of the inspector before his visit, in order that he 
may use it as a basis for determining the condition of the school and the results 
arrived at; he then adds what he himself has observed and the changes which 
to him seem necessary, addressing his remarks to the upper school authorities, 
who then take the proper steps. The inspectors are taken from the most ex- 
cellent drawing-masters in various institutions, but the inspector of the scientific 
studies in single schools may always, if he chooses, examine the condition of 
instruction. The visits are - always previously appointed, the place and day 
being indicated in a scheme published at the beginning of every year. To 
insure conformity in the inspection system, conventions of the inspectors are 
held at intervals of several years, to discuss their experiences, and to decide 
upon the principles which are to guide them in giving corrections and advice 
to the teachers upon their method, the selection and purchase of apparatus, 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 



353 



their improvement, and similar matters. At this conference are present also 
members of the upper board. To them is due the impulse whence originated 
the publication of the studies of Herdtle and Fischer, 

As an additional means of elevating and invigorating instruction in drawing, 
must be mentioned the exhibitions of the works of pupils, held for the most 
part at the close of the tour of inspection or of the school-year, and by limited 
districts or occasionally by the whole country. They serve the purpose of 
awaking the interest of the public, especially that part of it engaged in indus- 
trial occupations, to bring what has been accomplished by single teachers before 
the eyes of their colleagues, to arouse a healthful emulation among them, and 
by the more or less numerously attended conventions of teachers held in con- 
nection with them, to afford the most rapid means of rendering universal all 
improvements in the system of instruction. 

TRADE IMPROVEMENT SCHOOLS. 

Instruction in drawing is given in all of the trade improvement schools, of 
which there are at present (1868) 122. The number of hours per week given 
to this branch differs at various places from one and a-half to forty-four, the 
last being the case at the evening improvement school at Stuttgart, and the 
minute division of the courses aflbrds to the single pupil the most unbounded 
opportunities for taking part. In many of the smaller country schools, drawing 
is taught only on Sundays, before and after church service ; in other schools, 
partly on Sundays, partly on week-days, partly on both, always in the evening, 
and in some institutions it is prolonged throughout the whole year, although 
scientific instruction is, in these establishments, given during the winter months 
alone. In fifteen of the most prominent improvement schools, which have 
their own drawing-masters, there are so-called "open drawing-rooms," (o^eTie 
Zeichensdle,) where the teacher remains during the greater part of the day in 
order to oversee those pupils who wish to spend the whole day in drawing or 
modeling, and to give advice to proprietors of industrial establishments in mat- 
ters connected with art-work. 

The course varies, in different localities, according to local circumstances, 
especially in view of peculiar industrial needs. General remarks must be lim- 
ited to the following: 

Free-Jiand drawing. — In this department the pupil begins with thorough in- 
struction in drawing outlines from Professor E. Herdtle's book of elementary 
free-hand studies. "When the beginner has had sufiieient practice in this, he 
goes on with shaded ornament drawing after Weitbrecht, or after French 
studies, and when he has had a little practice in shading, passes to plaster mod- 
els taken from the elementary series of the illustrated catalogue of the Royal 
Commission. The mode of further progress depends upon the particular char- 
acter of the pupil and the ability of the teacher to conduct him farther. In 
many cases the attempt to conduct him as far as inventing art designs for man- 
ufacturers has proved successful, which is the ultimate point to which free-hand 
drawing is carried in the trade improvement schools. 

Linear drawing. — Instruction in hnear drawing is parallel to that in free-hand 
drawing, and must be preceded by the study of geometrical forms unless the 
pupil is already acquainted with them. He is not to pass into the study of 
design as connected with particular employments, until he has become ac- 
quainted with geometrical drawing. 

23 



354 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 



Technical design {Fachzeichnen.) — The study of design as applied to particular 
industries is, in the larger schools, preceded by a course of perspective. It is 
exceedingly varied, since every pupil seeks that which he will need in his own 
future employment, and in the larger schools, such as those in Stuttgard, the 
course is divided into many specialities, particular courses being given for 
builders, mechanicians, saddlers, locksmiths, &c., by persons coimected with 
those branches of trade, and with great success. In order to satisfy the great 
demand for proper studies for these various departments, the Eoyal Trade School 
Commission has ordered such to be prepared for builders and furniture-makers, 
arid for locksmiths and mechanicians. These can be obtained at W. Nitzschke's, 
in Stuttgard. Additional studies for special trades appear from time to time. 
Yqyj useful are the studies for mechanics, by Rossler and Fink, published at 
Darmstadt ; also the Gewerhehalle of Baumer and Schnorr, published by Engel- 
horn at Stuttgard, sometimes contains very useful studies, so that this journal is 
taken at all the more important drawing-schools in the country. 

Instruction in modeling in clay, wax, plaster or wood is, in most of the trade 
improvement schools where there are capable teachers, given together with the 
drawing lessons. In this branch many of the schools which are connected with 
industrial establishments, and where sufficient time is allowed, have accom- 
plished much. 

In order to provide more apparatus for the drawing and modeling schools 
than can be obtained in the regular market, the Central Board of Trade and 
Commerce has added a special workshop for models to the collections at the 
Royal Industrial Museum; here are prepared the models figured in the above- 
mentioned illustrated catalogue. There is also, besides the library connected 
with the Museum, a circulating library, {die sogenannte WanderhiUiothek,) con- 
sisting of technical and art works of all classes, which are sent free to teachers 
at their request, and allowed to be used by them for a considerable period of 
time. 

The instruction is imparted in most cases, especially in the smaller improve- 
ment schools, by the teachers of the elementary and the real-schools, who 
receive special pay for this extra service. In larger schools, the architects of 
the cities undertake to give instruction in technical design. In about twenty 
cities, regular drawing-masters are provided for the improvement schools, to 
whose superintendence the above-mentioned open drawing-rooms are intrusted. 
The pay varies much, according to the circumstances of the locality and of the 
individual; however, the just principle every where prevails that the pay for 
instruction given in the day-time shall not be so high as for evenmg lessons, 
since these are far more fatiguing. Teachers who give drawing lessons in addi- 
tion to their other occupations, receive from 40 kreutzers to 1 florin 20 kreut- 
zers the hour, while the salary of the regular drawing-masters, who must be in 
the school-room the greater part of the day, reach from 600 up to 1,200 florins. 
According to article 3 of the law of February 18th, 1868, concerning the lega- 
conditions of those connected with the service of the Department of Cliurch 
and School, it is possible that pensions will be allowed to instructors of the last 
class. 

The improvement of the teachers is, in the case of those from the elementary 
and real-schools who give instruction in the improvement schools, secured by 
the plan already detailed. In many cases a particular method has for several 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WBUTEMBERG. 



366 



years been adopted with great success, to obtain drawing-masters with special 
preparation for teacliing technical drawing. This is, that young people of talent 
are enabled, by proper assistance from tlie St^te treasury, to study at the Poly- 
technic or at art-scheols, generally for a term of years, during which period 
they spend a certain time, about the half of every day, in a workshop devoted 
to some artistic branch of industry. Experience has shown that this combina- 
tion of aesthetic cultivation and practical art employment is very successful, 
since these teachers, who during the period of their artistic cultivation stand iu 
close contact with practical industrial life, are particularly well adapted to exert 
upon their special trade an elevating influence. 

The rooms for instruction in drawing are generally the usual school-room, 
frames to hold the studies being placed on the lower tier of benches. In the 
larger improvement schools, however, rooms are specially devoted to the pur- 
pose, being provided with drawing-tables, seats for modeling, and arrangements 
for drawing from the cast. Those institutions not possessing such rooms make 
every endeaver to obtain them, since methodical and successful instruction can 
be given only when the rooms are properly arranged. For evening instruction 
the apartments are lighted with gas or petroleum, experience having shown that 
there is no difiBculty in drawing from casts in this light. For those communes 
who are to fit up new localities, a model plan has been drawn up and distrib- 
uted by the Royal Commission of Improvement Schools. 

The inspection of the drawing courses in the improvement schools is regu- 
lated in connection v/ith that of the real and elementary schools. The inspectors 
for all three classes of schools are the same, and the mode of proceeding is es- 
sentially the same as already detailed in the preceduag cases. 

Triennial Exhibition of Results. 

The triennial exhibitions at Stuttgard of the works of the pupils have been 
found very useful in elevating the character of the instruction in drawing and 
modeling. The different inltitutions of the country are represented in this 
exhibition. Not only does the Board of Inspection gain a vivid idea of the 
character of the instruction imparted in individual schools, but the teachers, 
who are all summoned to be present, have the opportunity of comparing the 
efficiency of their teaching. 

A convention is held at this time in which the exhibition is discussed, expe- 
riences and criticisms interchanged, and improvements suggested. The com- 
munes also, who send many of their representatives to the exhibition, become 
more zealous as they see how much other communes have accomplished, learn 
to appreciate the value of a knowledge of drawing, and especially become con- 
vinced how much can be done in the evening courses, and are ready to make 
sacrifices for the improvement of their schools to which they would otherwise 
not easily have been induced. 



556 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERO. 



MUSEUM OF INDUSTRIAL ART. 

In connection with the Eoyal Institution for Trade and Commerce at Stutt- 
gard, there has been established a Mv^eum of Industry, witli tlie general aim of 
improving the industrial condition of the country by exhibitions of machinery, 
the rougii material and modifications made by manufacture, and at the same 
time afford facilities for study accessible to workmen and the public generally. 
It embraces : 

1. A Museum proper, which is rich in specimens of German and foreign man- 
ufactures, and with specimens and models of useful machines and implements, 
designs for ornamentation of all kinds, arranged in a systematic manner accord- 
ing to the various trades — for mechanicians, builders, joiners, coach-makers, 
workers in ivory, bronze, all kinds of metals and earthen-ware, needle-workers, 
weavers, book-printing, photographers, etc. etc. 

2. A Trades' Drawing Scliooi, which artisans can attend, using the coUections 
for their own special calling, and also to enable teachers to perfect themselves 
in the various styles of drawing, especially the industrial. Instruction is given 
without cost to those who wish to use the acquisition in their own professions. 

3. A Chemical Laboratory, which is annexed to the exhibition for the pur- 
pose of making experiments in analysis of ores, or in testing colors or any new 
discovery, or in any application of chemical agents or processes to the arts. 

4. A Library and Reading-room ; the first embracing the most expensive 
and most recent publications connected with art, commerce, and manufactures ; 
and the last supplied with the leading periodicals in different languages relating 
to industrial and economical subjects. 

5. A "Weaving School, in which there are almost every variety of loom, the 
uses of which are explained, and facility in their management acquired. 

6. A System of Loans, by which any movable specimen, model or design 
can be sent to any part of the kingdom to be studied or copied. 

The institution, in all its departments, is accessible to artisans without cost, 
and to any visitors by paying a trifling fee. It is much resorted to by work- 
men, and its various models, and patterns of printing, embroidery, and weaving, 
and illustrated books, are loaned to manufacturers in different parts of the king- 
dom, several copies of such as are new or in demand being secured, that their 
immediate use in the institution may not be abridged. The institution has an 
annual grant of 90,000 florins from the government, to be expended m new 
acquisitions. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBEKQ.' 357 

SYSTEMATIC TECHNICAL EDUCATION". 

Illustrated by the Example of Wurtemherg 
With the above title * J. Scott Ru3sell, Esq., a member of all the 
prominent societies of Science and Art in England, and who has had 
large opportunities of forming a sound judgment on the subject on which 
he writes, has addressed a volume to the Queen, and through her to the 
People of England, on the necessity of a systematic technical education 
to continue the country of his birth, his residence, and his labor — the country 
of his pride and his hopes — in the way of a permanent progressive 
development in material, moral and intellectual well-being. The author 
fortifies his arguments and draws illustrations mainly from the experience 
of Wurtemberg and Switzerland, and introduces his condensed and tabu- 
lated statement of the technical institutions of the former kingdom by 
the following remarks : 

INTRODUCTION. 

I WILL now proceed to develop in their practical details the organiza- 
tion of the great institutions with which foreign nations have been provided 
by then* Governments for the technical training of their youth. It will be 
highly instructive to notice how these great educational colleges extend 
over all the divisions of society, high and low, embrace every kind of occu- 
pation, and aid every branch of industry. As the example of an educated 
nation, I might have taken the symmetrical and perfectly organized insti- 
tutions of Prussia, or those of a country boasting a personal freedom equal 
to, or greater than our own, like Switzerland. But I think it may be more 
useful to us to see how much more is done than in our country by some of 
the smaller unpretending States ; by some one of those little kingdoms of 
which we English know little, care less, and rather despise. I might take 
Nassau for example, or Baden, or Hanover, and show how these countries 
have been covered by a network of institutions for the intellectual nutri- 
ment and moral training of their subjects, and how I have found in them 
all a degree of intelligence, culture and moral well-being, which have 
seemed to me admirable and enviable. 

But the nation which I select for the purpose of this Chapter shall be 
Wurtemberg ; I select it as a model nation on a small scale, and therefore 
more easily studied and more readily comprehended ; and as it contains 
only a population of 1,700,000, or one-twelfth of England, or one-twentieth 
part of the United Kingdom, we can readily see what would be the pro- 
portion of similar institutions in England or Great Britain which should 
enable us to say, by a simple act of multiplication by twelve or by twenty, 
what would be the number of technical universit'es, trade colleges, and craft 
schools, which would provide as weU for the people of Great Britain as the 
little kingdom of Wurtemberg has already been long provided for. 

These model institutions of the kingdom of Wurtemberg have the 

* Systematic Technical Education for the English People. By J. Scott Russell, Esq. , ^M. A. , 
"Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinbur>rh; Member of the Society of 
Arts, the Institutions of Civil Engineers, Naval Architects, &c., &c., «fcc. London: 
Bmdbury, Evans & Co., 1869. 



358 -SPECIAL mSTEUCTION IN" 'WTJBTEMBEEa. 

advantage of great symmetry and continuity. There is at the summit for' 
professional men: — 

1. The Polytechnic University of Stuttgardt, which is meant to educate 
the highest classes of professional men. Among these are the modem 
professions of civil engineers, mechanical engineers, and architects. There 
is a course for the mercantile and commercial classes. There is a course of 
chemistry, vnith its applications of the chemical arts and manufactures, and 
there is a course of general superior scientific and literary education for 
professors, lectiu-ers, and men of leisure. 

The building appropriated to this purpose forms one of the piles of 
finest modern architecture in Stuttgardt. There are no less than fifty-one 
professors and teachers, and besides the usual lecture-rooms and studies,' 
there are a chemical laboratory, a physical laboratory, mineralogical 
museums, laboratories for constructive experiments, • plaster-modelling 
rooms, mechanical work-shops, wood-modelling rooms, rooms for drawing, 
a botanical garden, and an astronomical observatory. To appreciate the 
value of such an institution, and its fitness for giving in detail all the pre- 
liminary knowledge which a professional man ought to have before he 
becomes the pupil of the master who will introduce and train him to prac- 
tical work, the reader must consult the detailed plan of it given at the end 
of this Chapter. 

2. A second, and even more remarkable educational institution, is the 
school for the building trades, also in Stuttgardt. It is a complaint con- 
tinually made, and with justice, against these technical colleges, that the 
scale of education is too large, and its quality too ambitious, to form any 
but the highest class of members of any technical profession or trade ; that 
the more ordinary and numerous members of these trades and professions, 
who equally require a thorough practical training, find themselves insuffici- 
ently educated even to enter the technical university, and without leisure 
to devote to it the long and continuous time necessary for its courses. A 
narrower course is wanting for foremen and clerks of works, and even for 
directors and managers of small sections of trades, and it is desirable that 
the humblest craftsman should be able to get such education as, with 
intelligence, diligence, and jjrobity, should enable him to rise to distinction 
and skill in some one thing. 

For these great and wise purposes some of the most distinguished 
directors of the technical university, after many years' experience of the 
value of such education to skilled craftsmen, and the incompatibility of 
giving the highest and broadest education, equally with the narrowest and 
humblest, in the same institution, represented to the Government the ex- 
pediency of forming a new school, intended for building crafts and trades- 
men of the rank immediately under the professional men and skilled 
masters of the technical university. That was accordingly established, 
and succeeded so quickly and so completely, that it became necessary to 
erect quite as large and as handsome a building, and to devote quite as 
large a stafi" to that purpose as to the original polytechnic university ; 
it is now one of the most remarkable and meritorious schools on the 
Continent. The men whom it was especially designed to help in their 
trades were stonemasons, bricklayers, and carpenters, to be trained for 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUETEMBEKG. 359 

future master-builders, lower class builders to be trained for master- 
builders, constructors of public works, subterranean works, and con- 
structors of reservoirs ; constructors of water- works, river- works and 
mill works, and land surveyors of the first and second class. The 
generar workmen whose education it undertakes are plasterers, tilers, 
roofers, joiners and carpenters, glaziers, turners, decorators, ornament- 
sculptors, modellers, engravers, smiths, gold and silver workers, gardeners, 
and husbandmen. Its great merit is its perfect adaptation to the wants of 
each separate class of persons. For young men who are much employed 
in winter, and less in summer, it provides summer courses of study, and 
gives them vacation in winter, and vice versd. It has classes in the early 
morning, the same at midday, and the same over again in the evening; 
and the hours of the diflFerent classes are so timed, that the pupil may 
attend many or few hours of the day, and still obtain the studies he 
requires. 

This school is presided over by the most distinguished architect of 
Wurtemberg, with no fewer than twenty-eight professors and masters 
under him. Systematic courses are provided for those who can go through 
the edacation required to obtain certificates of competence ; and their 
estimation of its value is proved'by the fact that the school is crowded by 
exactly that class of men whom it was intended to benefit. 

3. The next class of institutions are wisely situated not in the me- 
tfopolis, but in the country, and they are distributed throughout the 
districts. They are schools for country occupations and trades, and are 
called " agriculture and forestry establishments." 

There is first a great institution at Hohenheim, with twenty-one 
masters. It is divided into the farming school and the gardening school, 
and special agricultural courses. It has under it three practical farming 
schools in three different districts, and each school has under its care 400 
square miles of territory, A large brewery is attached to one of these 
establishments, and there are subordinate schools distributed throughout 
the country. There are also winter evening schools in the villages, and 
the practical result is, that last year, in 533 places, 12,040 persons enjoyed 
the privilege of agricultural instruction. 

Supplementary to the agricultural education of the farmers is an in- 
stitution for the study of the anatomy, physiology, training, and diseases 
of animals ; it is the veterinary college of Stuttgardt. Attached to it are 
an hospital, in which last year 775 horses were treated ; a cattle hospital, 
in which 836 animals were treated ; a dog hospital, in which 213 animals 
were treated ; a smithy, in which 4000 animals were shod. 

With such upper schools for the technical training of the people, 
it will be readily imagined that there must be a complete organization of 
upper and lower schools leading up to them, otherwise these higher 
schools could not be filled with fit pupils ; and as they all require prelimi- 
nary qualification, tested by an entrance examination, the preparatory 
schools are indispensable. There are accordingly eighty-eight colleges or 
public schools, separated into the two divisions of classical and of science 
schools. 

In the classical schools there were last year 4565 pupils, and in the 
science schools 4734 pupils ; showing how evenly the two classes of schools 



360 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBEEG. 

proyide for the two classes of pupils. These are also divided into two sub- 
divisions, upper and lower, called gymnasiums and lyceums ; and in the 
science schools, a school and a college, or real school and science college. 

Immediately below these, are the public elementary schools, and 
establishments for private instruction ; and, auxiliary to these, technical 
schools of the humblest kind, in which girls are taught their business as 
houseljeepers, and boys are traiaed to the simplest duties of life. 

When it is considered that these establishments are for the education 
of only 1,700,000 people, less than an eleventh part of the p p ilation of 
England alone, without Ireland or Scotland, it leads to the startling con- 
clusion that England, to supply her people with a technical education as 
good as that of the little kingdom of Wurtemberg, should have 11 en- 
dowed technical universities, each with 49 masters and accommodation 
for 468 pupils, or that in all there should be in the technical universities 
of England more than 5148 technical students. That we should have 11 
building-trade schools or colleges with 26 masters in ,each, and in each 587 
pupils, or on the whole more than 6457 students. Of higher trade schools 
there are in Wurtemberg 108 in 89 towns and 19 villages, so that to equal 
that, in England there should be higher trade schools established in 979 
towns and 201 villages, making in all 1180 schools. In these schools are 
6453 pupils under 17 years old, and 1811 over 17 years old, making a total 
cf 8364 pupils. These are taught by 425 masters. To do as much in Eng- 
land, we should have 4675 masters, teaching 90,904 children. 

To know what the enormous sacrifice is which a nation must make 
to accomplish this moral and intellectual revolution, be it known that the 
expenditure of the State amounts to 25. Id. per inhabitant! 

Probably nothing will convince the English people better of the value 
of such education than to inspect for themselves the nature of that educa- 
tion, the numbers and classes of people who avail themselves of it, and 
somewhat in detail what it all costs. 

The following statement has been compiled from the accounts of the 
Minister of Education of Wurtemberg, and will, I trust, enable the Eng- 
lishman to put a money as well as a social value upon the systematic 
education which I desire to see given to Englishmen of every profession, 
trade, and craft : — 

Table of the System of TTniversities, Colleges, and Schools for Technical Ediu 

cation in the Kingdom of Wurtemberg. 

TECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS. 

1. TECHNICAL UNIVEESITT IN STUTTGARDT. 

This consisted, in the year 1865-66, of a Mathematical division, with two classes and 
one merchants' class, and a Technical division with two trade schools. 
I. Teachers: 

20 head-masters, 13 trade and assistant-teachers, 4 xinder-masters. 6 ushers, 6 
private teachers— together, 49. 
11. Scholars and Students: 

A.— In the Winter term 1865-66, 468, of whom 163 were in the Mathematical and 305 
in the Technical division. In detail there were — 

lu the CI. CI. Arch. Engin. Machinery Chem. 

'^rade classes. I. II. Sch. Sch. Sch. Sch. Total. 

Natives . 16 65 49 76 66 34 52 348 

Strangers .16 5 12 21 20 13 33 120^ 

32 70 61 97 76 , 47 85* 468 

* Ee mark.— Of the 85 students of the Chemical school, 31 were employed in the 
laboratory 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 361 

Of the 120 strangers there were from— 

Switzerland, 20 ; Austria, 19; Bavaria, 15; Russia, 12 ; Baden, 11; Prussia and 
'Grand Duchy of Ilcsse, 6; Entxland, 5 ; France and Saxc-Moiningen, S each ; 
Hamburg, Holland, aud Italy, the United States of America, and Java, 2 each ; 
Belgium, Cuba, the Electorate of Hei»sen, Hesse llomburg, Oldenburg, 
Palestria, Schleswig Holstein, Sweden, Turkey, Duchy of Waldeck, each 1. 

According to the vocation of the fathers there were sons of— 
Serviints of the State ...... 



Other public servants .... 

Followers of trade, and merchants 
Followers of agricalture .... 
Followers of other professions (artists, doctors, &c.) 



54 

201 

17 

97 



46rf 
The average age of scholars and students was, on the Ist of October, 1865, in — 
The Merchants' Class. CI. I. .CI. II. Technical Division. 

It) yrs. (3 m. 17 yrs. 2 m. 18 yrs. 2 m. 20 yrs. 2 m. 

With regard to preparatory education— 
Of the 13 scholars of the Mathematical division, including the merchants' class, 
there were educated — 

At the Wiirtemberg real and upper schools . . . 114 

At humane institutions (seminaries, gymnasiums, lyceums, &c.) . 18 
At other schools or private institutions . . . .31 

163 

Of the 305 students of the Technical division there entered — 

From the Mathematical division ..... 112 

From the lower Technical institutions (out of which 40 were out 

of the Mining schools) . . . . . .53 

From the other Technical schools ..... 27 

From other institutions (i-eal schools, gymnasiums, universities) . 77 
From practical professions (architects, mechanics, apothecaries, 

lithographers, shopkeepers, officers) . . . .36 

305. 
B. — In the Summer term of 1866 t'le whole number of students and scholars was 
B93. of whom 149 were in the Mathematical and 244 in the Technical division. In detail 
there are- 

Archit. Engin. Machinery Chem. m„x„, 
Sch. Sch. Sch. Sch. -^^'^^^• 

60 49 28 39 299 

16 16 13 23 94 

19 73 57 76 65 41 62* ~393 

Of these 94 strangers there were from — 

Austria, 17; Bavaria, 13; Switzerland, 9; Prussia, 8 ; Grand Duchy of Hessen, 
. Russia, each 7 ; Baden, 6 ; England, 5 ; Saxe-Meiniugen. Waldeck. North 
America, France, Java, each 2 ; Frankfort, Oldenburg, Saxe Weimar, Saxe 
Coburg, Hamburg, Schleswig Holstein, Belgium, Italy, Sweden, Turkey, 
Palestme, Brazil, each 1. 

III. Examinations.— (Technical maturity examinations): 

Announced, 53 ; admitted, 52 ; ap- j 42 from the Mathematical and 9 from the 
peared, 51 ( Technical division. 

■Do 0=^,1 OA i 29 from the Mathematical and 1 from the 

i:'assed,dO -j Technical division. 

IV. Prizes: 

A. — In the Mathematical divisions for peculiarly satisfactory performances in the 
technical maturity examinations, 1 prize. 

B.— In the Technical division. 

Arch. Sch. Engin. Sch. Mach. Sch. Chem. Sch. Total. 
Prize works come in . . 4 2 1 1 8 

Prizes awarded .... 2 1 ... 1 4 

V. — Collections., Apparatus., and Institutions of the Establishment, 24. 

VI. — Economy / the. Establishment: 

In the year 1865-66 the income was— 

A — The proper sources of income of the Inetiution 

for fees, laboratory, and substitute fees 18,500 fl. =-- £1,541 13 4 

B.— Addition irom the State 57,500 fl. =■ 4,791 13 4 





In the 


01. 


CI. 




Merchants' CI. 


I. 


II. 


Inhabitants 


. . 9 


64 


50 


Strangers 


. . 10 


9 


7 



Total . . . 76,000 h. = £6 333 C 8 



*Reraark.— Of the 62 students in the Chemical school, 35 were occupied in the 
chemical laboratory. 



362 SPECIAL INSTETJCTION IN WURTEMBEEG. 

2. COLLEGE FOR THE BUILDrNQ TRADES m STUTTGARDT. 

This school numbered in 1865-66, with five classes in eleven divisions,— 

I. Teachers: 

IS head-masters, 6 assistant-masters, and 2 ushers,— together 26. 

n.— Pupils. ■ 

A.— lu the Winter term 1865-66, 687. 
Among these were — 

1. According to position ; 578 ordinary, and 9 extraordinary. 

2. According to home : 540 inhabitants, and 47 strangers. 

Of the 540 inhabitants, there were 76 from Stuttgardt, 172 from the Department 
of the Neckar, 87 from the District of the Black Forest, 110 from the Danube 
district, 95 from the Taxt district. 

Of the 47 strangers, 18 were from Switzerland; Baden, 15 ; Prussia. 4; Austria, 
3 ; Bavaria, 3 ; Nassau, Thuringia, Hamburg, Lichtenstein, each 1. 

3. According to their calling : 475 actual builders (among whom 333 masons and 

Btone masons, and 142 carpenters), 61 geometrical, and 51 of other trades (plas- 
terers and stucco- workers, decorators, millers, farmers, beer brewers, &c.) 

4 According to the proficiency in trade 63 overseers, drawers, polishers ; 315 
assistants, and 209 apprentices. 

B. According to their preparatory education: From national schools. 267 ; middle 
schools, 18; real schools and school secretaries, 222; upper real schools, 42: 
Latin schools and gymnasiums, 26 ; technical schools and other higher institu- 
tions, 12. 

6. According to age : Between 14 and 17 years, 215 :; between 17 and 25 years, 350 ; 
between 25 and 30, 14 ; over 30, 8. 

Lowest age for admission, 14^ years ; highest, 373^ years : — Average, 18>^ 
years. 

Of the 587 scholars, the school has been visited by— 

For the 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th lOth 

time. time. time. time. time. time. time. time. time. time. 

Bnilders . . 168 107 102 74 20 3 ... 1 

Geometricians 31 20 6 2 2 1 ... ... 

Other trades . -33 6 9 ... 3 

232 133 116 76 25 4 ... 1 

Attendance at the Individual Classes. 

I. Glass with 5i divisions 76 pupils 

IL " 3 " 220 '• 

HI. " 3 " 137 " 

IV. " .2 " 112 " 

V. " 1 " 42 " 

5 classes with 11 divisions. Total 587 " 

B. — Summer course, 1866, 115 pupils, among whom there were — 
67 ordinary, and 48 jxtraordinary pupils. 

109 inhabitants among whom were 27 from Stuttgardt), and 6 strangers (Baden, 4 ; 
Prussia, 1 ; Hungary, 1.) 
87 juiiders 56 masons and stonemasons, and 31 carpenters), 6 geometricians, and 

22 other trades (mechanics, locksmiths, millers, lithographers, modellers, &c.) 
5 overseers, drawers and polishers, 61 assistants, and 49 apprentices. 
54 from national schools, 45 from real schools, 5 from upper real schools, 10 from 

Latin schools and gymnasiums, 1 from the Polytechnical school. 
57 of irom 14 to 17 years, 54 from 18 to 25year3, 3 from 26 to 30 years, 1 over 30 years. 
Lowest age, 14 years ; highest, 37 ; — Average, 18^ years. 

Of the 115 pupils, the school has been visited by— 

For the 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 11th 

time. time. time. time. time. time 

Builders .... 11 39 27 7 2 1 
Geometricians . . 4 2 

Other workmen . . 17 3 ... 2 

32 44 27 9 2 "i 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBEEO. 



363 



Attendance at the Individual Classes. 
I. Class .... 13 pupils. 



II. " 
III. " 

3 classes with 
C— Both courses together, 701 pupils. 



114 



3. HIGHER TRADE SCHOOLS, 



In the 3'^earlS65-66 there were in Wurtemberg such schools in lOS places (89 towns 
and 19 villages), with a total population of 444,566 souls. 

The 108 schools are divided, according to their interior arrangements, into the fol- 
lowing groups : 

1. Finishing schools, with public rooms for drawing, in which thore are 

Sunday and evening classesfor tradesiEsslingen. Ludwig.-^burg, Gmni.d, 
Hall, Ravensburg, Cain, Biberach, Roitenburg, Ellwangeu, Ehingeu, 
Geisjliugeu) ......... 

2. Finishing schools, with public rooms for drawing, in Avhich there are ) 

Sunday and evening clashes lor trades and merchants (Stuttgardt, Ulm, V 
Heilbronn, and Neutliugeu) ......) 

3. Finishing trade schools, with Sunday and evening classes, without | 

drawing rooms (67 towns and 14 villages) . . . . ) 

4. Finishing trade schools with evening classes, but no Sunday classes (3 ) 

towns and 1 village) ........) 

5. Trade schools Avith Sunday teaching, but no week-day classes (2 towns,) 

6. Pure drawing schools with no further instruction (2 towns and 4 villages) 



11 



81 



108 

''The attendance of pupils, which in 15*64-65, in 101 finishing schools, was 8100, rose in 
1365 ()6, with the same number of schools, to 8264, among whom 6453 were under, and 
1811 over seventeen years old. 

The number of teachers was 4^5 (against 401 before 1864-65), so that on an average 
there is one master to every 19--40 pupils. 

The entire sum paid by the State amounts to 21,243 fl. 21 kr. (=£1770 58. Id.), or 
2 fl. 34 kr. (2s. 7d.) per head. 

The subjects which most pupils attended were— 





Arithmetic 




with 4520 pu 


oils. 






Free hand drawing 


4209 ^' 






Mother tongue 




4L.68 " 






Trade drawing 




2419 " 






General drawing 


" 1892 " 






Book-keeping 




1202 " 






Plane geometry 




" 1105 " 




The schools most visited were — 










Teachers. Pupils. 


Teachers. 


Pupils 


Stuttgardt . 


. with 61 


12S5 


Kirchheim . . with 3 


193 


Ulm . 


" 21 


657 


Geisslingen . 


" 6 


145 


Ludvvigsburg 


. " 9 


216 


Ravensburg 


7 


142 


Heilbronn . 


" 11 


210 


Gmund 


" 6 


130 


Neufilngen . 


. " 17 


209 


Rottenburg . 


5 


124 


Biberach 


8 


201 


Cain . 


" 6 


116 


Freudenstadt 


. " 6 


201 


Goppingen . 


" 6 


112 


Esslingen . 


. " 12 


190 


Metzingen . 


" 3 


105 



The trade schools in Stuttgardt had— 

One evening finishing school, with 19 masters and 375 scholars. 



One Sunday trade school 

On'i! merchants' finishin:,' school 

One females' finishing school 



6T3 
149 

b8 

1285 



364 SPECIAL mSTKUCTION IN WURTEMBEEG. 



ORGANIZATION OF NATIONAL EDUCATION. 

Having now considered the, general nature, number, attendance, and 
cost of a national system of schools in an educated country, we should 
very inadequately appreciate the value of such a system, unless we take 
the trouble of examining the nature of each of these classes of institu- 
tions, and the extent and character of the teaching organization which is 
provided. 

The first remarkable circumstance is the number and high qualifica- 
tion of the teachers. 

The second is, the thoroughness and extent of the courses of edu- 
cation. 

The third is, the extent of the material organization for teaching, the 
largeness and beauty of the buildings, the nature of the museums and 
libraries which are attached to them, and the provisions for practical 
instruction in the nature of workshops, farms, hospitals, and museums. 

Finally, the nature, character, business, and number of the students 
who attend these institutions, and their regularity and proficiency, may 
be to some extent gathered from the following Tables : — 

TABLES OP ORGANIZATION. 

1. Technical University; 2. College for the Building Trades ; 
3. Colleges of Agriculture and Forestry; 4, Veterinary Col- 
lege ; 5. School of Art Workmen ; 6. High Schools, or Academies 
AND Science Schools; 7. Elementary Government Schools; 8. In- 
dustrial Schools. 

Organization of tJie National System of Technical Education. 

1. TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY 

The object of this school is to educate future technics. 
The instruction giveu is five course:* of one year each. 

It is divided into two branches— the Mathematical and the Technical. The formel 
consists of two, and the latter of three classes. 

The Technical section is subdivided into four schools :— 

1. For architecture. 

2. For engineering. 

3. For machinery. 

4. For technical chemistry, with the subdiyisionB — 

(a) Chemical manufactures 

(b) Mines. 

(c) Pharmacy. 

(There is also a parallel class devoted to preparing pupils for being merchants.) 

Conditions of entrance : — 

1. A certain age. 

For the mathematical division, the pupil must have attained his 16th year. 
For the merchants'' class, the pupil must have attained his IGth year. 
For the technical division, the pupil must have finished his ISth year. 

2. In addition, they must have certificates of position, conduct, &c. 

3. The necessary preparatory kno^vledge. 

4. And, where under age, the written permission of parents and guardians to enter 

the school. 
, They must pass an examination in which, for the mathematical division, the following 
knowledge is required — 

(a) Al":ebra np to equations of the 2d degree, inclusive. Exercises in the use of 

logarithms. 

(b) Geometry and stereometry. 

(c) Principal heads of plane trigonometry. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG . 365 

(d) Correspondence in the French langnaere, with a proper translation of a not 

difflcnlt theme from German into French. 

(e) Practice in German style— an exercise of a theme on a given subject. 
(/) Knowlod^'e of the i)rincipal periods and events in history. 

(g) Knowledge of tiie elements of mathematical, physical, and political geography. 

{h) Tractice in geometrical and free-hand drawing. 

For entrance into the mercantile divibion. the examination will include the following 
subjects : — 

(a) Practice in reckoning figures, inclusive of decimal fractions, with regard to mer- 
cantile requirements. 

(6) Familiarity with the French language, translation of a not difficult theme from 
German into French. 

(c) Good German style— a theme on a given subject. 

(d) Knowledge of the principal periods and events in history. 

(e) Knowledge of mathematical, physical, and political geography. 

In the technical division the pupils produce a certificate of competency from the schools 
or masters they have visited. ' 

Thf, fees are— ♦ 

A.— In the Mathematical division — 
For ordinary pupils . 50 fl. . (^il.Zs.id.) a year. 
For extraordinary pupils 1 fl. 30 kr. (2s. 8d.) the half-year, for each lesson a week. 

B.— In the Technical division — 
For ordinary pupils . 60 fl. . (5Z.) a year. 
For extraordinary pupils 1 fl. 45 kr. (2s. lid.) the half-year, for each lesson a week. 

Besides this, the pupils pay 42 kr. (1«. 2d.) per half year for servants; and if they 
attend the chemical experiments, 5 fl. (Ss. 4d.) for materials. In addition to this, the 
entrance fee is 5 fl. (Ss. 4d.) 

There are the following means attached to the division of practical instruction :— 
The chemical laboratory. 
The physical laboratory. 
The arrangements for mineral ogical 

studies. 
The arrangements for constructive ex- 
•perimehts. 

Staff. — Heads and Professors. 
Director of the entire Instilntwn.—Trof. Dr. Zech. 
Head of ike Mathematical division. — Rector Dr. v. Gugler. 

Heads of the Trade Schools— A. 

1. Architectural school. I 3. Of the machinery school 

2. Of the engineers' school. | 4. Of the chemical school. 
There are 24 head masters, including those named above : 9 under masters, 11 assist- 
ants. 7 private tutors. 

Older persons not wishing to attend regularly as students, are admitted as " listeners." 
They pay 8 fl. the half-year, for one lesson a week ; for two lessons a week, 6 fl. (10s,); 
for each further lesson, 2 fl. more per half-year. 

CLASSES.— A.— MATHEMATICAL DIVISION. 
First Class. 



The arrangements for modelling in 

plaster. 
The mechanical workshops. 
The wood pattern making. 
The botanical garden. 



Plane and spherical trigonometry. 

In winter, 5 hrs. ; repetition, 2 hrs. 

Lower analysis. 

4 hrs. ; repetition, 2 hrs. 
Analytical plane geometry. 

In summer, 6 hrs. ; repetition, 3 hrs. 



' Recapitulation of plane trigonometry, general 
explanation of functions of the foundation 
of the right-angle co-ordinate system, poly- 
gonometry, spherical trigonometry. 
Algebra, logarithms, geometrical progression, 
permxitation, combination, interpolation, &c. 
Co-ordinate system, transformation of co-ordi- 
nates, lines of the 1st and 2d order, exercises. 
Descriptive geometry, I. j Exercises on lines and planes, polygons, broken 

In summer, 6 hrs. ; repetition, 2 hrs. ( lines, planes and broken -surfaces. 
Plan and terrain drawing. J Copying plans in original and reduced size, 

2 hours. ■ 1 elevation, maps, with horizontals, &c. 

*''"ln I' dlSsTeach 4 hou™. ] ^'S-- '"- -»'' - «"'"-■ 

German language. j Grammar, style, poetry, explanation of indi- 

In 2 divisions ; each 2 hours. \ vidual poems and classical works. 

French language. 

In 2 divisions ; each 4 hours. 
English language. 

In 2 divisions ; each 2 hours. . 
Geography. ( Mathematics and physical geography, the prin- 

In 2 divisions ; each 2 hours. | cipal countries, with regard to their history. 

^^^ In 2 divisions ; each 2 hours. { General history, ancient history. 



^"^on.|g-|?i!'^al,| 



1 hour. 



me 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUKTEMBERQ. 



Higher analysis, I. 

4 hours ; repetition, 2 hours. 
Analytical geometry of space. 

In winter, 4 hrs. ; repetition, 2 hrs. 
Descriptive geometry. 

4 hours. 

Practical geometry. 
In winter, 4 hours. 



General mechanics. R hours. 
General physics. In winter, 4 hours. 
Drawing of buildings. 

In winter, 4 hrs. ; in summer, 8 hrs. 
Free-hand drawing. 

In w inter, 4 hrs. ; in summer, 2 hrs. 
Review of German literature. 1 hour. 
French lanj^uage. 

In 2 divisimis ; each 2 hours. 
English lantiruage. 

In 2 divisions ; each 2 hours. 
History. 2 hours. 



Second Class. 

J Differential calculus, fundamental functions. 
I maxima and minima. &c , &c. 
j Plane and right lines, surfaces of the second 
I order, turning and right planes. 
J Sections of curved surfaces, «fcc., application 
j of shadows and perspective. 
( Encyclopaedical review of plane geognosy, 
-< right-angle co-ordinates, and geometrical 
I levelling. 
Elements of mechanics, solid & floating bodies. 



J Geometrical representations of architectural 
( objects, lectures on shadow drawing. 



Universal history, -middle ages and modern. 



Counting house. 6 hours. 



Mercantile arithmetic. 4 hours. 



Mercantile geography. 3 hours. 



MereantiU Class. 

'Introduction to commerce, various kinds oi 

trades, various manners ofbookkeeping,con- 

duct of an imaginary business, various kinds 

of '' conto" currencies. 

Calculation of values ; interest, compound and 

simple; exchange, &c., &c. 
Dependence of productiveness on longitude 
and latitude, on elevation over the sea, on 
mountains and directions of rivers. Europe 
and the Colonies. Lands, with regard to 
merchandite and conunerce. 



Ger nan language, 2 hours. 

1 lench language, 4 hours. 

Englis^h language, 4 hours. 

Italian language, 5 hours. 

French correspondence, 2 hours. 

English and Italian correspondence, 3 

hours. 
Introduction to the laws of exchange, 1 

hour. 
Free-hand drawing, 2 hours. 
Religion, Ihour. 

Gymnastics for the whole mathematical 
division, 2 hours a week. 



In common -with the mathematical clasa 



B. — TECEQirrcAii Drvisio>^. 
1. Matliematics and Mechanics, 



Tri 



gonometry and lower analysis, 4 
hours. 



Higher analysis, I. 

In winter, 4 hours. 
Higher analysis, II., 2 hours 
Analytical geometry. 

In winter. 4 hours. 
NcAver geometry. 

In summer. 
Descriptive geometry, 4 hours 
Practical geometry. 
Method of least squares. 

In winter, 3 hours. 
Analytical mechanics, 4 hours. 
Engineers' mechanics 



Zoology. 

In winter, 4 hours. 

Anthropology. 

In winter, 2 hours. 
Botany. 

- In summer, 4 hours. 
Medicinal pharmaceutical botany. 

In summer, 3 hours. 
Knowledge of plants. 

In winter, 4 hours 



Differential comparisons, decided integrals,&c. 



Applied to shadow-drawing and perspective. 



2. Natural History. 



Universal systematic zoology, with regard to 
comparative anatomy, pharmacy, and agri- 
culture. 

Knowledge of the construction of the human 
body. 

Universal and special botany. 

Natural families of plants. 

With regard to their medicinal qnalitie8.> ' 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUKTEMBEKG. 



3G7 



Anatomy and physioiO£jy of plants. 

In winter, 3 hours. 
Use of plants. 

In fc.iiiunu;r, one afternoon. 
(Jpo of tho microscope, one afternoon. 
Bliucralogy. 

Ic winter, 4 hours ; repetition, 2hrs. 
Cryptaiioiriapliy. J 

In wuucr, 'i hours lecture. i 

Geoirnopy. 

In summer. 4 hours, with exercises. 
Petroloj^y. 4 hours. 
Physical practice, two afternoons. 
General and technical chemistry, 6 hrs. 

Chemical practice, 9 to 12. ■ 

Chemistrv for builders. ^ 

In winter 4 hrs.; in summer, 2 hrs. 

Analytical chemistry. 

In winter. 2 hrs.; in summer, 3 hrs. 
The modern meones of chemistry. 

In winter, 2 hours. 



The chemical and physical properties of 

crystals. 



The laboratory is open from I» in the morning 
till 5 in the afternoon. 

The lecture is for those who are not goin^ into 
chemistry a^ a profession, but (mly in so 
far as it cuuceins their individual pro- 
fessions. 

i Qualitative and quantitative analysis. 



3. Technology. 



Chemical technology. 

In winter. 3 hrs.; in summer, 4 hrs. 
Chemical technology in practice, 9 hrs-, 

piiv;ite. 

Mechanical technology, 4 hours. 

Heating. 

In summer, 4 hours. 



Burning materials, lighting and lire, starch and 
sugar, vinegar, &c. 



The metals most necessary to technics, their 
working ; wood ; visits to working estab- 
lishments. 

Preparation, burning materials, transmission 
of heat, hearths, chimneys, ventilation. 



Preparatory course, 3 hours. 



4. Machinery. 



[For those who have worked in the ?hops, but 
do not possess the nece^sary knowledge to 
attend the other classes. Repetition of 
lower mathematics, elements of analytical 
geometry,differential and integral calculus, 
mechanics. 



Construction of machinery, I. 

(a) Lecture, 5 hours. 

(b) Exercises in construction, 6 hrs. 
Consrruciiou of machinery, II. 

(a; Lecture, combined with prac- 
tice, 7 hours. 
(6) Construction, fi hours. 
Construction of machinery. III. 

Lecture, 4 hours. 
Construction, ti hours. 

Machinery for engineers : lecture, 2 hrs. 

Popular machinery 4 hours. 

Statistics of iron roof and bridge con- 
struction, 1 hour, private. 



Adhesiveness of materials, elements of ma- 
chinery, water-wheels. 



Stationary steam engines and steam kettles, 
locomotives and marine engines. 



(Designs for entire works (workshops), purnpS 
and all the apparatus for works with steam 
and water power.with healing and lighting, 
disp. of machines. 
Application of steam and water power. 
Machinery lor raising heavy bodies, machines 
for working by water and air, locomotives 
and railways. 

r Calculations of cost. 



5. Engineering. 



Practical geometry. 

In winter, 2 hours lecture. 
Practical geometry. 

In summer one afternoon for each 
division. 
Engineers' mechanics, 5 hours lecture ; 

4- b hours practice. 

Winter course. 
Summer course. 



Instru. for measuring angles, plane triangulat- 
ing,trigonometric and barometric levelling. 

Practice, at measuring and distance tables, and 
the theodolite, trigonometric elevations. 
Excursions of fourteen days. 



J Elasticity and strength of building materials, 
I beams, ceilings, buttresses. 

i Statics and dynamics of liquid and gaseous 
bodies, with regard to the practical work 
of an engineer. 



368 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUETEMBERG. 



Bridge building, T. 

In summer, 4 hours lecture ; 4 hours 
practice. 
Bridge building, IT. 

a hours? lecTure ; 6 hours practice. 
Bridge building. III. 

In \\ inter. H hours practice. 
Fonts ct chaiisseef, and railway con- 
struction. 

In winter, 8 hours lecture ; 4— 6hours 
practice. 

In summer, 4 hours lecture ; 12 hours 
practice 
Tracing and ( ' earth calculation "?) 

In summer, 2 hours. 



Stone constructions, especially stone bridges. 

\ Wooden and iron bridges, foundations, mode 
1 of building. 



Iron bridges. 



Mi\l3, fountains, &c., railway?, ptations, 
bridges, carriages, barriers, signals, tele- 
graph stations, and telegraphs. 



Building materials. 

In summer. 4 hours. 
Construction of buildings, I. 

4 hours lecture ; t> hours practice. 
Construction of buildings, II. 

2 hours lecture ; 4 hours practice. 
Higher architecture, 2 hours lecture ; 

hours practice. 
Calculation of building costs. 

In summer, 2 hours. 
History of architecture (I. and 11.), 

hours each. 



6. Architecture, 

I Physical properties of mineral and regetabl* 
) building materials, &c., &c. 

> Stone and wood buildings. 

y Iron construction, and put-together buildings. 

4 (Public and private buildings,, designs and 
) plans, &c. 



Ancient, middle age, and renaissance. 

Practice to the above a. and H.), 2 hrs. \ Graphic drawings and details of each period, 
^' I with regard also to materials. 

Comparative building forms. I a » o ^^^^<.r.^ti^^ +-. /i^=;,^; 

In su mmer, 2 hours. ) ^^ * preparation to designing. 

Design-* (I. and II.) 

Two successive courses, one with 4 
hrs., the higher with 8 hrs. 
Arti'^tic n-r=(D-ctive a and IT ^ f A subject is given to the student to finish in 

^'' T wo^;'c?esS ^oarses"eich with 2 \ «- ^^y- -^^^^^^ ^^ J ^^ged by all the architec- 
hoars. I 



tural teachers, 
pupils. 



and discussed with the 



Drawing and ModtUing. 



Free-hand drawing. 

In winter, 8 hrs.; in summer, 6 hrs. 
with excursion. 

Ornamental drawing and modelling. 
In three divisions, each with 6—8 hrs. 



I Figure drawing, landscape drawing, in outline 



Special drawing classes for engineers, J 
mechanics and architects. 

General Subjects. 

History of the 18th and 19th centuries, . 

History of the last twelve years . . . . 

History of art m the middle ages . In winter 

Durer and Holbein . . . .In summer 

Raphael and Michael Angelo . .In winter 

Explanation of the works of art in the State col- 
lection up to 

Mythology of the Greeks, Romans, and Ger- 
mans . In winter 

History of modem German poetry . In winter 

Principles of esthetics (or knowledge of the 
beautiful) In winter 

Agriculture and husbandry 

Trades:— . . 

Borrowing money lor founding a factory — 
by advances, shares, companies, &c. In- 
terest on capital, premiums, dividends. 
Profit and loss, &c., &c. 

Laws of property 

Grammar of the middle ages 

Modem German grammar 

Poetry 

French language and literature .... 

English language and literature .... 

Shakespeare's dramas 

Italian— with the mercantile class .... 

Gymnastics . ....... 

Fencing . , ....... 



aud shadows 

Drawing of ornaments from clay and plaster, 
designs for ornaments, casts done by the 
students in clay or plaster from their own 
or others' designs. 



2 hours. 

1 hour. 
4 hours. 

3 hours. 

2 hours. 

6 hours. 

2 hours, private. 
2 — 3 hours. 

3 hours. 
3 hours. 
3 hours. 



3 hours. 

3 hours, private. 

3 hours, •' 

2 hours, " 

4 hours. 

3 hours. 

1 hour, private. 

5 hours. 

2 hours. 

private. 



SPECIAL INSTKUCTION IN WURTEMBERQ. 369 

Workshops. 
Modelling of machinery and engineering objects. Both workshops are open all day. 

PLAN OF STLT)Y. 

The plan of ptndy for the mathematical division is given above. 

In the technical divi.-'ion the choice of lectures is left free to the students. A plan 
of i=tndy is here L'i\en as a sort of OTide to the subjects which are most necessary for each 

Erofession, the time which the student has to devote to it, and the proficiency or position 
e desires to obtain in it. 

A. — Architectural School. 

First yeor.— Chemistry for technic builders ; mineralogy and geognosy ; practical geometry, 
with practice; en2:ineeringm(chanics, with practice ; building construc- 
tion, I., with practice ; history of art ; free-hand and ornamental drawing. 

Second year. — Building construction, II., with practice ; building construction, I., with 
practice ; de-igns, I. ; perspective, I. ; free-haud and ornamental drawing. 

Third year — High architecture, with practice; histoiy of building, II., with practice; 
comparative building forms ; designs, II. ; perspective, II. ; free-hand and 
ornamental drawing. 
Pupils who wish to go further, and become higher architect?, decorators, &c., have 

a special fourth jjear's course laid out lor tliem by their master, which will be regulated 

according to their special talents, the advance they have made, &c. 

B. — Engineers'' School. 

First year.— Chemistry for technic builders ; mineralogy and geognosy ; practical geome- 
try; ensrineeringmechanics; constructionof bridge;?, with practice; build- 
ing construction, I., with practice. 

Second year.— Bridges. II., with ]>ractice ; building construction, II., -svith practice ; con- 
struction of machinery for engineers ; practice in the construction of 
machinery ; building history, I. ; free-hand drawing. 

Third j/ear.— Bridge building. III., ponts et chaussees, railways, with practice; surveying 
and calculations of earth works ; history of building, II., with practice. 

C. — Machinery School. 

First yea?'.— Chemistry foT technical builders ; engineering mechanics ; construction of 
machinery, with practice ; free hand drawing ; mechanical Avorkshops. 

Second year. — Construction of machinery, II., with practice; mechanical and chemical 
technology; bridgebuifding.il.; heat. 

TAfrdyear.- Constructionof machinnry. III., with practice ; ponts et chaussees ; building, 
n. ; agriculture (political economy). 

D. — Chemical School. 

1. For technical chemists and teachers of chemistry: — 

First year.— Physics for chemists ; general and technical chemistry ; analytical chemistry ; 

mineralogy ; construction of buildings. 
Second year.— Analytical chemistry; chemical practice; chemical technology; practical 

physics; practical mineralogy ; popular mechanics. 
Third year- — Chemical practice ; chemical technology ; laws of property. 

2. For miners:— 

First year, — Physics for chemists ; universal and technical chemistry ; mineralogy ; 

machinery, I., with practice ; construction of buildings, I., with practice. 
&co?id year.— Analytical chemistry; chemical, physical, and mineralogical practice; 

machinery. II., with practice ; heat. 
TJiird year.— Chemical practice; chemical technology; machinery. Til., with practice; 

farming and husbandry (political economy); laws of right and possession. 

3. For apothecaries. (It is a two years' course, but if the pupil has made sufficient 

progress, he can pass in one or one and a half years) :— 
First year. — Physics for chemist^ ; universal and technical chemistry; knowledge of 

medicine ; zoology ; general botany ; medicinal properties of plants ; 

mineralogy; chemical and microscopic practice. 
Seamdyear. — Analytical chemistry; chemical and mineralogical practice ; pharmaceutical 

botany; the anatomy and physiology of plants; microscopic pbarma- 

ceutical practice. 

n.— COLLEGE FOR THE BUILDING TRADES. 

L The object of this school is to educate technically for the following trades : — 
1. Future ma.ster builders (masons, stonemasons and carpenters). 

8. Lower technical buildtrs (upper building masters, public building and foundation 
builders, and constructors of reservoirs). 

24 



3T0 SPECIAL mSTRUCTION I^T WUHTEMBEEG, 

3. LowPT water-worJcs and mill bvilders. 

4. Geortflers of the first and second class. 

Besides these, individual classes can be attended by — 

Plasterers, tilers, roofers, 

Lower mechanics, glaziers, turners, 

Decorators, ornamental sculptors, modellers, 

Engravers, pold and silver workers, 

Gardeners and husbandmen. &c. 
The classes go on the whole year round, and the course consists of five half-years, 
and these can be taken either all in winter, all in summer half-years, or partly in 
winter and partly in summer. 
The pupils are of two kinds— ordmarj/ and extraordinary. The first are such as devote 
their whole time to the school; and the second such as attend other schools, 
studios, &c., in addition. 

n. Oonditions of Admission: — 

In order to be admitted into school the pupils must— 

r (a) For the 1st class at least 14 years. 
1 Havp attained a certain J ^^^ For the 2d, 3d, 4th and 5th classes respectively, 
flS ^"^"^^^ ^^^^^"^ 1 15, 16, 17 and 18 years, to which exceptions are 
= • t sometimes made. 

2. A certificate of good conduct. 

3. The certificate of the necessary preparatory knowledge (for which they must 
pass an enrranco examination). 

4. In cases of minority a certificate of the permission of parents or guardians 
to enter the institution. 

m. Divisions: — 

The school is subdivided into three departments — 

1. A building school. 

2. A geamotry school. 

8. A school for drainage and waterworks. 

IV. Staff.— Head : Oberbaumeister v. Egle ; Assistant Head : Professor Haberle. 
Professors and head masters : 

For the building trades , . . 8 professorB. 

'• practical geometry and pure mathematics . . . . 2 . " 
" mathematics and natural history . . i . . 4 " 

" free-hand and ornamental drawing ..... 2 " 

" general education •. . . 2 *' 

Other teachers:— For religion, for ponts et chaussees, for lan- 
guages, for caligraphy, &c., «&c., &c. .. . . . .6 masters. 

• Assistant teachers . . 3 " 

PLAN OF INSTRUCTION. 

First Class — With two parallel divisions. 

Destined for such pupils as have only attended the national schools, or who, having 
been at a higher school, were yet not found competent to enter the second class. 
German language . . 8 hours a week. 
French . . . . 4 • " ^ 

History and geography .4 " ' 

Calisrranhy . . . 6 " 

Arithmetic . . .6 " (Vulgar and decimal fractions, coml)ound 

and simple interest, &c.) 
Elementary geometry . 6 " (Plane geometry ) 

Free-hand drawing .6 " (Plain lines, simple leaf and contour lines.) 

Geometrical drawing . 6 " (Geometrical construction and decoration.) 

Second Class.— Three parallel divisions. 

German language . . 6 hours a week. (Continuation of the former class.) 
French ... 2 *' 

Caligraphy ... 3 " (Plan drawing.) 

Geometry and stereo- ) 8 '* (Continuation and completion of plane 

metry . . j geometry, geometry of space and cubic 

contents.) 
Algebra . . ,8 " (Powers, roots, logarithms, comparisons of 

1st and 2d grade.) 
Plan drawing . . 8 " 

Ornamental drawing 6 " (Simple drawing in color and from plaster.) 

Third Class. — Three parallel divisions. 

Natural history . 6 hours a week (Weight and motion of water and bodied 

heat, &c.) 
Representative geometry 8 " 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUKTEMBEKa. 



371 



Trigonometry 
Practical geometry 
Plan drawiiig . 

Ornamental drawing 

Building . 

Construction . 



2 hours a week. 



Mechanics 



Applied representative | - 

geometry . f" 

Plan drawing . 6 

Ornamental drawing 4 
Knowledge of building j 2 
materials . f 



Building 



Construction of build- 
ings 
Builders 

Heating apparatus 



" (Complicated architectural details— win- 

dows, portals, &c.) 
" (Chalk and pencil drawings in outline and 

shaded from platjter models.) 
6 " (Form and decorative stone work, cornices, 

windows, entrances. &c.) 
6 " (Building in stone, walls in brick and stone, 

brick and tile building.) 

Fourth Class.— Two parallel divisions. 

3 hours a week (Continuous lespons on stability applicable 
to beams and rafters, stability and ma- 
chinery with regard to the requirements 
of technical builders.) 

'* (Applied to stone carving, shadows, &c.) 

" (Drawing in outline of whole facades, and 

designs in renaissance style.) 

*• (Continuation of drawings in the third class.) 

'* (Properties of various building materials, 

and their adaptation for different pur- 
poses.) 

" (Decoration of buildings and dwelling 

houses, size and disposition of space, 
&c., &c.) 

'• (Wooden posts, scaffoldings, beams, joints, 

and sut-pensions, locks and roofs, &c.) 

" (Instructiouh for master builders, tools and 

instruments, general rules, &c.) 

*• (Chemical constitution and heating power 

of burning materials, temperature of 
burning, length of chimneys, drawing 
power, calculation of sizes and construc- 
tion, roasting and fire-room grates, &c., 
baking arrangements.) 

*' (Sketch of architectural history,— Greek and 

Roman styles, sketches.) 

Fifth C7ass.— Division A. 

hours a week (Modelling in plaster and clay, generally after 
drawings made by the pupils ; casting.) 

" (More complex roofs, suspended, &c., with 

iron applications ; carpentry and glazing.) 

" (Designs for simple country and town 

houses, parsonages, &c. «&c.,in sections, 
ground plans and eleyations.) 

" (Old Saxon style, Roman and Gothic renais- 

- sance. sketches and designs in each style.) 

" (Roads, wooden and iron bridges.) 

•' (Estimates for materials and workmen, cal- 

culation for contracts.) 

" (Arrangement of space, organization of store- 

rooms, barns, out-houses, stables, &c.) 

" (Repetition of elementary mathematics, with 

exercises.) 

Division B. 

Designs for buildings, 10 hours a week (Designs for large schoolhonses, business and 

dwelling houses on a limited space, hos- 
pitals, &c.) 

Designs for parts of ) 6 " (Roofs, staircases, beams, and ceilings, to be 

buildings . . ) drawn in large and minute detail.) 

Repeiiticm of mathe- 
matics, physics, 
and mechanics . 6 *' 

Exercises on build- 
ing materials . 2 " 

Book-keeping . 1 " 

Geometrical School (for Advanced Pupils). 
Geometric'l construe- 1 2 hours weekly (Solution of problems by construction.) 

Algebraap"pliedtoge-)6 " (Solution of geometrical aud stereometrical 

ometry and stere- >• problems by calculation.) 

ometry . . ) 

German exercises . 2 ** 



Building style . 4 

Ornamental modelling, 4 
Building construction, 4 
Designs of buildings . 9 



Building styles 



. 4 



Ponts et chaussees . 4 
Calculations of build- ) 4 

ing costs . f 
Agricultural buildings, 3 

Mathematical practice, 4 



372 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUETEMBEEG. 

Special Classes for Geometers. 

"^^^mlfry***^^! ^^^'\^ ^^^^'^ weekly (As in the third class of the building school.) 

^^^sicsf '^^^''^ ^^^^' [ ^ " ^^^ ^°- ^^^ ^^''''^ ^^""^^ ""^ ^^^ building school.) 

Trigonometry . . 6 " (Common trigonometry, polygonometry, 

transformation of rectangular co-ordi' 
nates.) 
Plan drawing . . 4 " 

Popular building and ) 8 " (Building, measuring, &c.) 

plan drawing . j 
Practical geometry — 

From the 6th Nov. to 15th March, 6 hours weekly ; from the 16th March to 1st 
May, 28 hours weekly ; Mathematical practice, 14 hours weekly. 

Other Instruction. 

Machine drawing . 8 hours weekly (Curves and angular constructions, drawings 

of parts of machines.) 
Entrance Fees. 
For participation in one class during the whole course : — 
(a) In the building school . 12 florins = 11. 
■ (b) In the building school (on account of greater length of course), 16 
florins = IZ (is. Frf. 
In cases where a pupil is declared by the community to be utterly without means, 
and can show a certificate of industry and good behavior, he is admitted without pay- 
ment, or on part payment only of the fees. 

in.— COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY. 

I. The Institution in Hohenheim. 

A. — Agriculture and Forestry Academy. 

This numbered in the year 1865-66 : — 
L Teacliers' places ;— 

10 regular professors (including the Director) ; 6 under-masters ; 2 ushers ; 
aiia 3 assistants = 21. 

n. — students: — 

A.— In the Winter term 1865-66, 123 ; of whom 61 were of the country, and 



62 strangers. These studied: 






Agriculture. 
Inhabitants . . 24 
Strangers . . 60 


Forestry. 

37 

2 


Total. 
61 
62 



84 39 123 

Of the 62 strangers, 41 were from other German places ; namely, Austria, 15 : Prus- 
sia, 9; Bavaria, 5; Holstein, 4; Baden and Ilambfirg, each 3; Iie!?sen Homburg. and 
Lubec, each 1. 21 came from other countries; as, Russia, 11 ; Switzerland, 3 ; England 
and Norway, each 2 ; Portugal and Brazil, each 1. 

B.— In the Summer term 1S66, 108: of whom 56 were inhabitants, and 52 
strangers. These studied : 

Agriculture. Forestry. Total. 

Inhabitants . - 18 38 56 

Strangers . . 50 2 52 

68 40 108 

Of the 52 strangers, 33 were Germans ; namely, Austria sent 10; Prussia, Bavaria, 
and Baden, each 4; Holstein, 3; Hamburg, 2; Frankfort, Lubec. Hanover, Saxony, 
Mecklenburg, and Knrhessen, each 1. And from other countries came 19 ; Russia sent 
11 ; Switzerland, 4; England, Belgium, Portugal, and Brazil, each 1. 

III.— Students' Excursions were made (besides smaller ones) during the Summer term 
of 1866, to : 
One Agricultural, to the Rechbergan seats, the Alb, and several estates in 

Upper Swabia. 
One Forestry, in the hunting district Dankoltsweiler, the Forest of Ellwan- 
gen. 

rV. — Distinction of Students : — 

Husbandmen, Foresters. Total. 

' By prizes .... 1 (stranger) 3 (inhab ) 4 

.By public commendation . 1 (stranger) 1 (inhab.) 2 

2 (strangers) 4 (inhab.) 6 

V. — Collections, Ajaparatus, and Institutions of the Academy—together 18. 



SPECLVL INSTIiUCTION IN WUUTEMBERG. 



373 



B. — The Farming School. 

On the Ist of October, the number of pcholarH was 25. 

At the cloee of the school year, left the establishment, of whom 4 went to assist 
their father in his fai-ms, 3 became stewards in the country, and 2 stewards of projects 
abroad. 

The head-master tau2;ht field-measurinc and botanizinjj on Sundays and liolidays, not 
countino: 4t)4 hours, of which 118 were devoted to agricullnie ; farniin<j, 81 ; peometryand 
stereometry, 52; German language, exercises, &c.', 43; mental arithmetic, 39; accounts, 
22 ; physics, 24 ; and drawing. 45. 

The medical professor oi the academy gave 37 hours lessons of instruction in veteri- 
nary surgery. 

Excursions of four days were made, with the older classes, to Baden and Strasburg, 
besides which there were several minor excursions in the neighborhood. 

C.—The Gardening School. 

Five pupils were entered on the 15th October. 1805, of whom, at the end of one school 
year. 1 remained for further instruction in Hohenheim, 1 was dismissed on account of 
illness, 1 emigrated to America, and 2 obtained situations as gardeners. 

The instruction given by the two gardeners of the institution occupied 280 hours, of 
which 45 were devoted to botany, 10 to faiit trees, fruits, and the knowledge of special 
plants, 16 to repetitions, and 8(5 to drawing. The remaining lessons they share with the 
pupils of the schools for fai-ming. 

D. — Special Agricultural Courses. 

1. The courses for meadow-land, and draining, and marking boundaries, could not be 

given on account of the non-attendance of pupils. 

2. Nhie attended the sheep course. 

3. The fruit tree course, in two divisions, was attended by 29 pupils. Seven from 

the Neckar district, 10 from the district of the Black Forest, 2 from the Taxt dis- 
trict, and 10 from the district of the Danube. 

4. The agricultural course for national school teachers was attended by 19 teachers. 

E — Advice on Agricultural Hatters 
was asked ; about malt kilns ; on hop-drying kilns ; and on the cultivation of lupines. 

2. FABMING SCHOOLS IN" ELL WAN GEN, OCHSENHAUSEN, AND KIKCHBEEG. 

These are adapted for 12 pupils, with a three years' course— so that each establish- 
ment has 4 pupils. 

Excursions -were made by the pupils with the director or another master: 

5 in Ellwangen ; 2 in Ochsenhausen ; 3 in Kirchberg. 
The State domains on which these farming schools are built comprise : 

In Ellwangen 394% miles. . 

In Ochsenhausen . . ... 414J^ miles. 

In Kirchberg 5o'^% miles. 

A brewery is attached to Ellwangen, in which 1800—2000 kiidurkins of beer are 
brewed yearly. 



3. THE FINISHING FARMING SCHOOLS, AND OTHER ARRANGEMENTS, 
CLASSES, ETC., FOR THE SAME PURPOSE. 





Obligatory 
winter 
evening 
schools, 
with in- 
structions 
in farming 


Free 

finisliing 

schools for 

farmers. 


Agricul- 
tural 
meetings. 


Agricul- 
tural 
h'Ctnre 
meetings. 


No. of 

E.-tablish- 

ments 
together. 


In the Neckar district 
In the district of the / 
Black Forest - . ( 
In the Taxt district . 
In the Danube district 

In the whole country 

The attendance at the 
In the Neckar district 
In the district of the ( 

Black Forest . . f 
In the Taxt district . 
In the Danube district 

In the whole country 


46 

90 

'1 2 
97 


48 
40 

19 

IT 


9 

12 

10 
15 


12 

11 

8 
17 


115 

153 

109 
146 


305 

se classes w 
1500 
2130 

1220 
1980 


124 

xs : 

1000 
800 

350 

480 


46 

300 

290 

2T0 
630 


48 

350 

210 

180 
350 


523 

3,150 

3.430 

2,fi20 
3,440 


ns^o 


2!: -0 


1 !!)^ 


''■?n 


1-2 0-fO 



Oft 



374 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 

So that, in 523 establishments, 12,040 persons enjoyed the privilege of instruction in 
agricultural matters. 

The winter evoninj; schools are the affair of the schoolmaster concerned. The in- 
Btruction in the free finisjhinj? agricultural schools was principally given by the school- 
masters, and also by clergymen, veterinary surgeons, magistrates, and farmers. 

In the agricul ural evening meetini^s, the lectures were given by the schoolmasters 
and farmers of each district, who also superintend the reading rooms and libraries. 

IV.— VETERINARY COLLEGE. 
In the school year 1865-66, with two courses, it numbered : 

1. iias^Ts:— 4 head-masters, 1 assistant teacher, 1 usher = 6. 

Besides thetH? regular masters, the pupils had lessons in chemistry and botany from 
two other masters. 

n. Pupils: — 57; among whom there were 55 regular, and 2 irregular; 45 civil, and 13 
military pupils ; 41 inhabitants, and 16 strangers (of whom 4 were from Schles- 
wig-Holstein, 4 frcm Switzerland, 2 from Baden, 1 from Hanover, 1 from Hesse 
Darmstadt, 1 from Kurhesse, 1 from Oldenberg, 1 from Luxemburg, 1 from Russia.) 

ILL. The Examination was attended by 30 pupils, namely, 15 inhabitants, and 5 stran- 
gers : — 

the 15 inhabitants, 1 obtained the first class, 11 the second, 3 the third, 1 no 
prize. 
Of the 5 strangers, 4 obtained the second class, 1 the third. 

IV. Prizes were award-d :— In. the second course, a first and a second. 

In the first course, a first and two second, and besides, two '' Smith prizes." 
y. Institutions:— 1. 77(fi ^o.wz'teZ had to do with — 
(a) On the whole, 775 horses, of whom — 

5-21 (2t3 more than in lS34-6"i),\vere taken into the stables of the establishment, 
and 253 were treated out of the establishment. 
Of the 52^ horses— 453 were pnt under doctors' care; 299 on account of interior ill- 
ness ; 154 on account of external illness ; G9 were examined for defects. . 
Of those 453 which were treated, SOT were cured, 73 improved, 41 killed, H shot, and 
81 sent away as incurable. 

Besides this, there were 2^ horses used for anatomical purposes, operations^ dissec- 
tions. &c. Whole number of hopses, 804. 

(6) The caitle in the hospiul and those attended in the stables of their proprietors, 

numbered, in the town and its eighteen suburban villages, 820 animals. 
Besides this, there A\ere 6 cows for the supply of the pock lymph for the central vac- 
cinating doctor. Total number of catile, 826. 

(c) Tlie dog hospital had to do with 213 animals, of whom — 

175 were handled medically, and 'iS put under the supervision of the police. 
Of the latter 3b — 7 were killed for biting ; 24 were taken up as mad, of whom 16 were 
shot as regularly mad. 

(d) Of other animals with which the establishment had to do, the following are 

the number : 

2 i cats; 14 sheep (7 in the institution, 7 out) ; 40 pigs (3 in the institution, 37 
out) ; 16 goats. Total 93. 
Entire number of domestic animals treated by the establishment — 1936. 

2. In the smithy (in the course of the year 1865-66) : — 
Shoes finished . . . . 2605 

( Among whom, 810 were of the town, 199 
Animals calked .... 1009 •< from outside ; 1001 horses, and 8 head 

( of cattle. 
Animals shoed .... 4035 Of which 1948 were ncAv, 2087 old. 
Given out to do . . . . 602 
Given out to pupils In the ) „n 

2nd course as patterns ) * 

VI. Collections:— \. Exclusive of journals and papers, the library was enriched by 47 
numbers. 2. The collection of anatomical and pathological works was enriched 
by 57 numbers. 

VII. Opinions (Judgments) given in Court, 10. 

VIII- The Special Course for Smiths, which was established for the central agricultural 
and trade places, was attended by 8 people (4 masters and 4 apprentices). 

v.— SCHOOL OF ART-WORKMEN. 

I. Masters' Places: — 4 principal mas^ers and 4 assistant masters — together, 8. (In the 
Summer term, 1866, an extra head-master was employed.) 

n. Pupils .-—In the Winter term 1865-66, 50, (1861-65 there were 59 ; 1866-67 there 
were 55). Among these 50 there were:— 
(a) 44 regular ; 6 irregular. 

(&) Wurtembergers, 42; strangers, 8 (from Austria, 2; Saxony, 1; Baden, 1 ; Grand 
Duchy of Hessen, 1 ; Nassau, 1 ; Saxe Coburg, 1 ; America, 1). 



SPECIAL INSTRrCTION IN WURTE^nSERG. 375 

(c) Accorclincf to callinf?:— 12 pnintor?, 18 ecnlptors, 5 lithop:raphers, 1 encraver, 2 

wood engravers, 3 drawers, 1 decorator, 2 room decoratortj, 1 modeller, 1 dilettante. 

Concerniiii? the attendance at the different classos, there were : — 

At the drawin.i,' and mndellin<? afti-r 1 he antique .... 26 

At the drawing and modelling alter life 30 

At the laud(?cape drawing 21 

At the oil painting 12 

At the Ic-eons in perspective and shading .... 6 

At the lessons in anatomy 30 

At the lessons in the history of art 9 

ni. In the ExsLmination which was held according to law in 1866, there were 5 favorable 
results. 

rV. Ten art pupils obtained I7z7(?7)?Ytows, 5 for further instruction in the art schools of 
Wurtemberg, 5 to enable them to continue their studies abroad. Besides this, 7 
were taught free of expense. 

V. Prizes were awarded to 10 pupils— 5 first, and 5 second. 

VI. For the. ExMhilion of students' works of art, which precede the examinations, 19 
works in plaster were sent: among which there were 4 statues and a relief, all 
original, and a relief portrait ; 19 drawings from the antique ; and from nature :— 
1 Portrait drawing. I 2 studies of animals in oil, 

15 Landscapes. 1 Colored cartoon (compobition), and 

26 Htads in oil. | 3 Engravings on copper. 

Vn. 12 TForfrs were bought or ordered of the best pupils, the total price of which was 
1.97-.ifl. (iCb^ 6s. bd.j ; the price of the lowest beiug 5Ufl. {41. bs. 4cZ.), and the highest 
680fl. (48,1. Os. Bd.) 

VI.— HIGH SCHOOLS OR ACADEMIES AND SCIENCE SCHOOLS. 
A.—Bigh Schools or Academies. 

1. On the 1st of March there were 88 public academies. These are subdivided into — 4 
lo\^^ Evangelical seminaries; 7 land gymnasiums, of .which one is in connection with a 
boarding-school. Catholic; Slyceums and one Liitin school, with an upper provisional 
lyceum class ; and 73 lower Latin schools, of which two are erected provisionally. 

2. The public academies numbered, on the 1st of March, 18W, together, 225 school 
classes, of which 7 were provi^ionaI. Of these, there were — In the seminaries, as well as 
in the upper divisions of gymnasiums and lycenms (including 3 provisional classes), 33 
classes. In the middle and lower divisions of the gymnasiums and lyceums (including a 
provisional class), GO classes. In the 73 lower Latin schools (including 3 provisional 
classes), 1 ,6 classes. Under the Latin schools there were 32 schools wilh 1 cla-s. 31 with 
2 classes, 9 with 3 classes. 11 with 5 classes. The gymnasiums and lyceums numbered 23, 
the lower Latm schools 42 ; together, 05 classes. 

3. In the public academies there were, on the 1st of March, 1866, in all, 246 definitive 
head-masters' places (besides 5 provisional ones). Of tLese, there were — In the semina- 
ries and upper divisions of the gymnasiums and lyceums, 60 pkices, In the middle and 
lower divisions of the gymnasiums and lyceums (including the places mentioned above), 
64 places. In the lower Latin schools (including 5i4 assistants' places), 122 places. 

4. The number of pupils in the academies was, on the 1st of March, 1866, 4565. 
Among these were 100 non- Wurtembergers. 

•If, on the one hand, the pupils in the lower Evangelical schools and those of the 
Catholic coirviction, as well as the pupils in the higher classes of the gymnasiums and 
lyceums, are taken under the head of gymnasium scholars, and if, on the other hand, the 

£upil3 in the middle and lower gymnasium and lyceum classes, as well as the lower 
atin classes, come under the head of Latin scholars, the following numbers will be the 
result :— ., 

(a) On the whole, there were, on the Ist of March, 1866: — 1. Gymnasium pupils, 635. 
2. Latin scholars, 3,930. Total, 4,565 

B.— Public Peal Schools. 

1. The number of public real schools was, on the 1st of March, 1866, 76, of which 9 
had special upper real classes. 

2 These numbered 160 pupils' classes, of which 17 were upper real classes, and 26 
assistants' classes. 

These IfiO classes were divided as follows:— 52 real schools numbered each 1 class. 
11 real schools, each 2 classes. 5 real schools, each 3 classes. 4 real schools, each 5 
classes. 1 real school, 7 classes. 2 real schools, each 8 classes. 1 real school, 28 clvvsses. 

3 There were in all 169 and 143 definitive misters' places. Among the latter there 
were : — is head-masters' places in upper real schools (professoriats). 106 real-teachers' 
places. 19 assistants' places. 

4. The total number of real scholars was, 4,734, of which 3'^S were upper real 
school T.npils, Of thc^e there were: — Jfrotestants, 3,715; Catholics, 793; Israelites, 
221 ; other sects, 5. Total, 4,734. 



ITlm .... 


3 


3 


Neutlingen . 


1 


1 


Essliuiren 


3 


3 


Heilbronn 


1 " 


1 


Ludwigsburg . 


1 " 


1 


Cacnstatt 


1 


1 


Tubingen 


2 


3 


Oehringen (provisional.) 


1 


1 



376 SPECIAL IXSTEUCTION IN WURTEMBEEG-. 

Of the twenty schools which had the most pupils, Stuttgardt, had 9S8 ; Neutlingen, 
262; U!ia. -J-IS; E^sliiigen. 221 ; Heilbronn, iTi; Hall. 17:2; L'lidwigsbujg, 171 ; Canustalt, 
121; Bihcrach, 114; Tubingen, li 3 ; Gmund, 110; llavcnsburg. lOu; rcottweil, ?-4; Gopp- 
ingen, 80; Nurtingen, 18 ; Ib^eudenstadt, 71 ; Kirchheim, 70 ; Cain, 66; Aaien, 6u. 

VIL— ELEMENTARY PREPARATORY SCHOOLS. 
The nine towns which have elementary schoola under the superintendence of the 
masters and clergymen appointed by the Minister for Education, and the object of which 
is the preparation of boys from six to eight years old for eatrap.ce into higher schools, 
nuiibered, on the 1st of March, ISJfi, in all, ii pupils' classes, wich 2i masters, and 1006 
pupils; of whom 901 were Protestants, (JO Catholics, 41 Jews, and ] own confession., 
Stuttgardt . . .10 classes, 10 masters, and 404 pupils. 

140 

112 

95 

68 

60 

58 " 
47 " 
15 " 

22 22 1,006 

An analogous arrangement exists in many of the elementary classes. of the country 
tov.n schools, principally in the real or lower Latin schools with one class, in which the 
children- get extra preparation for their fature entrance into higher schools. 

EttablisJiments for Privale Instruction. 

1. Boys' school, kept by Professor Pfieider, in Koi-nthal, with 112 pupils ; of whom 
107 are Protestants, 5 Cath. lie-, H2 VVurtrmbergcr-^, and 80 strangers; of whom 21 are 
Germans, and out of the rest of Europe, 4o ; Asiatics, 2 ; Americans, 6 ; and Airicana, 5. 

2. The educational institution in Ludwigsburg, with 59 pupils. 

3. The boys' school of Professor Close, in Cannstatt, with 42 pupils. 

4. The private elementary school of Hayer, in Stuttgardt, with 136 pupils. 

VIII,— INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. 

1. In the year 1865-66 tJiere were— In Evangelical communities — 394 schools, 32,992 girls, 
977 boys = 33,'Ju9 pupils. In Catholic communities— 5U4 school.-', 17,'> 14 girls, and 644 
boys = 18,lbS pupils. Total, 1450, with 52,157 pupils, of whom 50,536 were girls, 1621 boys. 

2. Hours of study .-—Number of hours taught in all the schools, 266,691. 

3. Teachers: — (a) In the Evangelical schools, number of female teachers, 1210. Their 
salaries together amount to 2> .V);311. (172GZ )— so that each mistrcsn has on an average I'lll. 
17 kr. (U. as. Od.) (6) In the Catholic schools, the number of teachers is 58S. Their 
salaries amount 10,043 fl. 31 kr. (b3ti. lis. bd.) averaging 17 fl. 40 kr. each, (li, 9s. \Qd.) 

Total number of teachers, 1778. 

4. Scliool cosis— books, heating, and working materials :— (a) On the Evangelical side, 
32.93Jfl, 15 kr. {-iliTd.), according to which, each school averages 34 fl, 51 kr. (vJ. 18s. ^d.) 

(b) On the Catholic side, 15,495 fl. 6 kr., according to which, each school averages 30fl. 
45 kr. (2Z. lis. Sd. ). Total, 48,4 .8 fl. 21 kr. (4,03yi. l(is. 8d.) 

5. Grant from the State for this purpose: — 

To the 560 Evangelical communities . . . 7,184 fl. = 59'-"7. 13s. 4d. 
To the Catholic side * 3,936 fl. «= 328i. (»s. Off. 



11,120 fl. = 9261. Ids. 4<i. 

FINANCIAL. 
X. The number of masters in the Kingdom of Wurtemberg was, on January 1st, 1367, 
A. — Schoolmasters : — 

1. With incomes of 400 fl.— 424 fl. (333.-3.5^.) with house rent free, 1352 

3. " 425 fl.— 4-19 fl. (3.-j^,— 477) " " 749 
8. " 459 fl.— 4'.J4 fl. {rd.-A\}l.) " " 200 

4. " 4T5fl.— 499fl. (a'Ji.— 4IZ.) " " 6i 

5. " 500fl.— 599fl. (41L— 5UZ.) " " 163 

6. " 600fl.— 69Jfl.. (oU/.— 58L) " " 113 

7. " 700 fl. and over (5bi. and over) " " 43 

3,684 
"R.— Under masters .......... "^ 299 

C— Ushers 644 

Total . . 3,627 

II. The number of masters who taught in clashes : — 

1. Head masters . 4591 gum set aside for their payment, 20,150 fl. (16601. 

2. Second masters <6 ^j^ ^^L.) 

^^^ ' ' I Average income of each master or assistant, 36 fl. 30 kr. 

553 m. OS. lOd.) 



553 J 



PRACTICAL RESULTS OF SYSTEMATIC NATIONAL EDUCATION. 



After giving a comprehensive survey of the system of National Edu- 
cation iu the Kingdom of Wurtemberg, in its scientific and technical fea- 
tures and institutions, as well as in its general aims, Mr. Russell, in his 
Systematic Technical Education for- the English People, sets forth the results 
as observed by him in a period of twenty years, on the character, manners, 
and industries of the people. 

Mr. Russell, in his earnest advocacy of systematic technical educa- 
tion of all men engaged in trade, commerce, and arts, — while he does 
not undervalue its direct and indirect bearing on the material and pecuni- 
ary interests of individuals and the nation, — rests its claims on its intel- 
lectual, moral, and social results. 

In England I should naturally be asked whether all this admirable 
and systematic organization for the teaching of a whole people, and of 
which I have said I have carefully watched the progress for twenty years, 
has been attended with any sensible result upon the character, manners 
and works of the people of those countries. I should begin by saying 
that that is in effect asking me — Would the people of these countries be 
what they now are without that education ? and as the two experiments 
could scarcely have been tried side by side, the answer must be in some 
degree hypothetical. I will, however, answer this question as best I can. 

I begin by saying that when I compare in the same country the per- 
sons who hud attained maturity before this system was instituted, and that 
younger generation which has gone through it and come out into the 
world of practical experience, I say without hesitation that they are more 
civilized, and that they set about their work in a wiser, shorter, less waste-^ 
ful way ; but this is scarcely a satisfactory answer, for in the interval 
between the uneducated generation and the educated one, comprising 15 
to 18 years, everything there, as elsewhere, has changed in the direction of 
amelioration. 

Perhaps, however, the best standard by which an Englishman can 
judge of a foreign people is by comparing them individually and person- 
ally with ourselves through the medium of their character, their manners, 
and their works. I will begin, therefore, by saying that when in those 
parts of an educated country where I am no longer a stranger, I meet an 
ordinary agricultural peasant, I find him more intelligent, belter informed, 
more able to understand my questions and to give a direct, purposelike 
answer, than a peasant of the same class in England. He will talk politics 
to me, because he has read it in his newspaper ; he will talk theology with 



378 SPECIAL INSTEUCTION IN WUETEMBERG. 

me, for he studied it at school ; he will discuss the Italian question, the 
Austrian question, and the French question, because at school in the 
second period he studied their geography, because he is up in their politi- 
cal history, and he knows all that has taken place in his own country from 
its earliest invasion. I had the good fortune to assist one day in a peasant 
revolution, as they called it. They were 7000. We stood out in a pour 
of rain for two hours. The question was whether, to the number of 
10,000, the people should sign a paper asking for a change of men and of 
measures in a part of the country where the same politicians had governed 
for 25 years. The whole meeting was as orderly and quiet as a ballot 
for members in a Pall Mall club ; the crowd was so quiet that we all dis- 
tinctly heard one man speak from the platform. I discussed with some of 
this mob their grievances, which they stated with the greatest good 
humor. They were the following : That the banks and credit establish- 
ments of the district were so organized as to favor the more wealthy 
borrower as against the smaller landowner or manufacturing borrower, 
and they wanted the honest poor man to be trusted on the same terms as the 
honest rich man ; second, they conceived that the town districts inhabited 
by the poor were not so perfectly cleansed and supplied with water as 
those inhabited by the rich ; thirdly, that the character of the education 
given in the public schools of the second period did not prepare their 
children for the third period as well as it ought. As to the slighest vio- 
lence, rudeness, or bad manners, these men would simply have despised 
any member of the meeting so vulgar as not to know how to behave 
himself; and I think I can say that in that mob my clothes — and I had 
dressed like one of themselves — were not touched by those of any other 
person. I must confess that I came out of that mob humiliated : the 
gathering corresponded to our Hyde Park meeting, for they were of the 
lowest class to be found in a populous manufacturing district. They 
were brought together by demagogues, one a barrister, another a master 
workman, a third the editor of a newspaper. I will add that it was on 
a Sunday, and that every one had on a Sunday suit, though some of these 
suits might have performed that function 10 or 15 years. The petition was 
afterwards signed to the required number, and the revolution put into, due 
official train. Need I say that of such democrats and such revolutions 

one need have no fear ? 

In the daily life in a street in an educated country, I see the absence 
of rude and rough manners, and I recognize a general aspect of superior 
intelligence. I call a street porter and give him a message — he sees I am 
a stranger, and answers me in French, or perhaps in English ; I intrust 
him with some purchases at various shops ; on his return, he delivers to 
me a neat account like the bill of a hotel, properly balanced. One of the 
items in the account was the purchase of a book^ Learning at the pub- 
lisher's that the book was out of print, he bethought him of going to a 
bookstall for an old copy. -He brought me one as good as new for less 
than half-price, but never thought of pocketing the difference. Let me 
nej:t take a wait(?r at a hotel. We were talking at table of a play by 
Schiller, which had a French name, which was. announced to be played, 
and of which none of us had before heard : the waiter, finding he could 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 379 

solve our difficulty, begged pardon for informing us that he had read in 
the life of Schiller that the play was an adaptation from the original in 
French by Racine, These are the little things which, in a foreign coun- 
try, give the stranger a truer measure of relative civilization than more 
striking characteristics, but when one finds them at every turn pervading 
the whole structure of society — when one finds in their beer-houses, their 
cafes, and their dancing rooms, that with some exceptions as to clothes 
and tone of voice, they are courteous and well-bred, and their counte- 
nances full of intelligence and good feeling, one seeks the cause, and 
finds it in a superior education and consequent superior social condition, 

I will now come to the practical matters which show directly the 
results of a technical education in the production of one of its chief objects' 
— the creation of wealth. It is notorious that those foreign railways 
which have been made by themselves in the educated countries of Germany 
and Switzerland have been made far cheaper than those constructed by 
us in England ; it is known that they have been made by pupils of the 
industrial schools and technical colleges of these countries, and I know 
many of their distinguished men who take pride in saying that they owe 
their positions entirely to their technical schools. I find everywhere 
throughout their work marks of that method, order, symmetry, and ab- 
sence of waste which arise from plans well thought out, the judicious 
application of principles, conscientious parsimony, and a high feeling of 
professional responsibility. In the accurate cutting of their slopes and 
embankments, in the careful design and thoughtful execution of their 
beautiful but economical stonemasonry, in the self-denying economy of 
their large span bridges, the experienced traveler can read, as he travels, 
the work of a superiorly educated class of men ; and when we come down 
to details, to the construction of permanent way, arrangements of signals, 
points, and sidings, and the endless details of stations, we everywhere 
feel that we are in the hands of men who have spared no pains, and who 
have applied high professional skill to minute details. It is well known 
that many years before we would follow their example, the engineers of 
the German railways had introduced a system of constructing and of 
uniting to each other the iron rails of the permanent way, which made them 
cheaper, more durable and safe than those employed in England. Happily 
for our national reputation, it was an Irishman who invented it, though 
its advantages had first to be appreciated in Germany before we would 
follow the example. 

It is remarked by every traveler that the works of their railway 
stations are, when compared with ours, much more beautiful, convenient, 
and fit, both within and without; the construction of their trains, the 
proportions of their carriages, the fitness, convenience, and comfort of their 
internal arrangements, all tell to the disadvantage of ours, and the one 
thing in which our railways excel theirs is in high speed. Theirs, on the 
other hand, are economical in capital and high in revenue. 

It is now so much the practise to praise Prussia, that it is not without 
reluctance that I have decided to give expression to the result of twenty 
years of occasional visits to that country. The worship of mere success 
is so vulgar a feeling that I would not willingly add my voice to that 



380 SPECIAL II*STKUCT10K IN WUETEMBEBa. 

chorus, but what I now say, I have been saying any time for these twenty 
years. When first I knew her, she was a very poor country. Territorially 
she was weak, consisting of scattered patches of land isolated from one 
another, and surrounded by nations neither loving nor helpful, and even 
the feelings of the diflferent portions of her own community were any thing 
but cordial to one another. The taxation, as compared to the revenue, 
was enormous, and the tax in person paid by the compulsory and universal 
service in the army weighed heavily on the people. The length of 
frontier to be defended was so great that every working man in the king- 
dom was compelled to do his w^ork, as it were, with tool in one hand, and 
musket in the other. It was diffi :ult for an Englishman to see how such 
a country could be tied together and acquire unity, and nothing but a 
careful study of their institutions could enable him to do so. In the end, 
however, I came to see the importance, in a political point of view, of the 
highly organized system of education which, pervading all ranks, has 
succeeded in producing two generations of educated men. This education 
was the same in all parts of Prussia, but by no means the same as in the 
surrounding portions of Germany. That first gave her an intellectual 
unity. Another remarkable institution, co-ordinate with this, was the 
political organization, that, like the education, was of one uniform system 
through all the parts of the kingdom and through all degrees. I do not think 
it is very generally known to Englishmen that Prussia is an organized 
democracy, and is not, as we imagined, governed by the King and an 
aristocracy. She is governed by an educated democracy, who come 
indifi'erently from every rank of society, who receive the highest education 
the country affords, who are selected entirely by the distinction attained 
in their technical and learned universities, and who thence rise to fill all the 
high offices of the State, except those personally surrounding the King, or 
forming the political government of the time. All the executive govern- 
ment is democracy, educated and organized ; everywhere, in the highest 
offices, exercising the highest responsibilities, are found men of the 
humblest origin, owing their position entirely to education, ability, and 
long service. This same civil executive extends through every depart- 
ment of the country, and has its representative even in a small agricultural 
village. This is another element of homogeneity and unity ; it is a system, 
however, quite foreign to our notions, for it makes a centralized unity of 
the people and the Government, which, with our unsystematic notions, 
we detest and vilify with the names of " centralization and bureaucracy," 
forgetting that there is another name equally appropriate, namely, " organ- 
ized education and intelligence;" for it is not possible to conceive a more 
admirable method of diffusing civilization and order throughout a whole 
people, than to plant in every community, and even in every little village, 
a civilized, educated man, charged with the single duty of promoting the 
welfare, education, and order of that community. 

The next institution which forms part of the education of the people, 
and tends to build up the unity of the nation, is that we have already re- 
ferred to — the perfect training of every citizen to carry arms as a skilled 
soldier in defence of his country. I have shown how it acts as a direct 
instrument of education, from the fact that the army possesses an 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IX WURTEMBERQ. 381 

organized system of schools, in which both men and officers find the means 
of a finished education. But I have not mentioneil the influence of that 
system on the health, constitution, civilization, and good manners of the 
people at large. Side by side, in the barrack, in the field, the peasant 
private soldier and the peer private soldier serve as daily comrades on a 
perfect level, enjoying the amenities of life and roughing it together. 
All that we claim for our public schools on the ground of manliness, 
physical strength, good carriage, manual dexterity, habits of method and 
subordination, flows equally from the three years' education and discipline 
of the army, which is thus entitled to be called a university for the 
people. 

But the indirect effects are perhaps greater than its direct influence, 
for each of these instructed men carries back into the narrow community 
of his village or town, and into his family, all the civilizing influences of 
this education. 

The last social result of systematic organized education which I will 
indicate is its effect in imbuing a whole people with a profound spirit 
of patriotism. I have never seen patriotism more profound or unselfish 
than in educated Germany and in educated Switzerlmd; here and there, 
and everywhere, are to be found individuals conspicuous for large self- 
sacrifice for the public good, but I am not now speaking of conspicuous 
persons. What I mean is this: that in those nations the whole mass of the 
people are individual patriots ; personally, they are most industrious, but 
they will spare any time required from their occupations for the public 
good, without payment or grudging; personally, they are extremely frugal 
and economical, but for the common well-being of the community — 
of the State — of the city — of the village, they willingly impose upon them- 
selves contributions from their hard-won earnings; and, what is perhaps 
a still higher measure of patriotism than money, men of strong wills, clear 
views, and energetic personality are ready to sacrifice their own views, 
preferences, and prejudices to that social organization by which alone unity 
of action and efficiency is to be obtained for a nation or a community. 

That this patriotism is the result of their large education and S3^stematic 
training I cannot doubt; and I will venture to say that if the governing, 
statesmen of any people desired to secure to their body permanent con- 
fidence, fidelity, and attachment, there is no way of implanting these 
sentiments so surely as by the conviction that the Government had watched 
over their infant years, had provided for their youth the invaluable 
blessing of high education, and had never withdrawn its wise solicitude 
until it had sent them out into life, educated, trained, useful members of 
society. 

These remarks apply rather to the quickened intelligence and raised 
character of the people than to their material advantages. But I may add 
that in every country where technical education has taken root, and had 
time to bear fruit, I also find unquestionable proofs of the rapidity with 
which increased intelligence and enlarged knowledge bring increase in 
employment and remuneration. From my personal experience, I may say 
that within the last twenty-five years I have seen large branches of com- 
mercial trade leave one country and plant themselves in another because 



SPECIAL mSTKUCTION IN WUKTEMBERa. 

the workers of the one were educated and those of the other uneducated ; 
and I have watched nations rising into importance and power in Europe 
by education, and by the order, organization, and efficiency which educa- 
tion bestows ; and other nations lagging behind and losing their place by 
reason of their unwillingness to educate either the higher or the lower 
classes of their people. But these material considerations find a better place 
in the folio wing^hapter_thanjiere. '^ 



NATIONAL LESSONS IN TECHNICAL EDUCATION. 



Mr. J. Scolt Russell, in his valuable treatise on Systematic Technical 
Education foi' tlie English People^ in a chapter with the above heading, 
introduces some of the lessons which he thinks may be read in the Inter- 
national Exhibitions of the last twenty-five years. 

Of late years, a series of great public events have been taking plaec, 
which have been of great national value in serving to awaken the British 
people from that lethargy of supreme satisfaction with which they have 
so long continued to regard themselves as the most skilled, accomp- 
lished, and successful manufacturing people in the world. For half a 
century they had been enjoying the fruits of the inventions of a few men 
of genius who. had created the whole system of modern manufacturing 
machinery, and Providence had also endowed them with the accumulated 
wealth of countless centuries stored up in the bowels of the earth, in the 
shapje of coal and iron, ready to be used or wasted and worked out in this 
manufacturing century. The genius of a few men having set coal and iron 
to do the manufacturing work of mind and man, the citizens of England 
had begun to think that it was they who were superior in intelligence and 
civilization to the un-coaled, un-ironed, un-engineered nations around 
them. For half a century nothing occurred to awaken them from this 
dream, and for that half century the works of English engineers and Eng- 
lish iron and coal bore the highest reputation, and earned the highest 
prices in the world. 

The last eighteen years have seen a series of events, slowly, regularly, 
and disagreeably awakening the nation from a pleasant belief, once reality, 
now a dream. Eighteen years ago there began a series of competitive 
trials of intelligence and skill between the citizens of the different civilized 
nations of the world. Adam Smith's views of the wealth of nations were 
to be put to the new trial of competitive examination. The scene of the 
first trial was in London, in 1851. It was the famous Universal Exhibition 
of the Industries and Products of all Nations. In that great school the 
civilized nations of Europe had their first lesson in technical education. 
There they were able to see in how manj'- things England retained her 
hereditary excellence ; and England was there able to see in how many 
branches of taste and skill other nations possessed qualities in which she 
was wanting. But in that competition she had no cause for humiliation. 
The genius of Paxton would alone have sufficed to rescue the skill and 
the manufacturing industry of England from humiliation. For in the 
building of the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park was exhibited an entirely 
new and highly skillful system of modem architecture, in which iron and 



SSi SPECIAL INSTErCTION IX WURTE:^rBERG. 

glass, great staples of English manufacture, and of modern invention, 
formed the sole materials of construction of the largest biiilding of the 
world, and within which could be seen assembled at one time 100,000 of 
the people of every nation of the world, surrounded by the products of 
every clime, and the works of every tribe. 

This was England's first great lesson on technical education; the 
second was the similar Great Exhibition held in Paris in 185o. 

Nothing was more striking than the enormous progress nations had 
made from their first lesson. Some members of each group of human 
inventions and skill had felt their inferiority, and vigorously set about its 
redress. England had been struck by the amazing superiority of some 
continental nations in the beauty and grace of design, which sufficed to 
. convert the rude and nearly worthless materials of clay and flint, which 
are to her even more abundant than to other nations, into valuable and 
invaluable works of art, in earthenware and glass. She had occupied the 
four years' interval under the auspices of the Prince Consort— the real 
author of these international lessons — in collecting and difi'using through 
the manufacturing counties the best models of the best masters, in estab- 
lishing for the potteries and glass works schools of design, and in training 
teachers for art workmen. These young institutions alrea-dy bore fruit in 
1855, and England was no longer outstripped in pottery and glass. It is 
curious, but instructive, to notice that the Exhibition of 1851 had dsgusted 
the whole nation with its blue earthenware plates, cups and saucers, bor- 
rowed from the 2000 years' tradition of China, and with its huge lumps of 
glass, called decanters and glasses, cut or moulded into hideous distortions 
of form. 

The largest shopkeepers of London will tell you that ever since that 
date the old patterns are worthless, save for export to barbarous countries 
— that all England has learnt a lesson, and made a revolution in taste for 
these common things. 

The lessons which French and German nations had learnt were of 
another sort. They had felt their inferiority in the great objects of manu- 
facturing and constructive skill, in which, in 1851, we held supremacy. 
They were happy in having princes or sages as wise as our own, who saw 
that the great manufactures of England were iron and steel, the great in- 
struments of skill, industry, mechanical power, and transport. They saw 
that the profusion of our raw materials gave us vast advantages in time 
and money. They were discriminating enough to see also that in mere 
raw material, mere mechanical power, and mere brute labor, competition 
with us was hopeless. And they argued thus : the one thing we can set 
against the English wealth in raw material is greater skill in using what 
we have. The way to compete with them in mechanical power is to apply 
higher science in the treatment and application of it ; and the way to com- 
pete with them in iron and skill is to buy of them the unwrought material, 
which they will sell us n t nearly cost price, in consequence of their free trade 
and close competition, and then to apply the skill of our own artisans, highly 
educated and trained, to construct out of these raw materials all the higlxer 
kinds of tools, instruments, and machinery, m those forms and applications 
which enhance to the highest degree the value of the material. 



SPECIAL INSTKUCTION m WUKTEMBEEG. 3S5 

In 1855 we saw that the French and the Germans had already advanced 
far into our own proviuces of iron, steel, and melal manufacture. We 
fjuud that lliey hal alre.idy Citablished schools in every metropolis, large 
town, or center of industry, for educating professional men and masters, 
for training foremen and skilled workmen, and for educating afl^rentices. 
What we saw in 1855 was instructive to the clear-sighted and the thought- 
ful, but it was not humiliating to the mass of the English visitors, and it 
did not alarm the Eaglish manufacturers. Therefore, unhappily, they 
did not take warning in time. They merely committed the common 
blander of despising their rivals. When they saw the enormous progress 
of the French in steam machinery, and its met J products occupying a 
huge annexe, they merely said : " Look ! they have been imitating us ; but 
never mind, these are mere tours deforce got up under the patronage of 
the Emperor to make a show at his Exhibition. They serve to gratify 
the vanity of the French nation, but they can never compete with us in 
quality, quantity, or price." 

This self-satisfaction was a huge blunder. The progress of the French 
and German nations has shown there was an ominous reality. 

The third lesson was our own Exhibition of 18G2. It was the first 
Exhibition humiliating for us. Our administration of that Exhibition 
was humiliating, for it was a grand administrative failure. The building 
ilself was to us, as an intellectual, mechanical, and artistic nation, an 
a' ject humiliation. Hideous on the outside, without unity or effect as a 
whole; inconvenient in the inside, ugly in its details, crowded and 
unseemly in the distribution of the objects exhibited, with but a single 
portion of it serving rather to exaggerate than redeem the effects of the 
other — an admirably arranged, lighted, and ventilated picture-gallery. 
Paxton was still alive, and also the distinguished men who, allied with 
him, had created the Exhibition of 1851, and had afterwards transported 
it to form the Crystal Palace on Sydenham Hill, there to serve as an 
enduring monument of our first great national lesson in technical educa- 
tion, and as a permanent institution for the refinement of the taste and 
culture of the people. Though Paxton was still living, his genius was 
not permitted to serve the nation, and that nation felt that the quickest 
way to spare itself from perpetuating its own disgrace and humiliation was 
to sweep off the face of the earth this disgraceful monument of its want 
of foresight, design, and organization. 

Thus disgraced by the edifice itself, there was little to be seen in the 
interior to give an Englishman cause for self-gratuUtion. Switzerland 
had there her wonderful aniline colors, the discovery of her distinguished 
chemist, Sohonbein. Prussia was there with her huge ingots of Krupp's 
steel — already beginning to displace on English railways the finest qu li- 
ties of Yorkshire iron. America was there with some of her exqusite 
machinery for economizing labor. Italy was there with her alreidy 
reviving manufactures of classic earthenware, her decorated glass, and her 
Etruscan gold. France had been diligently following up her determina- 
tion to equal us in our great staples of machinery and iron manufacture, 
and the stately steam-engines she then produced, as examples of her. 
ordinary work in the steam-ships of her navy and mercantile marine, 

25 



386 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUKTEMBEKa. 

sufficed to show us that her progress was true, and that we had been mis- 
taken in cilliQg her triumphs of 1855 iours de force. All around us in 
that Exhibition were proofs that every nation had begun to rival us in 
some one of our great specialties ; and if we were not instructed, we were 
at least su^ciently disgusted with that Exhibition to feel, and to express 
a very pervading conviction, that for our part we would cease to repeat 
Exhibitions which failed to mark any progress of ours, and only served 
to advertise to the world the more rapid progress of rival nations. That 
feeling of disgust was the first wholesome symptom, but it did not at that 
time mature itself into any conviction of the necessity of any great national 
exertion to advance the manufacturing skill of the English people. "We 
had exhibited a sufficient number of new iron Armstrong guns, and models 
of iron and iron-coated men-of-war, to make us feel that in all things we 
were not yet distanced. 

It was the Exhibition of 1£G7, in Paris, which gave the nations, and 
especially England, a final lesson. By that Exhibition we were rudely 
awakened and thoroughly alarmed. We then learnt, not that we were 
equalled, but that we were beaten — not on some points, but by some nation 
or other on nearly all those points on which we had prided ourselves, 

I shall shortly sum up the practical conclusions which I myself, and 
the most eminent of my colleagues, arrived at. We were sent by the 
British Government to serve as jurymen in adjudging the towards of the 
Exhibi- ion, and to report to the Government the practical facts of national 
importance which we might there observe. In the great manufactures of 
iron men-of-war, with their huge steam-engines, ponderous wrought-iron 
armor, we found ourselves equalled, if not beaten. The I'^rge marine 
engine of Dupuy de Lome neither excelled the English marine engine in 
exquisite truth of workmanship nor in high finish, for I have elsewhere 
said that the English workman's conscientious pride in his work is not to 
be excelled by that of the workmen of any other country. But the design 
of the French engine showed so much fore-thought, practical wisdoni, 
and provision for economy, as left no doubt that it would consume less 
fuel, do more work, endure longer, and run less chance of accident than our 
own engines ; all of these being qualities heretofore constituting our own 
superiority. 

Next in iron armor. Their ships carried iron armor as thick and 
as strong as our own, and they were armed with guns and supplied with 
ammunition which could just penetrate that armor, but which that 
^rmor was just able to prevent from piercing. And their ships presented 
arrangements for securing all the advantages of simultaneous firing in every 
direction which we had cl.iimed for om's, with this additional advantage, 
that the French had attained that which we had at enormous expense 
tried but failed in obtaining — efficient breech-loading guns, which enable 
them ( jffectually to deliver 17 shots to our 10. 

Thus our naval supremacy was shown to be ended, so far as the manu- 
facture of materiel and mechanism is concerned. 

Coming to land-ma( hinery and structures, we found, in the French 
department of the great building, a multitude of steam-engines of French 
manufacture, and even from distant provinces, distinguished by our own 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBKRG. 337 

perfection of mechanical execution hnd high finish, but distinguished also 
beyond aay of our own for the el^garice and perfection of their mechanism 
and arrangements for economy. With the French, fuel is dear ; they find 
it w mh while to fetch it from England and pay tlie freight, but they have 
set their minds to compensate this inequality by their superiority of design 
and contrivance. So they not merely invented boilers well calculated to 
endure, keep clean, and extract the largest quantity of heat out of the 
fuel and to make with it liigh and strong steam, but they also contrived the 
engines in such a manner as to tui*n that steam to better account than in 
our engines, so as to get more power out of a given quantity of fuel, in a 
higher proportion even than the greater cost of our own fuel exported 
into France — a clear triumph of forethought and ingenuity over wasteful, 
unthinking wealth. 

There was but one steam-engine which rivalled them, and that was 
more the contrivance of the American than of the Englishman whose 
name it bore. 

But perhaps the most remarkable group of all the exhibitions in Paris, 
was the group of large manufactures in iron which showed the products 
of the furnaces, forges, and iron-mills of France, Germany, and Belgium. 
Everywhere in rails, railway-wheels, railway tires and axles ; in large 
wrought-iron beams for house building, in iron plates and bars, and frames 
for iron ships — in these, which were all our own, we found ourselves rivalled, 
excelled, in size and quality, and competed with in price. On land, there- 
fore, as well as at sea, our mastery of the iron trade seemed to have 
disappeared. 

In smelting, mining, locomotive building, and the great branches of 
commercial machinery, a single great establishment in France, called 
Creusot, appeared like a chivalric knight to issue a challenge against all 
England. 

Creusot possesses the natural advantages of England, inasmuch as 
under its own soil it has the iron, the coal, and other minerals, in the same 
abundance as ourselves. But Creusot, under the wise direction of Presi- 
dent Schneider, was endowed with an advantage which we have neglected 
— the possession of a systematic organization of technical schools. Creusot 
has a generation of workmen schooled and trained on the spot. The 
schools are a model which we shall long emulate in vain. It will take us 
twelve years to overtake Mr. Schneider. He imports his locomotives 
even into Eagland; and all round the coasts of France, and round her 
inland borders, Schneider serves with locomotive engines, iron plates, and 
forgiugs, customers who used to come to us for these commodities. It is 
not in price merely that he competes with us. It happened to me to be 
professionally occupied in a foreign country where the iron for a large 
engineering undertaking was about to be contracted for. Competitive 
tenders were obtained from some of the best works in England, and from 
Creusot. The prices were so near as to have little irfluence on the result, 
but thf^y were slightly in favor of the English manufacturer. The contract 
was given to Creusot^ and when I inquired officially the reason which had 
sent the contract to France, I was informed that they could more perfectly 
rely on the uniform excellence of the quality of iron from Creusot than 



888 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUETEIMBERG . 

from England— a result to an English engineer sufficiently humiliating. I 
asked the valae of this character in the opinion of. the buyers, and was 
answered that they considered it equivalent to more than five per cent, in 
favor of France. 

Another fact of the same sort in the same place expressed the same 
conviction. The large iron forgings which were imported for the same 
work, came from France, not England. The answer received this time 
was that the large forgings were cheaper in England than in France, but 
that in France the forgings were so much better formed to the finished 
shape as to be worth more than the difl'erence in price. 

I have dwelt on these instances mainly because they are in depart- 
ments in which I can venture to express a professional judgment. In the 
Prussian department were triumphs of technical skill, palpable to all 
observers. Steel cannon, more powerful than any of our own, carrying 
larger shot with heavier powder charge. Large ingots of steel, of magni- 
tude and quality unequalled by any nation. Tires of locomotive wheels, 
which, imported into England, supersede our own highest qualities of iron ; 
and complicated members of machines forged by Krupp out of a single 
piece of steel so as to be equivalent to eight or nine of the old pieces, 
formerly fastened imperfectly into one. These were some of the triumphs 
hastily exhibited by Prussia, even at the end of her costly war. 

I will not weary the reader with farther observations of my own.* I 
have said enough to let him understand how the Exhibition of Paris 
startled a thinking Englishman, and ended by convincing him that 
England had been asleep, and that a whole generation of wakeful, skilled 
workmen had been trained in other countries during the interval between 
1851 and 1887. Fifteen years is the time necessary to train a generation 
of skilled men. Some nations had already possessed that time and turned it 
to that account, with the results we then saw in Paris. 

That is a lesson on no account to be lost. It is the crowning lesson of 
the series begun in '51, and it is the intention of the following evidence to 
impress on Englishmen, from the legislator to the craftsman, the great f^ct 
that we have let one generation grow up uneducated and untrained, and 
that no question now remains for us but this : shall we now allow a second 
generation to grow up equally untrained, unskilled, and left behind in the 
race? 

I now, therefore, proceed to give the opinions of qualified men, who 
have, with extraordinary pains, gathered the lessons and moral of the 
Exhibition of Paris for the benefit of the English people. A new organiza- 
tion was provided, of which we can scarcely imagine the full value to have 
been apprehended at the time it was initiated. There were, of course, the 
usual reports of the jurors and the prizes which followed their awards ; but 
awards and medals became so profusely showered that their number nearly 
neutralized their value. Besides, and, we may say, above and beyond the 
jurors, was a higher series of reports prepared by Special Commissioners 
sent to report on the results of the Exhibition, with reference to national 

* The reader who desires more information than is given in this chapter, will find it 
not only in the works themselves from which the following extracts are made, but in the 
reports of the juries and of our own government reporters, which are published in a 
separate volume. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUBTEMBERG. 389 

interests, and the large number of their reports have already been printed 
and have already appeared in a series of " Kensiugton Blue Books." A 
second series of reports, of a still more strictly technical nature, was elicited 
by the Commissioners of Schools, who had ascertained that many of the 
reports on the French Exhibition appeared to throw the blame of certain 
cases of inferiority on the lower technical education of the British people, 
and the commission issued a series of inquiries of which they then pub- 
lished the report. 

On this report the Government, having taken alarm, sent abroad a 
Commissioner, if not officially, at least officieusement, to ascertain by per- 
sonal inquiry whether the alleged defects of our systems of education and 
our inferiority to some other countries in some sorts of technical skill were 
real or imaginary ; and we have in the report of Mr. Samuelson to the Vice- 
President of the Council of Education, the views of a practical m mufac- 
turer concerning the previous statements. All these sources of informa- 
tion agree on three points, — on the great practical value of education to a 
people ; on the admirable organization provided by the Governments of 
other countries for giving to their people systematic and universally- 
diffused technical education; and, thirdly, on the deplorable neglect of 
Buch measures which has characterized our own Government and people. 

Bat, in my estimation, there is a collection of documents of far more 
importance than all these put together, which has just been published in 
an unassuming form by the Society of Arts, and issued from their rooms 
in the Adelohi, at the small price of half-a-crown. I doubt whether the 
Society itself clearly saw what it was about when it undertook the harm- 
le«i<?, beneficent duty of offering to pay the traveling expenses of such 
English artisans as wanted to study their own departments of trade in the 
Fjench Exhibition, and could not afford the cost ; and when in return for 
this benefit it imposed the modest condition that they should report in 
writing on what they had seen and learnt. Out of this simple act has grown 
a collection of reports, 689 pages of closely printed matter, full of subjcft 
f >r the gravest thought — treating, in fact, the whole question of the social 
condition, moral and religious education of the workman, and of the 
duties which various Governments have either neglected or performed, in" 
giving or withholding from the youth of a nation that intelligence, skill, 
and taste which they unanimously declare education can promote and 
develop, if it cannot create. It is the quiet, reasonable, practical, and 
moderate tone in w^hich all this has been investigated and set down, which 
renders this volume the notable contribution to social science in 18G7. 

Of all these four separate sources of knowledge, I should wish to 
convey to my readers the aim, the substance, and the conclusions. I fear 
I shall not be able in one chapter to overtake all of them, for the field is 
both wide and prolific, covering nearly all the branches of human industry. 

I. Taking up first the " Report relative to Technical Education by 
the Schools Enquiry Commission of 2d July, 18G7," I find the Commis- 
sioners issuing a request for information to some eminent jurors and others 
as to the truth of certain " evidence considered to be afforded by the Inter- 
national Exhibition at Paris of the inferior rate of progress in manuHictur- 
ing and mechanical industry in England, compared with that made in 



390 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 

Other European countries ; " and they add, " it has been stated to us that 
this alleged inferiority is due in a great measure to the want of technical 
education, and we have therefore thought it desirable to ascertain from 
many eminent English jurors in this department whether they agree with 
this opinion, and we think it expedient at once to report to your Majesty 
the answers which we have received to our inquiry on this point." 

The gentlemen whom they consulted, and whose answers they have 
printed, were: Dr. Lyon Playfair, F.R.S., Professor Tyndall, F.RS., Dr. 
David Price, J. E. McConnell, C.E., James Young, chemical manufacturer, 
J. Scott Russell, F.R.S., CJaptain Beaumont, R E., Robert Mallet, C.E., Rev. 
Cannon Norris, M.A., Professor Frankland, F.R.S., John Fowler, C.E., 
Warrington W. Smythe, F.R.S., E. Huth, Peter Graham, A. J. Mundclla, 
W. Spotten, thus representing many of the most important departments of 
our educated professions, our applied sciences, engineering, education, and 
manufactures. I shall content myself with giving the essence of these 
opinions 

Dr. Lyon Playfair gives, as the result of his own inquiry as a juror, 
and of those of other j urors : "A singular accordance of opinion prevailed 
that our country had shown little inventiveness, and made but little 
progress in the peaceful arts of industry since 1862. . . Out of ninety 
classes there are scarcely a dozen in which pre-eminence is unhesitatingly 
awarded to us. . . The one cause upon which there was most unanimity 
of conviction is that France, Prussia, Austria, Belgium, and Switzerland, 
possess good systems of industrial education for the masters and managers 
of manufactories and workshops, and England possesses none." 

Professor Tyndall says: "I have long entertained the opinion, that 
in virtue of the better education provided by continental nations, England 
must one day, and that no distant one, find herself outstripped by those 
nations, both in the arts of peace and war " 

Mr. Huth writes : " I am sorry to say, that although we may still be 
^unsurpassed in many of our productions, we no longer hold that pre- 
eminence which was accorded to us in 1851. . . The enormous strides that 
have of late been made by our continental rivals in France, Belgium, Prussia, 
and Austria, will make it daily more ditficult for our woolen manufac- 
turers to hold not only theh former prominent position, but even to' main- 
lain their present one. . . I found that it is the want of industrial educa- 
tion in this country, which prevents our manufacturers from making that 
progress which other nations are making. . . I found both masters and 
foremen of other countries much more scientifically educated than our 
own. . . The workmen of other countries have a far superior education 
to ours, many of whom have none whatever. . . Their productions 
show clearly that there is not a machine working a machine, but that 
brains sit at the loom and intelligence stands at the spinning-wheel." 

Mr. McCoNNELL says: " In the class for which I was juror for Eng- 
land, I made a very careful examination and comparison of our locomotive 
engines, carriages, railway machinery, apparatus, and materiel with those 
exhibited by France, Germany, and Belgium. I am firmly convinced that 
our former superiority, either in material or workmanship, no longer 
exists. . , Unless we adopt a system oftechnical education for our work- 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBERG. 391 

men in this country, we shall soon not even hold our own in cheapness. 
. . It appears to me, Government should take the matter in hand. . . 
There should be mining schools in South Wales, Staffordshire and Dur- 
ham ; and machinery and engine schools in Manchester, Glasgow, &c." 

Professor Frankland says : "AsajurorinClass44, of the Paris Exhibi- 
tion, I was not only forcibly struck by the want of evidence of progress 
in the different branches of chemical manuflictures carried on in Great 
Britain, but still more so by the great advances made by other nations, 
especially German}^ France, and Switzerland, in respect of such manufac- 
tures, since 18G2, when, as a juror in the corresponding Class, I had also 
an opportunity of comparing the chemical manuftictures of different 
nations. . . In the Polytechnic schools of Germany and Switzerland, the 
future manufacturer or manager is made familiar with those laws and 
applications of the great natural forces which must always form the basis of 
every intelligent and progressive industry; it seems that at length this 
superiority in previous training, is more than counterbalancing the undoubted 
advantages which this country possesses in raw material." 

Mr. Mallet says: "I fully agree that a better system of technical 
education for all classes connected with industrial pursuits has become a 
pressing necessity in Great Britain, and that immediate steps ought to be 
taken for organizing and procuring, legislatively, such a system ;" he has 
been long convinced that " unless checked by a vast improvement in our 
owir educational system, general and technical, the pre-eminence of 
England must decline with a rapidly accelerating pace." 

Mr. David Price says : " What is really wanted for this country, and 
is of vital consequence to our future prosperity, is a higher scientific culture 
of those who are likely, in the natm-al course of events, to be master 
manufacturers ; so that \vhen discoveries are made they may fructify, and 
not stagnate or decay, as has too often been the case, for want of intelli- 
gence on the part of those who command capital and works, to see their 
merits." 

The evidence given by other jurors is not less strong, but I can only 
spare room for one more quotation, that of Mr. Muis^della : — " The branch 
of industry with which I have been connected for thirty 3'ears, is the manu-, 
facturing of hosiery. I am the managing partner, employing 5000 work- 
people ; with establishments in Nottingham, Derby, and Loughborough, 
employing 4000, and with branches at Chemnitz and Pausa, in Saxony, 
employing about 700 persons. I have, for four or five years past, been 
increasingly alarmed for our industrial supremacy, and my experience of the 

Paris Exhibition has only confirmed and strengthened my fears 

I am of opinion that Englishmen possess more energy, enterprise, and 
inventiveness than any other European nation. The best machines in my 
trade now at work in France and Germany, are the inventions of English- 
men, but are there constructed and improved by men who have had the 
advantage of a superior industrial education. At the largest establishment 
in Paris, these machines are constructed and improved on thorough scien- 
tific principles, under the superintendence of a j^oung man, who, I was 
informed, took high honors at the school of the Government in Paris. . . . 
Precisely the same thing is taking place in Saxony ; but the Saxons are, in 



392 SPECIAL INSTEUCTIOX IX WUETEMBERG. 

respect of education, both primary and industrial, much in advance of the 
French, and in my branch, they are our most formidable rivals. . . . 
The contrast betvrixt the woikpeople of Saxony and England, engaged in 
the same trade, is most humiliating. I have had statistics taken of various 
workshops and rooms in factories in this district, and the frightful igno- 
rance they reveal is disheartening and appalling. ... In Saxony our 
manager, an Englishman of superior intelligence, and greatly interested in 
education, during a residence of seven years, has never met wi h a work- 
man who cannot read or write — not in the limited and imperfect manner 
in which the majority of English artisans are said to read and write, but 
with a freedom and familiarity that enables them to enjoy re.iding, and to 
conduct their correspondence in a creditable and often superior style. 
Some of the sons of our poorest workmen in Saxony, are receiving a tech- 
nical education at the Polytechnic schools, such as the sons of our manu- 
facturers cannot hope to obtain. ... I am of opinion that the English 
workman is gradually losing the race, through the superior intelligence 
which foreign governments are carefully devel )ping in their artisans. . . 
The education of Germany is the result of a national organization, which 
compels every peasant to send his children to school, and aftei*wards 
affords the opportunity of acquiring such technical knowledge as may be 
useful in the department of industr}^ to which the}'- are destined." His con- 
cluding sentence ought to carry great weight — " If we are to maintain our 
position in industrial competition, we must oppose to this national organi- 
.zation one equally effective and complete; if we continue the fight with our 
present voluntary system, we shall be defeated, generations hence we shall 
be struggling with ignorance, squalor, pauperism, and crime ; but with a 
system of national education made compulsory, and supplemented with 
art and industrial education, I believe, within twenty years, England 
would possess the most intelligent and inventive artisans in the world." 

II. It is no wonder that, with such a report, made to her Majesty, from 
such a Commission as that of which Lord Taimton is chairman, the Com- 
mittee of Council on Education should have thought it necessary. to obtain 
some little information as to what other countries were doing for the tech- 
nical education of their people. They solicited, through om- representa- 
tives abroad, such printed papers as the various governments could give 
them, regarding the organization of technical schools, and we learn that 
they are translating some of these for public use. They also requested 3Ir. 
Samuelson to visit, or accepted his offer to examine (for it is not quite clear 
which), manufacturing industry abroad, in its relation to technical schools ; 
and the result is a letter addressed by him to the Vice-President of the 
Committee of Council on Education, moved for by the House of Commons, 
and printed in November last. 

iMr. Samuelson, j^I.P., traveled in France, Belgium, and Germany, 
examining, as he went, the most famous manufacturiug establishments on 
the Continent, which stand in direct rivalry to ottr own. He found every- 
where in these establishments men of all ranks better educated than our 
own; working men less illiterate— foremen and managers well educated, 
and masters accomplished, well-informed, technical men. He traced out 
the pupils of technical schools to their practical and successful results, as 



SPECIAL INSTEUCTION IN WUKTEMGERO. 393 

the superintendents of large works, and he sums up the results of his 
examination, in a paragraph which appears to confirm all the reports made 
to that Commission, which was the origin of the inquiry. — " I have 
attempted to show, by examples, what is the condition of some of the leading 
industries in these countries, (France, Switzerland, and Germany). I do 
not think it possible to estimate precisely what has been the influence of 
continental education on continental manufactures. . . . That the rapid 
progress of many trades abroad, has been greaily facilitated by the superior 
technical knowledge of the directors of works everyAvhere, and by the 
comparatively advanced elementary instruction of the workers in some 
departmentsofindustr}', can admit of but little doubt. , . . Meanwhile, 
wc know that our manul\\cturing artisans are imperfectly taught, our agri- 
cultural laborers illiterate ; neither one nor the other can put forth, with 
effect, the splendid qualities with which Providence has endowed our 
people. Our foremen, chosen from the lower industrial ranks, have no suffi- 
cient opportunities of correcting the deficiencies of their early education ; 
our managers are too apt, in every case of novelty, to proceed by ti ial and 
error, without scientific principles to guide them ; and the sons of our great 
manufacturers too often, either despise the pursuits of their fathers, as mere 
handicrafts, unworthy of men of wealth and education, or else, overlook- 
ing the beautiful examples which they afford of the application of natural 
laws to the wants of men, follow them solely as a means of heaping up 
more wealth, or, at the best, for want of other occupation : to the evils of 
such a condition, not only our statesmen, but also our people, are rapidly . 
awakening, and the disease being once acknowledged, I believe the remedy 
will soon be applied." 

III. In the two preceding sections, we have been occupied with what we 
may call the upper side of the question, that is to say, we have seen it from 
the master's point of view, and we have also seen how it is regarded by 
men of science, of education, and of distinguished technical skill. Let us 
DOW see how the questions of technical education and manufacturing 
supremacy are regarded from the workman's point of view, and so try to 
understand the under side of the question. 

What do our technical workers think of their own skill, intelligence, 
taste, judgment, knowledge, culture, refinement? What do they think of 
their edjcation, of their school training and apprenticeship? What do 
they think of the opportunities provided for the matured woikman, who 
wishes to study, to copy, to increase his stores of science, and rise to higher 
grades of skill ? What do they think are the duties of Government to him 
and his fellows? Do they think foreign governments wiser in their care 
for their working people than om*s ? Do they think the systematic educa- 
tion of their people to be waste of pains or wise foresight ? In short, do 
they find in the institutions of any other country, any social amelioration 
which they would wish to introduce into their own ? 

On all these points, and a great many more, we have the evidence of 
fifty-five witnesses, all workmen, most of them evidently superior work- 
men, and who are entitled by their acquirements to be termed at least, 
self-educated men. Among so many witnesses, we cannot call up all; 
but as we have enjoyed the pleasure of reading the whole book, we wiU 



394 SPECIAL INSTKUCTION IN WUKTEMBEKG 

only call sucli witnesses as appear to have made a special study of each 
point. 

1. On Early Technical Training. — Mr. Lucraft, the chairmaker, says; 
" Seeing some lads at work with the men in the carver's shop, I went to 
the bench of one about fourteen — he was carving a chair-back, of a medi- 
aeval form, from a wc»rking drawing. I expressed my surprise that one so 
young was found capable of carving so well, and was informed that boys 
at school are specially prepared for the trade they fanc}", so that a boy 
about to be apprenticed to learn carving, is instructed in ornamental draw- 
ing, modelliug, and designing." . . . Further, " I am bound to repeat 
that in the race we are nowhere. . . . Without the least doubt or hesi- 
tation, yet, with the most profound regret, I say that our defeat is as igno- 
minious, and I fear as disastrous, as it is possible to conceive. We have 
not only made no progress since 1862, but it seems to me we have retro- 
graded." He adds that the mere mechanical workman stands not the 
slightest chance with the workman of a cultivated taste. . . . " The 
art-workmen of France have a great advantage over us in England; in 
Paris they are surrounded by works of taste which none but the most 
obtuse can long remain uninfluenced by ; their museums are central and 
numerous ; they are surrounded by works they venerate and love, and their 
very nature gets impregnated with them. ... Something must be 
done, or the working classes will be grievously wronged, and the whole 
nation suffer." 

The lacemakers of Kottingham say — " We are unanimous in opinion, 
that French laces display a decided superiority in design and quality of 
material over the English goods." They express the hope " that the time 
is not far distant when some national system of compulsory education will 
be brought into existence to lessen the ignorance amongst us, and place our 
country on an equality of intelligence with other nations " 

Messrs. Kendal and Caunt, hosiers, say — " We observed, as a rule, 
that the French people did everything with the greatest ease and tact, and 
without much labor, and alw^js made a good finish of what they took in 
hand, so that nothing could, be much improved after they had done with 
it. . . . On the whole, we are of opinion that the French have made 
great progress of late years, and that they are continuing to progress ; and 
there can be no doubt that the superior education that is given to the work- 
ing classes on the Continent, gives them an advantage, in some respects, 
over Englishmen ; but there are no workmen so quick and so inventive as 
our own, as far as we are able to judge." 

Mr. Connelly, stonemason, says — " The Frenchman's familiarity with 
art, and his early training in its principles, enables him to outstrip us ; and 
as every building in Paris is more or less decorated with carving, you are 
at a loss to know how they get all their art-workmen ; but the difficulty 
would not appear so much, if you could read the large placards, in French, 
which are posted up at the ends of the bridges, and other public places, 
informing workmen where they can be taught drawing and modelling 
every evening, free of expense. That he outstrips the Englishman, in this 
respect, does not, I feel certain, arise from the possession of an especial art 
genius, but because whatever of it is in him, is fully developed, and encour- 



SPECIAL INSTBUCTION IN WUETEMBERG. 395 

agement is given to its practice ; and if English workmen are beliiucl in 
this respect, it is not because art genius is deficient in our nature, but 
because it is not developed and encouraged sufficiently. . . . It is impos- 
sible to estimate the loss which is entailed upon England througli the neg- 
lect of art culture in ever}^ department of our industry ; through it we are 
reduced to mere ' hewers of wood and drawers of water' for other nations. 
The bulk of our manufacturing population is engaged in manufacturing 
goods to be sold cheap, or in producing raw materials for other people 
to work. . . . On a ton of iron, for the labor of w^hich we get less 
than 1^., they are sure to put 1001. of labor be'bre it leaves their hands." 

3. Artisans' Opinion on the Besponsibilitij of a S'.ate for the Technical 
Education of its People. — Mr. Rais'dall, china painter, says — " When we 
come to high-class ornamentations in iron, earthenware, china, or glass, the 
superiorit}' of French art is obvious. As long as we confine ourselves to 
geometrical forms in hammering, pressing, turning on the lathe, or printing 
on the surface, w^e have no difficulty in holding our own ; but where an 
intellectuali?m is concerned, or a free educated hand is required in decora- 
tion, our deficiencies become apparent. The fault is less our own than 
our rulers', who have denied us education, or who have at least, given us 
nothing to fit us for om' destination in life, but have left us groining in the 
dark, for ever feebly attempting to overtake lost opportunities. . . . As we 
heard an English workman, in another branch of trade, observe in Paris — 
therff is much more credit to an English workman if he is clever, for a 
Frenchman has so many advantages, that if he only has moderate talents, 
he can scarcely help but be a good workman. He has excellent schools to 
give him a primary education, and, go where he will, there is something to 
educate his cyo, and elevate his taste. We have been groping our way in 
ignorant and bigoted security, and quarreling in which way education 
should be given, or denying it altogether, while other nations have been 
getting before us ; and if this Exhibition have no other effect in England 
than to convince us of our deficiencies, it will have had its mission — so far 
as we are concerned. The present prosperity of this country is so unmis- 
takeably interwoven with its manufactures, and the pre-eminence of these 
depends so much upon new adaptations, discoveries, and improvements, as 
to demand for the workers in iron, china, and other departments, the 
readiest and best educational training and enlightenment this nation can give 
them. It is not only idle, but suicidal, to d' eam of remaining where we 
are. "We must strike out in new paths. We must advance with the w^orld, 
or lose caste and trade together. How many men know anything at all of 
the materials with which they work ? Yet such knowledge would sweeten 
daily toil, would open the treasure-house of thought, enable a man to con- 
vert to new uses, elements of force by which he is surrounded, and enrich 
the nation by adaptations and modes of economizing means now in use. 
Every man ought to have the means within his reach to enable him to 
become master of his art. With how many would a knowledge of geology, 
chemistrj^, geometry, drawing, and mechanics, smooth the path of daily 
toil, and render labor pleasant ! Why should not the miner find compen- 
sating pleasure for the darkness and drudgery of the mine, in a knowledge 
of the gases by which he is surrounded, and of the minerals he is exti'acting 



396 SPECIAL INSTEUCTIOi^ IN WUETEMBEEG. 

from their long resting-place in their subterranean storehouse ? Let him 
know something of their history, of the changes and natural processes 
to which they were subject to bring them to their present state. How 
cheaply purchased is the pleasure of astonishment with which he might go 
on reading the hieroglyphics and paintings of Nature in the mine, inter- 
preting at each stage, the emblems of earlier states and existences. Such 
an education would tell in many ways. All that we ask for is, that the 
State should fulfill efficiently unquestionable and admitted duties, rather 
than disputed ones. We have no wish for interference in a way that may 
weaken, in the least, a proper sense of individual responsibility, that may 
lessen the slightest individual energy, or offend the sensibilities of the 
strictest advocates for economy in the resources of the nation. Government 
for the future will — if there is any meaning or force in the late political 
changes — be more than ever the delegated power of the people to execute 
its will in legislating upon the admitted ' Benthamite ' principle of the 
greatest happiness to the greatest number; and whilst doing so, it will 
undoubtedly seek to carry out the injunctions of the wise in all ages, from 
Solomon downwards, and supply education to those who are supposed to 
be deficient of the will, or the means of obtaining it. What we complain 
of, and what the country raising the taxes to support the present system 
complains of most, is that, being in the hands of the clergy, and under 
inspeciion by men drafted from them, it is used as a proselyting scheme, 
rather than an engine for fitting children for their daties in life. They are 
crammed with catechisms, Jewish pedigrees, with things pertaining to the 
past, which have no relation whatever to their future modes and pursuits 
of life, without being taught at all, the means by which their own wonder- 
ful and diversified faculties might be made to bloom in profitable fruition, 
so that both the individual, and the State itself, should be compensated — 
each having its positive welfare secured thereby.' 

Mr. WiNSTANLET says : " I should like to see a number of institutions — 
they might be called colleges, or any other name. I would have them 
fitted up with a number of workshops for different trades, and one large 
room to be used as a lecture room, and for periodical exhildtions. I would 
have lectures delivered twice a week, by the best professors, upon difierent 
branches of art manufacture. There should be a well-stocked librarj-' and 
reading room, all on art manufacture. There should be schools attached, 
for drawing and modelling. Why I propose workshops is, because work- 
ing men, in large towns, have a great difficulty in finding convenience to 
do anything for themselves, by way of improvement ... I would 
also have a committee, or council, established by Government, or the 
Society of Arts, that should receive working men presenting certificates 
for examination in their different branches, and grant them certificates 
according to their merits." 

Mr. Mackie, wood-carver, reports : " I visited the Ecole Imperiale 
Speciale pour 1' Application des Beaux Arts a I'lndustrie. On that occasion 
there was an exhibition of the works of the students, and the number and 
variety were considerable and interesting. Conspicuous among the exhibits 
were some large models in clay. The Minister of Instruction had dictated 
the subject, and the following were the particulars given. A somewhat 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WURTEMBEEG. 397 

large t3'mpanum of a pediment, to have the head of a bull for a center, 
resting upon a shield, with accessories of boys and festoons of fruits and 
flowers. Tlie best was a ver}'' successful interpretalion of the order given. 
These studies were little more than good sketches in clay, but it was evi- 
dent that the students were learning a most useful lesson, that would stand 
them in good service when they went forth into the world, ... It 
seemed abundantly clear that the system pursued was simple and rapid, 
and that the teaching and practice produced valuable results. It seems to 
have great vitality, never being without deep and varied interest to the 
student, features that should distinguish every school, and without which 
they will assuredly fiiil in accomplishing the objects sought to be obtained. 
A visit to the exhibition of the works of the students of the Ecole Imperi- 
ale Speciale de Dessin pour les Jeunes Personnes, showed that the young 
ladies practised the same system with very profitable results. I am 
informed that the fees are little more than nominal, the main expense of 
the schools being borne by Government." 

Mr. WniTEiKG, in his special report, says on the subject: " The notion 
of the functions of Government entertained in this country would not be 
tolerated for a moment across the Channel, and it may be doubted W' hether 
our dislike to w^hat is called special legislation — to legislation, that is to 
say, which proposes as a direct aim the improvement of the social condi- 
tion of our people, has not its weak as well as its strong side. The con- 
stant^ difficulties experienced by individuals struggling alone to effect social 
reforms, often never aided by Government till the necessity of all aid has 
passed away, would seem to indicate that it has. From the view of the 
obligations of Government taken by the French people, it necessarily 
arises that instruction, both superior and elementary, has long held that 
recognized position under the protection of the State, which it is only just 
beginning to have here. A due provision for art education, for instance, is 
no favor on the part of the administration, but one of the conditions of its 
existence. In every town of any importance, in a manufacturing point of 
view, in every district of all the principal cities, there is to be f(5und the 
art school, just as there is to be found the church or the baker's shop. 
. . It is not denied that similar institutions are to be found in our 
own country, but among us there is a very perceptible want of Govern- 
ment responsibility for the welfare of the schools, and they are not 
placed mider the direct patronage of the officials of the district, who, 
in France, commonly attend to give a solemn character to the distribution 
of the awards. ... In France, the Minister of Instruction has con- 
fided to him, as it were, a nation in a certain state of knowledge, and 
he is expected when he resigns the seals of office, to show that under his 
care that nation has steadily progressed; he may demand certain aid 
from the Government ; his claims have a recognized place in the budget, 
and he is entitled to speak by the admitted importance of the interests over 
which he presides. It would be well if with us some*such system could be 
devised, in place of that which gives us an irregular and spasmodic sup- 
port to art, on the part of our public representatives, and which too often 
leaves its fate in the hands of only one or two well-meaning members of 
parliament. . . . What is above all wanted, is Government countenance 



398 SPECIifL INSTRUCTION IN WUETEiMBEEG. 

as well as GoYernment aid. In France, as we have seen, tlie distribution of 
prizes, the opening of schools, is always made more or less a ceremony ; the 
whole population of the district in which the school is situate, cannot fail 
to hear of what is going on. Publicity and eclat are given to all the pro- 
ceedings, and the school immediately reaps the benefit. Of course, it is 
not to be inferred that the Government of France does everything for art 
education, and private individuals nothing. There is a considerable 
amount of private patronage, though to nothing like the same extent as 
among us ; but it is always desirable to substitute for the irregular action 
of individuals, however well disposed, the order, economy, and persistent 
effort of an efiicient body. . . . Let us now consider what the State 
does- for education in France, both for primary instruction and for the 
special training acquired later, when an art or trade has been chosen. The 
system of primary instruction so very much resembles our own, both in 
the nature of the instruction given, and in the mode in which support is 
obtained, that no detailed account of it will be necessary. . . . But it is 
in the facilities for the higher education which ought to follow this primary 
teaching, where the inclination exists, that the great divergence between 
the English and the French begins. The ease with which a poor boy may 
obtain an entry to one of the imperial lyceums, or large public schools 
which prepare for the universities, and thence go up to the universities, 
which very properly are in the capital itself, and are all free, is something 
marvellous, and is only equalled by the excellent facilities of a like kind 
which exist in Germany. . . . The technical education of French 
workmen is of tAvo kinds, elementary and advanced. In the first, the child 
having been early destined to a particular trade, is placed in an institution, 
where he serves a kind of preliminary apprenticeship to that trade, and 
where primary instruction goes hand in hand with the special' training 
requisite to give him a more enlarged knowledge of his business. These 
technical schools for children are, however, only just beginning to be estab- 
lished, but the results in the last of which accounts were published, were in 
the highest degree satisfactory. The children are occupied, in all, about 
nine hours of the day. ... In the morning they receive instruction of 
the ordinary kind, which is also given for an hour in the evening, and dur- 
ing the day they work, in every respect, as if they were apprenticed to 
private individuals, only that a certain portion of the time is devoted to 
teaching them the rationale of their art. ... It has been stated that at 
present these institutions are very few in number, as hitherto they have 
only been regarded in the light of an experiment, so that only a very 
limited number of trades can be taught in them, but there is little doubt 
that as an experiment they have been successful, and that when their suc- 
cess shall have obtained general recognition, the Government will take 
measures for establishing, them in all the principal towns. 

An equally impo]:tant tentative eflfort in the way of technical educa- 
tion has recently been made in the establishment, under government pat- 
ronage, of an institution for the higher technical training of youths — that is 
to say, for the union of the highest theoretical with the best practical teach- 
ing in the manufacturing arts. This institution is somewhat in the nature 
of the Ecole des Arts et Metiers, only it is not so exclusively theoretical at 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN WUIiTEAffiERG. 309 

that, but aims at supplying a want long felt in France, namely, that of 
ekillcd foremen competent to superintend, or at least fully understand all 
the operations of a large manufactory. 

Mr. AiTKEN, of Birmingham, in his introductory report, which heads 
the reports of the Birmingham artisans, says: "Industry, formerly un- 
affected by foreign rivalry, contended only with small producers of its own 
nation, and then the competition was small. But free trade has thrown 
down the barriers, and the world is now one mighty, universal market. 
To be successful in this competition, our nation (England) must, therefore, 
put forward all its energies to educate in technical, and other schools, tlie 
present and coming generations ; this was anticipated and clearly seen. 
Humboldt, many j^ears ago, foresaw and predicted ' that the time was not 
far distant when science and manipulative skill must be wedded together; 
that national wealth and the increasing prosperity of nations must be based 
on an enlightened employment of natural products and forces.' Justus 
Liebig said : * The nation most quickly promoting the intellectual develop- 
ment of its industrial population must advance, as surely as the country 
neglecting it must inevitably retrograde.' Peel saw this when he uttered 
the memorable words, ' If we are inferior in skill, knowledge, and intelli- 
gence to the manufacturers of other countries, the increased facilities of 
intercourse will result in transferring the demand from us to others ;' and 
England's noblest Prince foresaw in International Exhibitions (which he was 
the first to inaugurate) the coming activity in things industrial ; and in order 
to provide for the coming competition, he inaugurated, ere his lamented 
death, a system of industrial education." . . . 

In France, Prussia, Saxony, and the small State of Wurtemberg, &c., 
trade schools, in addition to others of a higher class, are in existence, and 
furnish the connecting link between the man of science who discovers, and 
the superintendent who is the medium, and who, educated in these schools, 
aids by his instruction and advice, the workman in bringing into visible 
shape the discovery of the man of science, rendering practically useful that 
which existed as an idea only. If, then, industrial and techuical training 
has benefited other countries and states, in their industrial progress (which 
no doubt it has), it becomes the duty of every Englishman to see to this- 
important point. 

It is impossible to go through the evidence of the eighty-six repre^ 
sentatives of the skilled workmen of England, without sharing their pro- 
found conviction : — 1st. Of the pressing peril of the nation in regard to 
manufacturing pre-eminence. 2d. Of the culpability of the educated 
classes and of the executive Government, in having neglected the education 
of the people. 3d. That it is satisfactorily proved by these reports, that the 
reluctance of the working classes to receive superior technical education, to 
bear taxation for that purpose, and to accept the active agency of Govern- 
ment institutions and official^, (which reluctance has been put forward as 
an excuse for this neglect), has no existence, in fact, and that it is therefore 
the negligence, apathy, and reluctance of the governing classes and th^ 
Government which have hitherto alone prevented the organization of sys- 
tematic technical education. 4tli. It appears that until the mission to 
France, of the English artisans in 1867, they, the working men of England, 



400 SPECIAI. rN-STEUCTION IN WFRTEMBEEG. 

were not aware that the Governments of other countries had organized 
complete education in all trade crafts, from the lowest mechanical lahor to 
the highest professional slciTl. 5th. Throughout the whole of these reports 
there runs a feeling of profound admiration for the system of education 
given in France ; but they were evidently not aware that the educated men 
and statesmen of France had themselves become conscious that their sys- 
tem was far below the level of excellence of the educated German nations; 
that a royal commission, under the presidency of M. Behic, formerly Min- 
ister of Commerce, had recently been occupied with that subject, and had 
arrived at the conclusion that the technical education of France, which our 
artisans admired in Paris, was, as a national system of technical education, 
extremely defective ; and the investigations of this Commission, prove, that 
if England is the worst educated of the first-class Powers of Europe, France 
is the second worst. Cth. There runs parallel with these convictions a con- 
sciousness that the English workman, is, by nature, the best of workmen, 
and that with systematic education, their works would excel those of com- 
peting nations. 

In conclusion, I have to state my deep conviction that the working 
men of England expect and demand of their Government the design, 
organization, and execution of systematic technical education, and there is 
urgent need for it to bestir itself, for other nations have already iive-and- 
twenty years'.start of us, and have produced one or two generations of 
educated workmen. Even if we begin to-morrow the technical education 
of all the youths of twelve years of age who have received somid elementary 
education, it will take seven years before these young men can commence 
the practical business of life, and then they will form but an insignificant 
minority in an uneducated mass. It will take fifteen years before those 
children who have not yet begun to receive an elementary education shall 
have passed from the age of 7 to 21, and represent a completely trained 
generation; and even then they will find less than half of their comrades 
educated. In the race of nations, therefore, we shall find it hard to over- 
take the five-and-twenty years we have lost. To-morrow, then^ let us 
undertake, with all energy, our neglected task ; the urgency is two-fold, — 
one half of our youth, let us say, has received elementary, but no technical 
education : for that half let us at once organize technical schools in every 
small town, technical colleges in every large town, and a technical univer- 
sity in the metropolis. The other half of the rising generation has received 
no education at all, and for them let us at once organize elementary 
education, even if compulsory. 



PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE, 



INTRODUCTION. 

The Empire of France, [exclusive of the colonies,] on an area of 
206,676 English square miles in 1866, had a population of 38,067,- 
094. In 1856, there were, among a total population of 36,012,669: 
19,064,071 employed in agriculture, 10,469,961 in mechanical arts, 
and 1,632,331 in commercial pursuits. 

The total expenditure in 1867 amounted to 1,902,111,370 francs, 
of which sum 28,344,121 francs were expended for public instruc- 
tion under the following ministries, and with the following statistics: 

First. — Under the Ministry of I*ublic Instruction: 

1. Primary Instruction. 

53,957 Public Schools, in 37,548 Communes, with 2,461,492 pupils. 
16,714 Private Elementary Schools, with 978,258 pupils. 
3,669 Inftxnt Schools, with 432,141 pupils. 
32,383 Adult Courses, with 829.555 scholars. 

Total, 106,723 Schools, with 4,701,446 scholars. 

2. Secondary Instruction. 

83 Lyceums, with 36,306 students. 
253 Communal Colleges, with 32,453 students — making a total of 336 

government schools, with 68,759 students, of whom 17,209 follow 

the Special Secondary Course. 
934 Non-governmental Secondary Schools, with 77,906 students. 

Total, 1,270 Institutions, with 146,664 students. 

3. Superior Instruction. 

8 Faculties or Schools of Theology, with 46 professors. 

11 Faculties of Law, with 100 professors and 4,895 students. 
16 Faculties of Science, with 119 professors. 

16 Faculties of Literature, Avitli 102 professors. 

22 Preparatory Schools of Medicine and Pharmacy, with 190 professors. 
3 Higher Schools of Medicine, with 66 professors and 1,780 students. 
Total, 76 Institutions of the highest instruction, with 603 professors. 

4. Special Schools. 

1 Normal School for Teachers in Infant Asylums at Paris. 

1 Superior Normal School for Professors in Lyceums and the Faculties 

of Letters and Science at Paris, with 110 pupils and 23 professors. 
1 Normal School for Secondary Special Instruction at Cluny. 
84 Primary Normal Schools for male teachers, with 449 professors. 

12 Primary Normal Schools for female teachers. 

1 Primary Normal Course for male teachers, with 12 professors. 
49 Primary Normal Courses for female teachers. 
3 Schools of Living Oriental Tongues, with 9 professors. 
1 Course of Archaeology in connection with Cabinet of Medals. 
1 French School of Archaeology and Greek Literature at Athens. 
1 Imperial School of Records (ecole des chartes) at Paris, to prepare pu- 
pils for- librarians and keepers of public archives. 
1 Museum of Natural History at Paris, with 16 professors. 
1 School of Sacred Music at Paris. 
1 Imperial College of France, with 31 professors. 

26 



402 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 

1 Special School of Drawing for Young "Women at Paris. 
1 National Conservatory of Music at Paris: 87 professors. 
6 Provincial Schools of Music : 6 professors, (at Dijon, Nantes, Metz, 
Lille, Toulouse, Marseilles.) 

1 Institution for the Blind at Paris, besides 6 provincial schools. 

2 National Institutions for Deaf-mutes at Paris and Bordeaux, besides 

41 private and municipal schools. 
1 Central Correctional House of Education at Paris. 
Second. — Ministry of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works: 

3 Imperial Schools of Agriculture at Grand-Jouan, Grignon, and La 

Saulsaie, with 24 professors. 

9 Agricultural Courses, with 11 professors. 

1 National Agronomic institute at Versailles. 
70 School-farms. 

1 Practical School of Irrigation and Drainage atLizardeau ; 2 professors. 

1 National School of Horse-breeding. 

3 Imperial Sheep-folds and Cow-houses (berQeries and vacJieries.) 

S Schools of Veterinary Surgery at Alfort, Lyons, Toulouse, with 18 
professors. 

1 Superior School of Commerce at Paris ; 1 School of Chamber of Com- 
merce at Paris. 

1 Imperial School of Bridges and Eoads at Paris ; 22 professors. 

3 Imperial Schools of Mines, viz., at Paris, 15 professors ; at St. Etienne, 
3 professors : at Alais, 1 professor. 

1 Imperial Conservatory of Arts and Industry at Paris; 19 professors. 

1 Central School of Arts and Manufjactures at Paris ; 28 professors. 

3 Imperial Schools of Arts and Industry, at Aix, Angers, Chalons-sur- 
Marne ; 32 professors. 

School of Watchmaking at Cluses (Savoy,) besides several provincial 

schools. 

* 
Third. — Ministry or War : 

1 Imperial Polytechnic School at Paris ; 22 professors, 19 assistants, and 

350 pupils. 
1 Special Military School at St. Cyr ; 33 professors. 
1 Staff-school ieeole du corps cf etat-major) at Paris ; 19 professors. 
1 School of Artillery and Military Engineering [ecole d' ajoplication de 

Vartillerie et da genie^ at Metz, with 28 professors. 
1 Imperial School of Cavalry at Saumur ; 40 professors. 
1 Cavalry-musicians' school [ecole de trompettes] at Saumur. 
1 Imperial School of Military Medicine and Pharmacy at Paris ; 13 pro- 
I fessors. 

1 Imperial School for the Sanitary Service at Strasburg ; 12 professors. 
1 Normal Shooting-school {ecole normale de tir ;) 11 teachers. 
1 Normal School of Military Gymnastics at Vincennes ; 3 teachers. 
1 Imperial Prytaneum (orphans of officers) at LaFleche ; 25 professors. 
11 Kegimental Schools of Artillery. 
3 Eegimental Schools of Engineering. 

5 Military Gymnasiums. 

1 Military Musical Gymnasium at Paris. 
1 Bureau of Longitudes ; 6 professors. 

1 Imperial Observatory ; 18 professors, assistants and calculators. 
Eegimental schools for the infantry of the line exist in all the corps. 
Fourth. — Ministry of Marine and the Colonies : 

1 School of Naval Architecture at Paris, with 30 pupils ; 3 professors. 
1 Practical School of Maritime Engineering at L' Orient ; 9 professors. 
1 Imperial Naval School at Brest ; 11 professors. 
42 National Schools of Hydrography ; 42 professors. 

3 Imperial Schools of Naval Pharmacy and Medicine at Brest, Eoche- 

fort, and Toulon ; 15 professors. 

6 Nautical School-ships ; 5 Naval Apprentice Schools ; 2 Schools for 

Naval Engineers and Stokers ; 2 Naval Drawing Schools. 

Fifth. — Ministry of Finance : 

1 Imperial School of Forestry at Nancy; 8 professors. 

1 School of the Manufacture of Tobacco at Paris ; 7 professors. 
Sixth. — Ministry of the Fine Arts and the Imperial Household : 

4 Imperial Schools of the Fine Arts ; at Paris, Eome, Lyons, and Dijon. 
1 National Special School of Drawing and Mathematics applied to the 

Industrial Arts, at Paris. 



THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PAKIS 



I. FOUNDATION AND HISTORY. 

The origin of the Ecole Polytechnique dates from a period of 
disorder and distress in the history of France which> might seem 
alien to all intellectual pursuits, if we did not remember that the 
general stimulus of a revolutionary period often acts powerfully 
upon thought and education. It is, perhaps, even more than the 
Institute, the chief scientic creation of the first French Revolution. 
It was during the government of the committee of public safety, 
when Carnot, as war minister, was gradually driving back the in- 
vading armies, and reorganizing victory out of defeat and confusion, 
that the first steps were taken for its establishment. A law, dating 
the 1st Yentose, year IL, the 12th of March 1794, created a " Com- 
mission des Travaux Publics," charged with the duty of establish- 
ing a regular system for carrjdng on public works ; and this com- 
mission ultimately founded a central school for public works, and 
drew up a plan for the competitive examination of candidates for 
admission to the service. It was intended at first to give a com- 
plete education for some of the public services, but it was soon 
changed into a preparatory school, to be succeeded by special 
schools of application. This was the Ecole Polytechnique. 

The school and its plan were both owing to an immediate and 
pressing want. It was to be partly military and partly civil. Mili- 
tary, as well as civil education had been destroyed by the revolu- 
tionists. The committee of public safety had, indeed, formed a 
provisional school for engineers at Metz, to "supply the immediate 
wants of the army on the frontier, and at this school young men 
were hastily taught the elements of fortification, and were sent di- 
rect to the troops, to learn as they best could, the practice of their 
art. " But such a method," says the report accompanying the law 
which founded the school, " does not form engineers in any true 
sense of the term, and can only be justified by the emergency of the 

♦ Compiled from " Report and Appendix of English Commissioners on Military Educa- 
tion." 1857. 



404 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. 

time. The young men should be recalled to the new school to 
complete their studies." Indeed no one knew better than Carnot, 
to use the language of the report, " that patriotism and courage 
can not " always supply the want of knowledge ;" and in the criti- 
cal campaigns of 1793 — 4, he must often have felt the need of the 
institution which he was then contributing to set on foot. Such 
was the immediate motive for the creation of this school. At first, 
it only included the engineers amongst its pupils. But the artil- 
lery were added within a year. 

We must not, however, omit to notice its civil character, the 
combination of which with its military object forms its peculiar fea- 
ture, and has greatly contributed to its reputation. Amongst its 
founders were men, who though ardent revolutionists, were thirsting 
for the restoration of schools and learning, which for a time had 
been totally extinguished. The chief of these, besides Carnot, 
were Monge and Fourcroy, Berthollet and Lagrange. Of Carnot 
and Lagrange, one amongst the first of war ministers, the other one 
of the greatest of mathematicians, we need not say more. Berth- 
ollet, a man of science and practical skill, first suggested the school ; 
Monge, the founder of Descriptive Geometry, a favorite savant of 
Napoleon though a zealous republican, united to real genius that 
passion for teaching and for his pupils, which makes the beau ideal 
of the founder of a school ; and Fourcroy was a man of equal prac- 
tical tact and science, who at the time had great influence with the 
convention, and was afterwards intrusted by Napoleon with much 
of the reorganization of education in France. 

When the school first started there was scarcely another of any 
description in the country. For nearly three years the revolution 
had destroyed every kind of teaching. The attack upon the old 
schools, in France, as elsewhere, chiefly in the hands of the clergy, 
had been begun by a famous report of Talleyrand's, presented to 
the legislative assembly in 1791, which recommended to suppress 
all the existing academies within Paris and the provinces, and to 
replace them by an entirely new system of national education 
through the country. In this plan a considerable number of mili- 
tary schools were proposed, where boys were to be educated from 
a very early age. When the violent revolutionists were in power, 
they adopted the destructive part of Talleyrand's suggestions with- 
out the other. All schools, from the university downwards, were 
destroyed ; the large exhibitions or Bourses, numbering nearly 
40,000, were confiscated or plundered by individuals, and even the 
military schools and those for the public works (which were abso- 



POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. 405 

lutely necessary for the very roads and the defense of the country) 
were suppressed or disorganized. The school of engineers at Me- 
zieres (an excellent one, where Monge had been a professor,) and 
that of the artillery at La Fere, were both broken up, whilst the 
murder of Lavoisier, and the well known saying in respect to it, that 
" the Republic had no need of chemists," gave currency to a belief, 
which Fourcroy expressed in proposing the Polytechnic, " that the 
late conspirators had formed a deliberate plan to destroy the arts 
and sciences, and to establish their tyranny on the ruins of human 
reason." 

Thus it was on the ruin of all the old teaching, that the new in- 
stitution was erected ; a truly revolutionary school, as its founders 
delighted to call it, using the term as it was then commonly used, 
as a synonym for all that was excellent. And then for the first 
time avowing the principle of public competition, its founders, 
Monge and Fourcroy, began their work with an energy and enthu- 
siasm which they seem to have left as a traditional inheritance to 
their school. It is curious to see the difficulties which the bank- 
ruptcy of the country threw in their way, and the vigor with which, 
assisted by the summary powers of the republican government, they 
overcame them. They begged the old Palais Bourbon for their 
"building ; were supplied with pictures from the Louvi'e ; the fortu- 
nate capture of an English ship gave them some uncut diamonds 
for their first experiments; presents of military instruments were 
sent from the arsenals of Havre; and even the hospitals con- 
tributed some chemical substances In fine, having set their school 
in motion, the government and its professors worked at it with such 
zeal and effect, that within five months after their project was an- 
nounced, they had held their first entrance examination, open to 
the competition of all France, and started with three hundred and 
seventy-nine pupils. 

The account of one of these first pupils, who is among the most 
distinguished still surviving ornaments of the Polytechnic, will con- 
vey a far better idea of the spirit of the young institution than 
could be given by a more lengthy description. M. Biot described 
to us vividly the zeal of the earliest teachers, and the thirst for 
knowledge which, repressed for awhile by the horrors of the period, 
burst forth with fresh ardor amongst the French youth of the time. 
Many of them, he said, like himself, had been carried away by the 
enthusiasm of the revolution, and had entered the army. " My 
father had sent me," he added, " to a mercantile house, and indeed 
I never felt any great vocation to be a soldier, but Que voulez vous ? 



406 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. 

les Prussiens etaient en Champagne^ He joined tbe array, served 
two years under Dumouriez, and returned to Paris in the reign of 
terror, " to see from Lis lodgings in tlie Rue St.. Honore the very 
generals who had led us to victory, Custine and Biron, carried by 
in the carts to the guillotine. " Imagine what it was when we 
heard that Robespierre was dead, and that we might return safely 
to study after all this misery, and then to have for our teachers La 
Place, Lagrange, and Monge. We felt like men brought to life again 
after suffocation. Lagrange said, modestly, "Let me teach them 
arithmetic." Monge was more like our father than our teacher ; he 
would come to us in the evening, and assist us in our work till mid- 
night, and when he explained a difficulty to one of our chefs de 
brigade, it ran like an electric spark through the party." The pu- 
pils were not then, he told us, as they have since been, shut up in 
barracks, they were left free, but there was no idleness or dissipa- 
tion amongst them. They were united in zealous work? and in good 
camaraderie, and any one known as a bad character was avoided. 
This account may be a little tinged by enthusiastic recollections, 
but it agreed almost entirely with that of M. de Barante, who bore 
similar testimony to the early devotion of the pupils, and the unique 
excellence of the teaching of Monge. 

We are not, however, writing a history of this school, and must 
confine ourselves to such points as directly illustrate its system of 
teaching and its organization. These may be roughly enumerated 
in the following order : 

1. Its early history is completed by the law of its organization, 
given it by La Place in his short ministry of the interior. This oc- 
curred in the last month of IVQO, a memorable era in French, his- 
tory, for it was immediately after the revolution of the 18th of Bru- 
maire, when Napoleon overthrew the Directory and made himself 
First Consul. One of his earliest acts was to sign the charter of his 
great civil and military school. This charter or decree deserves 
some attention, because it is always referred to as the law of the 
foundation of the school. It determined the composition of the 
two councils of instruction and improvement, the bodies to which 
the direction of the school was to be, and still is, intrusted ; some 
of its marked peculiarities in the mode and subject of teaching. 
It is important to notice each of the two points. 

The direction of the school was at first almost entirely in the 
hands of its professors, who formed what is still called its Council 
of Instruction. Each of them presided over the school alternately 
for one month, a plan copied from the revolutionary government of 



POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. 407 

the Convention. In the course of a few years, however, another 
body was added, which has now the real management of the school. 
This is called the "Council of Improvement" [Conseil de perfec- 
tionnemeiit,) and a part of its business is to see that the studies 
form a good preparation for those of the more special schools 
(Scales d' application) for the civil and military service. It consists 
of eminent men belonging to the various public departments sup- 
plied by the school, and some of the professors. It has had, as far 
as we could judge, an useful influence ; first^ as a body not liable 
to be prejudiced in its proposals by the feelings of the school, and 
yet interested in its welfare and understanding it ; secondly^ as hav- 
ing shown much skill in the difficult task of making the theoretical 
teaching of the Polytechnic a good introduction to the practical 
studies of the public service ; thirdly, as being sufficiently influential, 
from the character of its members, to shield the school from occa- 
sional ill-judged inteiference. It should be added that hardly any 
year has passed without the Council making a full report on the 
studies of the school, with particular reference to their bearing on 
the Special Schools of Application. 

The method of scientific teaching has been peculiar from the be- 
ginning. It is the most energetic form of what may be called the 
repetitorial system, a method of teaching almost peculiar to France, 
and which may be described as a very able combination of profes- 
sional and tutorial teaching. The object of the repetiteur, or pri- 
vate tutor, is to second every lecture of the professor, to explain and 
fix it by ocular demonstration, explanations, or examination. This 
was a peculiarity in the scheme of Monge and Fourcroy. The latter 
oaid, in the first programme, " Our pupils must not only learn, they 
must at once carry out their theory. We must distribute them into 
small rooms, where they shall practice the plans of descriptive 
geometry, Avhich the professors have just shown them in their pub- 
lic lectures. And in the same manner they must go over in prac- 
tice (repeteront) in separate laboratories the principal operations of 
chemistry." To carry out this system the twenty best pupils, of 
whom M. Biot was one, were selected as repetiteurs soon after the 
school had started. Since then the vacancies have alwa3^s been 
filled by young but competent men, aspiring themselves to become 
in turn professors. They form a class of teachers more like the 
highest style of private tutors in our universities, or what are called 
m Germany Frivat-docenfen, than any other body — with this differ- 
ence, that they do not give their own lectures, but breaking up the 
professor's large class into small classes of five and six pupils, exam- 



408 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. 

ine these in his lecture. The success of this attempt we shall de 
scribe hereafter. 

2. A change may be noticed which was effected very early by the 
Council of Improvement — the union of pupils for artillery and en- 
gineers in a single school of application. The first report in De- 
cember 1800, speaks of the identity in extent and character of the 
studies required for these two services ; and in conformity with its 
recommendation, the law of the 3rd of October 1802, (12th Yende- 
miaire, XL) dissolved the separate artillery school at Chalons, and 
established the united school for both arms in the form which it 
still retains at Metz. 

3. In 1805 a curious change was made, and one very character- 
istic of the school. The pupils have always been somewhat turbu- 
lent, and generally on the side of opposition. In the earliest times 
they were constantly charged with incivisme, and the aristocracy 
was said to have " taken refuge within its walls." In fact, one of 
its earliest and of its few great literary pupils, M. de Barante, con- 
firmed this statement, adding, as a reason, that the school gave foi 
a while the only good instruction in France. It was in consequence 
of some of these changes that the pupils who had hitherto lived in 
their own private houses or lodgings in Paris, were collected in the 
school building. This ^^ casernement,''^ said to be immediately 
owing to a burst of anger of Napoleon, naturally tended to give the 
school a more military character ; but it was regarded as an unfortu- 
nate change by its chief scientific friends. " -4A / ma pauvre ecole /" 
M. Biot told us he had exclaimed, when he saw their knapsacks on 
their beds. He felt, he said, that the enthusiasm of free study was 
gone, and that now they v/ould chiefly work by routine and com- 
pulsion. 

4. The year 1 809 may be called the epoch at which the school 
attained its final character. By this time the functions, both of 
boards and teachers, were accurately fixed, some alterations in the 
studies had taken place, and the plan of a final examination had 
been drawn up, according to which the pupils were to obtain their 
choice of the branch of the public service they preferred. In fact, 
the school may be said to have preserved ever since the form it then 
assumed, under a variety of governments and through various revo- 
lutions, in most of which, indeed, its pupils have borne some share ; 
and one of which, the restoration of 1816, was attended wdth its 
temporary dissolution. 

Thus, during the first years after its foundation the Polytechnic 
grew and flourished in the general dearth of public teaching, being 



POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARI8. 409 

indeed not merely the only great school, but, until the Institute was 
founded, the only scientific body in France. Working on its first 
idea of high professorial lectures, practically applied and explained 
by repetiteurs, its success in its own purely scientific line was, and 
has continued to be, astonishing. Out of its sixteen earliest pro- 
fessors, ten still retain an European name. Lagrange, Mongc, Four- 
croy, La Place, Guyton de Morvcau were connected with it. Malus, 
Hauy, Biot, Poisson, and De Barante, were among its earliest pu- 
pils. Arago, Cauchy, Cavaignac, Lamoriciere, w^ith many more 
modern names, came later. All the great engineers and artillery- 
men of the empire belonged to it, and the long pages in its calen- 
dar of distinguished men are the measure of its influence on the 
civil and military services of France. In fact its pupils, at a time 
of enormous demands, supplied all the scientific offices of the army, 
and directed all the chief public works, fortresses, arsenals, the im- 
provement of cities, the great lines of roads, shipbuilding, mining — 
carried out, in a word, most of the great improvements of Napo- 
leon. He knew the value of his school, " the hen" as he called it, 
" that laid him golden eggs" — and perhaps its young pupils were 
not" improved by the excessive official patronage bestowed by him 
upon " the envy of Europe," " the first school in the world." It 
can not, however, be matter of surprise, that its vigor and success 
should have caused Frenchmen, even those who criticise its influ- 
ence severely, to regard it with pride as an institution unrivaled for 
scientific purposes. 

It is not necessary to give any detailed, account of the later his- 
tory of the school, but we must remark that disputes have fre- 
quently arisen with regard to the best mode of harmonizing its 
teaching with that of the special schools of application to which it 
conducts. These disputes have been no doubt increased by the 
union of a ci\^l and military object in the same school. The scien- 
tific teaching desirable for some of the higher civil professions has 
appeared of doubtful advantage to those destined for the more prac- 
tical work of war. There has been always a desire on the one side 
to qualify pure mathematics by application, a strong feeling on the 
other that mathematical study sharpens the mind most keenly for 
some of the practical pursuits of after life. We should add, per- 
haps, that there has been some protest in France (though little 
heard among the scientific men who have been the chief directors 
of the school) against the esprit faux, the exclusive pursuit of math- 
ematics to the utter neglect of literature, and the indiff'erence to 
moral and historical studies. Some one or other of these com- 



410 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARTS. 

plaints any one who studies the literature, the pamphlets, and his- 
tory of the school will find often reproduced in the letters of war 
ministers, of artillery and engineer ojfficers commanding the school 
of application at Metz, or of committees from the similar schools 
for the mines and the roads and bridges. The last of these occa- 
sions illustrates the present position of the school. 

On the 5th of June 1850, the legislative assembly appointed a 
mixed commission of military men and civilians, who were charged 
to revise all the programs of instruction, and to recommend all 
needful changes in the studies of the pupils, both those preparatory 
to entrance* and those actually pursued in the school. The com- 
mission was composed as follows : — 

M. Thenard. Member of the Academy of Sciences, and of the Board of Im- 
provement of the Polytechnic School, President. 

Le Yerrier, Member of the Academy of Sciences and of the Legislative As- 
sembly, Reporter. 

Noizet, General of Brigade of Engineers. 

Poncelet, General of Brigade of Engineers, Commandant of the Polj'technic 
School, Member of the Academy of Sciences. 

Piobert, General of Brigade of Artillery, Member of the Academy of Sciences. 

Mathieu, Rear Admiral. 

Duhamel, Member of the Academy of Sciences, Director of Studies at the 
Polytechnic School. 

Mary, Divisional Inspector of Roads and Bridges. 

Morin, Colonel of Artillery, Member of the Academy of Sciences. 

Regnault, Engineer of Mines, Member of the Academy of Sciences. 

Olivier, Professor at the Conservatoire des Arts ei Metiers. 

Debacq, Secretary for Military Schools at the Ministry of War, Secretary. 

A chronic dispute which has gone on from the very first year of 
the school's existence, between the exclusive study of abstract 
mathematics on the one hand, and their early practical application 
on the other, was brought to a head (though it has scarcely been 
set at rest) by this commission. All the alterations effected have 
been in the direction of eliminating a portion of the pure mathe- 
matics, and of reducing abstract study to the limits within which 
it was believed to be most directly applicable to practice. The re- 
sults, however, are still a subject of vehement dispute, in which 
most of the old scientific pupils of the Polytechnic, and many of 
what may be styled its most practical members, the oflacers of the 
artillery and engineers, are ranged on the side of " early and deep 
scientific study versus early practical applications." It is, indeed, a 
question which touches the military pupils nearly, since it is in their 
case particularly that the proposed abstract studies of the Polytech- 
nic might be thought of the most doubtful advantage. We do not 
try to solve the problem here, though the facts elsewhere stated 
will afford some materials for judgment. We incline to the opin- 

* In an Analysis of the Report of this Commission, see page 



POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS, 41| 

ion of those who think that the ancient genius loci, the traditional 
teaching of the school, will be too strong for legislative interference, 
and that, in spite of recent enactments, abstract science and analy- 
sis will reign in the lecture-rooms and halls of study of the Poly- 
technic, now as in the days of Monge. 

II. AN OUTLINE OF THE MANAGESIENT AND OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE 

SCHOOL, ETC. 

The Polytechnic, as we have said, is a preparatory and general 
scientific school ; its studies are not exclusively adapted for any one 
of the departments to which at the close of its course the scholars 
will find themselves assigned ; and on quitting it they have, before 
entenng on the actual discharge of their duties of whatever kind, 
to pass through a further term of teaching in some one of the 
schools of application specially devoted to particular professions. 

The public services for which it thus gives a general preparation 
are the following : 

Military : Under the Minister at War. 

Artillery (Artillerie de terre.) 

Engineers {Genie.) 

The Staff Corps {Corps d'Etai Major.) 

The Department of Powder and Saltpetre {Poudres et Salpetres.) 

Under the Minister of Marine. 
Navy, {Marine.) 

Marine Artillery {Artillerie de mer.) 
Naval Architects {Genie maritime.) 
The Hydrographical Department {Corps des Ingenieurs Hydrographes.) 

Civil : Under the Minister of Public Works. 

The Department of Roads and Bridges {Ponis-et-chaussees.) 
The Department of Mines {Mines.) 

Under the Minister of the Interior. 
The Telegraph Department {Lignes Telegraphiques.) 

Under the minister of Finance. 
The Tobacco Department {Administration des Tahacs.) 

To these may be added at any time, by a decree on the part of 
the government, any other departments, the duties of which appear 
to require an extensive knowledge of mathematics, physics, or 
chemistry. 

Admission to the school is, and has been since it;s first commence- 
ment in 1*794, obtained by competition in a general examination, 
held yearly, and open to all. Every French youth, between the age 
of sixteen and twenty, (or if in the army up to the age of twenty 
five,) may offer himself as a candidate. 



412 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. 

A board of examiners passes through France once every year, and 
examines all who present themselves, that have complied with the 
conditions, which are fully detailed in the decree given in the ap- 
pendix. It commences at Paris. 

A list of such of the candidates as are found eligible for admit- 
tance to the Polytechnic is drawn up from the proceedings of the 
board, and submitted to the minister at war ; the number of places 
likely to be vacant has already been determined, and the minister 
fixes the number of admissions accordingly. The candidates ad- 
mitted are invariably taken in the order of merit. 

The annual charge for board and instruction is 40Z. (1,000 fr.,) 
payable in advance in four installments. In addition there is the 
cost of outfit, varying from 201. to 241. Exhibitions, however, for 
the discharge of the whole or of one-half of the expense [bourses 
and demi-bourses,) are awarded by the state in favor of all the suc- 
cessful candidates, whose parents can prove themselves to be too 
poor to maintain their children in the school. Outfits and half 
outfits (trousseaux) and demi-trousseaux) are also granted in these 
cases, on the entrance of the student into the school ; and the num- 
ber of these boursiers and demi-boursiers amounts at the present 
time to one-third of the whole. 

The course of study is completed in two years. On its success- 
ful termination which is preceded by a final examination, the stu- 
dents are distributed into the difi'erent services, the choice being 
ofi'ered them in the order of their merit, and laid down in the clas- 
sified list drawn up after the examination. If it so happen that the 
number of places or the services which can be oflfered is not suffi- 
cient for the number of qualified students, those at the bottom of 
the list are offered service in the infantry or cavalry, and those who 
do not enter the public service, are supplied with certificates of hav- 
ing passed successfully through the school. Students who have 
been admitted into the school from the army, are abliged to re-en- 
ter the army. 

All others, as has been said, have the right of choosing, accord- 
ing to their position on the list, the service which they prefer, so 
far, that is, as the number of vacancies in that service will allow ; 
or they may if they please decline to enter the public service at all. 

Such is a general outline of the plan and object of the school. 
We may add that, besides its military staff", it employs no less than 
thirty-nine professors and teachers ; that it has four boards of man- 
agement, and that ten scientific men unconnected with the school, 
and amongst the most distinguished in France, conduct its examina- 



POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. 



413 



tions. The magnitude of this establishment for . teaching may be 
estimated by the fact, that the number of pupils rarely exceeds 
three hundred and fifty, and is often much less. 

A fuller enumeration of these bodies will complete our present 
sketch. • 

I. The military establishment consists of: — 

The Commandant, a General Officer, usually of the Artillery or the Engi- 
neers, at present a General of Artillery. 

A Second in Command, a Colonel or Lieutenant-Colonel, chosen from former 
pupils of school ; at present a Colonel of Engineers. 

Three Captains of Artillery and Three Captains of Engineers, as Inspectors 
of Studies, chosen also from former pupils of the school. 

Six Adjutants (adjoints,) non-commissioned officers, usually such as have 
been recommended for promotion. 

II. The civil establishment consists of: — 

1. A Director of Studies, who has generally been a civilian, but is at present 

a Lieutenant-Colonel of Engineers. 

2. Fifteen Professors, viz. : — Two of Mathematical Analysis. Two of Me- 
chanics and Machinery. One of Descriptive Geometry. Two of Physics. 
Two of Chemistry. One of Military Art and Fortification. One of Geodesy. 
One of Architecture. One of French Composition. One of German. One of 
Drawing. Of these one is an officer of the StaflF, another of the Artillery, and 
a third of the Navy; two are Engineers in Chief of the Poads and Bridges; 
nine are civilians, of whom two are Members of the Academy of Sciences. 

3. Three Drawing Masters for Landscape and Figure Drawing ; one for Ma- 
chine Drawing, and one for Topographical Drawing. 

4. Nineteen Assistant and Extra Assistant Teachers, {repetiteurs and repeii- 
teurs adjoints) whose name and functions are both peculiar. 

5. Five Examiners for Admission, consisting at present of one Colonel of 
Artillery, as President, and four civilians. 

6. Five Examiners of Students (civilians,) four of them belonging to the 
Academy of Sciences. 

7. There is also a separate Department for the ordinary Management of Ad- 
ministration of the affiiirs of the school, the charge of the fabric and of the 
library and museums ; and a Medical Staff. 

III. The general control or supervision of the school is vested, 
under the war department, in four great boards of councils, viz. : — 

1. A board of administration, composed of the commandant, the 
second in command, the director of studies, two professors, two 
captains, and two members of the administrative staff. This board 
has the superintendence of all the financial business and all the mi- 
nutiae of the internal administration of the school. 

2. A board of discipline, consisting of the second in command, 
the director, two professors, three captains (of the school,) and two 
captains of the army, chosen from former pupils. The duty of this 
board is to decide upon cases of misconduct. 

3. A board of instruction, whose members are, the commandant, 
the second in command, the director, the examiners of students, 
and the professors ; and whose chief duty is to make recommenda- 
tions relating to ameliorations in the studies, the programmes of 
admission and of instruction in the school, to — 



414 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. 

4. A board of improvement, charged with the general control of 
the studies, and composed of the commandant and second in com- 
mand, the director of studies, a delegate from each department of 
the public service for which the school prepares its pupils, three of 
the examiners of the school, three members of the Academy of Sci- 
ences, and three professors of the school. 

• III. THE ENTRANCE EXAMINATION. 

Admission is by open competitive examination, held annually by 
persons appointed by the Minister of War on the recommendation 
of the Board of Instruction. Candidates must be (1) French born, 
or naturalized citizens ; (2) at least sixteen and not over twenty 
years of age, except in the case of actual service in the army, when 
the age is extended to twenty-five ; (3) must be bachelors of science 
or letters, or have completed the equivalent of the lyceuin course. 

The subjects of this examination are, arithmetic, algebra, geom- 
etry, trigonometry, mechanics, natural philosophy, elements of 
chemistry and drawing, aud one of four modern languages : German, 
English, Italian, Spanish, and Arabic, and a knowledge will count. 

The examination is partly written and partly oral, and is both pre- 
liminary and formal. The first is to ascertain the health, vigor, 
general aptitude, and knowledge of the candidate. In this examin- 
ation each candidate must hand in certain written sheets containing 
calculations, sketches, plans and drawings, executed by him at school 
during the year, certified and dated by the professor under whom 
he has studied. If these papers are found not to be the work of the 
pupil, or are not satisfactory, he is excluded at once from the com- 
petition. 

The written examination occupies about twenty-four hours, dis- 
tributed through four separate days, and is conducted in the pres- 
ence of certain ofiicial authorities, and in the absence of the exam- 
iners, who mark the papers on a certain scale of merit. Each 
candidate is examined orally for three-quarters of an hour upon each 
of two successive days, by each of two examiners separately ;' and 
the results are then compared with the written examination, and if 
the examiners differ in their estimate of a candidate's work, he is 
entitled to a second oral examination. The marks of the examiners 
are then communicated to the commandant, who makes out a class- 
ified list, which, with all the papers respecting each candidate, is 
then submitted to a jury, who, after a scrutiny of all the documents, 
submit a corrected list to the Minister of War, who can add a cer- 
tain number for special reasons, and the candidates are then admit- 
ted to the school in the order of the list. 

rV. SUBJECTS AND COURSES OF INSTRUCTION. 

- Although slight changes are made in the order and time assigned 
to the several subjects, the following account given by Prof. Bache, 
with the modifications of 1856, is substantially correct for 1869. 



POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL OF FRANCE. . , _ 

415 

Analysis. 

First Year. Differential and integral calculus, lo include the rectification and quadrature 
of plane curves, and curved surfaceis, and (lie cubalure of solids. 

Stcond Year. D.tfereutial and iute{?ral calculus continued. Elements of the calculus of 
variations and of finite ditferences. Formulaj of interpolation, &c. 

Mechanics. 

First Year. Statics.— Composition and equilibrium of forces. Theory of parallel forces. 
Of the center ofjjravity. Attraction of a point by a homogenous sphere. Dynamics— Gen- 
eral formation of motion. The pendulum. Projectiles. Problems in physical astronomy. 

Second Year. Statics continued. Forces applied loan invariable syft;Iem. Principle of 
virtual velocities. Application to simple mechanics. Dynamics. D Alembert's principle. 
Collision. Moment of inertia, &c. Hydrostatics. Hydrodynamics. 

Every lecture of analysis or mechanics is preceded orlollowed by interrogations by the pro- 
fessor. " Problems are given out for solution. The repeaters interrogate the pupils three 
times per week. After the completion of the course, general interrogations take place, upon 
the wliole subject, by the professors and repeaters. 

Descriptive Geoivietry. 

Problems relating to the right line and plane (twelve problems ) Tangent planes and nor- 
mals to curved surfaces (four problems.) Intersections of surfaces (seven problems.) Mis- 
cellaneous problems (seven.) 

Applicutiuns of Descriptive Geometry. Problems with a single plane of projection, and a 
Bcale of declivity. Linear perspective ^three problems.) Shadows (three problems.) Stone 
cutting (seven problems.) Carpentry (lour problems.) 

India-ink drawing. Elements in four examples. 

Analytical Geometry. 

The right line and plane. Curved surfaces. 

The professor may precede or follow his lecture by interrogations. During the course the 
class is examined by the repeaters, and at the close of the studies of Analytical Geometry 
there is a general review. 

Machines, Astronomy, Geodesy, and Social Arithmetic. 

Elements of Machines. Machines for transporting burthens and for pressure. For rais- 
ing liquids. Moved by air, by water, by steam. Useful effect of machines. 

Astrunomy and Geodesy. Formulae of spherical trigonometry. Measurement of space and 
time Of the celestial bodies. Of the earth. Elements of physical geography and hydrogra- 
phy^ Geodesy. Instruments. Figures of the earth. Projection of^ maps and chai'ts. 

Elements of the calculation of probabilities Tables. Insurances. Life insurance, &c. 

Interrogations by the professor accompany the lessons. Those by the repeater must be at 
least as frequent as those by the professor. At the close of the principal courses there is a 
general I'eview, in the way of interrogation, by the professor and repeater. 

Physics. 

First Year. 1. General properties of bodies. Falling bodies. Principle of equilibrium ol 
fluids. Specific gravities. 2. Heat Radiation, conduction, &c. Vapors. Latent heat. 
3. General con.stitution of the atmosphere. Hygrometry. 4. Molecular attraction. Capillary 
action. 5. Electricity. Laws of attraction, repulsion, distribution, «fec. Atmospheric elec- 
tricity. Modes of developing electricity. 

Second Year. 6. Magnetism. Phenomena and laws of magnetism. Instruments. Re- 
ciprocal action of magnets and electrical currents. Electro-dynamics. Mutual actions of 
electrical currents. Thermo-electric phenomena. 7. Acoustics. Of the production, propo- 
gation, velocity, &c., of sound. Acoustic instruments. 8. Optics. Mathematical and physi- 
cal optic.^. Optical instruments. 

During the whole course the repeaters interrogate each division twice every week : they go 
through the study-rooms, and give any explanations which may be required by the pupils 

Chemistry. 

First Year. General principles. Division of the course. Examination of the principal 
simple sub.-tances. Mixtures and binary compounds. Laws of definite proportions, &c. 
Hydracids. Oxacids and oxides. Bases. Neutral binary compounds. Salts. Principal metals.. 

Second Year. Reciprocal action of acids and oxides. Action of water upon salts. Laws' 
of BerthoUet discussed. General properties of the carbonates, and special study of some of 
the more important. Borates and silicates. Glass and pottery. Nitrates. Gunpowder. 
Phosphates. <kc. Sulphates. Chlorates. Chromates and other classes of salts, with details 
as to the more important. Extraction of the metals from their ores, methods of refining, &c. 
Organic chemistry. Vegetable substances. Animal substances. 

This course is accompanied by manipulations in the laboratory of the institution, in which 
the most useful preparations of the course are made by the pupils themselyes. They are also 
taught the principles of analysis, both mineral and organic, practically. 

Architecture. 

Component parts of edifices. General principles. Materials. Foundations. Strength. 
Forms and proportions of the parts of buildings. Floors. Roofs, arches, &c. General prin- 
ciples of the compositions of parts of edifices. Illustrations of the different varieties of parts, 
as porticos, porches, vestibules, halls, &c. Composition of an edifice. Varieties of build- 
ings — as colleges, hospitals, prisons, barracks, &c. 

The pupils copy from the board the sketches of the professor, and draw them carefully 
when required At the close of the lectures there are four different subjects assigned, upon 
each of which there is a competition. The pupils are classified according to the result of 
these competions, and of the marks for their graphic exercises during the course. The best 



416 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL OF FRANCE. 

designs are exhibited. Three India-ink drawings are made on architectural subjects durinff 
this course. 

Frksch Composition. 
The course consists principally in the writing of essays and compositions by the pupils, 
which are subsequently criticised during the recitations. 

, German Language. 

Elements of the language. Grammar reading. Themes and versions. Every lecture is 
followed by an examination of an hour and a-half in duration, by the professor or repeater. 
There are, besides, exercises of pronunciation and common conversation. 

Topography. 
Exercises in topographical drawing. Different modes of representing the ground by hori- 
zontal curves, the projections of lines of greatest declivity, and by shading. Conventional 
signs. Lettering. The exercises of the second division aire preceded by lessons from the pro- 
fessor of geodesy, explanatory of the theory. 

Drawing of the Human Figure and Landscape DRA\^^NG. 

In the first branch the pupils are divided into two classes, one of which copies engravings, 
and the other draws from models. On entering the tchool the pupils are classified according 
to the drawings which they madt at the examination for admission. They are then divided 
into two sections, of as nearly equal strength as possible, and assigned, each one, to a master, 
with whom they remain during their course. One of the drawing-masters is specially 
charged With the course of drawing from casts and from nature. At the beginning of the 
second year, the highest third of the pupils of each stcrion of the former first division go to 
the teacher of drawing in water colors, and remain for two months. They return to their 
sections, and are replaced by the next divi.«ion, each pupil occupying a third of the second 
year in this kind of drawing. The merits of the drawings are judged every two months. 
After the first of May the ordinary drawing lessons are replaced by those in water colors. 

Besides these regular studies, there are from twelve to fifteen lectures on anatomy and phys- 
iology, given towards the close of the second year, during hours not devoted to the regular 
branches, and which it is optional with the pupils to attend or not. Fencing, music, and 
dancing lessons, are also given. 

During the interrogations by tlie professors and repeaters, notes are taken of the 
merit of the answers of the pupils, according to a uniform scale of marks. These 
are cummunicated with the subjects of each lecture or recitation to the director of 
studies, and placed upon record, as assisting in determining the merit of the pupils. 
The examiners mark according to the same scale. The pupils are classified after 
the examinations in the several departments, and in taking the average for the 
standing in general merit, a different weight is allowed to the different courses. 
Mathematics counts most, and then the graphic exercises, descriptive geometry 
and geodesy united, and conduct count the same — then physics and chemistry. 

The examinations at the end of the two years of study are divided into four ; 
the first, on the courses of the first year, including analysis, part of analytical 
geometry, and mechanics ; the second, on chemistry ; the third, on physics ; the 
fourth, on descriptive geometry and its applications, and part of analytical geometry. 
The examination at the close of the second year is divided as follows : — First, 
analysis, analytical geometry, mechanics, effects of machines and social arithmetic. 
Second, chemistry. Third, physics. Fourth, geodesy, description of machines, 
and architecture. The examination on analysis and its applications, and mechanics, 
are conducted by the two permanent examiners. The pupils are examined singly 
and without the presence of their comrades, and each examiner occupies a separate 
room. Where the branches admit of it, the examinations are viva voce, the stu- 
dent using the blackboard when required. 

After the examinations are completed, the results are reported to a board, who, 
with all the materials before them from the examiners and fi'om the school, decide 
whether the pupils may pass to the higher division, or are admissible into the pub- 
lic service, according to the division to which they belong. This board ("jury") 
consists of the two commandants, the director of studies, the two permanent and 
three temporary examiners. 

The arrangement of the time allotted to study, like the similar points in regard 
to instruction, is a matter of very minute regulation. The pupils study in large 
rooms, conveniently fitted up for the purpose, and where they receive by lot, at 
entrance, places which they retain, in general, during the course. The interroga- 
tions or recitations take place in rooms adapted to that purpose, separate from the 
larger lecture halls. These recitation-rooms are also open to the pupils in winter, 
during recreation hours, and after supper ; and in summer, whenever the weather 
is bad, so as to prevent them from spending the time in the open air. besides at 
certain stated periods before the examinations. The repeaters are present during 



POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL OF FRANCE. ^|Y 

the periods devoted to the studies of their several departments, and, except in the 
cases oftlie graphic exercises where it is not allowed, are expected to give assist- 
ance to the pupils who aak for it. 

The order of the day in the institution is arranged with a view to bring the lec- 
tures, recitations, and studies of particular branches together. Besides this, there 
are study-hours called free, in which the student may employ himself as he pleases, 
otherwise than in drawing of any kind (graphic exercises.) 

The discipline of the sehool is thoroughly milittiry, and the means of carrying it 
out in all its strictness are provided. The regulations are very minute, and tix, in 
detail, the punishment considered equivalent to each offense, as well tor those 
against morals as transgressions of the regulations themselves. The punishments 
are — 1, Private admonition by the commandant or vice-commandant. 2. Public 
reprimand before the corps of pupils. 3. Confinement to the walls of the institu- 
tion, or stoppage of leave. 4. Confinement to the house. 5. Imprisonment 
within the walls. 6. Military imprisonment. 7. Dismission. The usual pun- 
ishment for trivial offenses is the stoppage (" sortie,") one of which is equivalent to 
a deprivation of the general leave of absence for half a day. This may be awarded 
by an ofhcer as low as an adjutant. It follows certain specified offenses, as over- 
staying a leave, when the number of stoppages is in proportion to the time of over- 
staying the leave, and is even assigned for a failure in recitation. Imprisonment 
within the walls can only be awarded by the commandant, viee-eommandmant, or 
director of studies, and excludes the student from the recitation-room. Confine'^ 
ment in the military prison requires the order of the-eommandant, who reports the 
case at once to the minister of war. Dismission can not take place without the 
sanction of the minister. Cases of discipline, suppose to involve dismission or the 
loss of a bursary, are referred to a board called the council of discipline, and com- 
posed of the two commandants, the director of studies, two professors, two captain 
inspectors, the captain instructor, and one administrator. 

Eor military exercises, and the general furtherance of disciphne, the pupils form 
a battalion, divided into four companies, each division of the school forming two 
companies. From each company eight petty officers, called sergeants, are taken 
according to the order of the merit-roll of the division, making thirty -two in the 
whole battalion. These sergeants are distinguished by appropriate military badges. 
The sergeants have charge of the other pupils in the study-rooms, halls, recitation- 
rooms, refectory, laboiatories, and lecture-rooms, and two of them in turn are 
joined with a higher officer, an adjutant, in the inspection of the food. They liave 
charge in general of the details of police. The second sergeants are intrusted 
with the collection of money due by their comrades for letters and other authoiized 
expenses. These officei-s are appointed once a year. 

The administration of the fiscal affairs of the school is committed to a board con- 
sisting of the coumiandant and vice-commandant, the director of studies, two pro- 
fessors, designated by the council of instruction, two inspectors of studies in turn, 
according to rank, tlie administrator or steward as reportor (rapporteur,) the treas- 
urer as secretary. The last two named agents are consulting members only. 
This board meets tvince every month. It prepares the estimates for the expenses 
of the school, which are submitted to the minister of war. The form of these and, 
indeed, of all the accounts, is laid down minutely in regulations. 

The payn)ent made by parents for the maintenance of the pupils does not go 
into the treasury of the institution, but into the general central treasury of the coun- 
try. The school furnishes the pupil, for a stipulated sum, with his board, lodging, 
clothing, and petty expenses. For repairs of clothing and petty expenses, a special 
sum is set aside, of which the student receives an account. Parts of the supply of 
clothing, &c., at entrance, may be furnished by the parents, but the rest is sup- 
plied by the school at the parents' expense. 

The stewai'd (administrateur) is the executive officer of the domestic economy of 
the school — prepares all matters of business for the consideration of the council of 
administration, and the estimates of every kind, regular and contingent; presents 
the plans and estimates of the architect of the school for repairs or new buildings, 
and superintends their execution when authorized 5 makes contracts and receives 
the articles contracted for ; has charge of the issue of all articles, of the store- 
houses, and of the servants ; superintends the infirmary ; he nominates the sub- 
ordinate persons employed in his def»artment, and is responsible directly to the 
*>uDcil, in virtue of the authority of which he is supposed to act. 

^1 



418 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT PARIS. 

Since the date of Prof. Bache's Report, the administration, the en- 
trance examination, and course of instruction in the Polytechnic school 
has undergone some changes, and yet the main purpose, features, 
and methods of the institution, remain the same, winning from the 
Commission appointed by the War Department of the British Gov-' 
ernment in 1856, "to consider the best mode of reorganizing the sys- 
tem of training officers for the Scientific Corps" of the Army, the 
following testimony. 

Regarded simply as a great mathematical and scientific school, its results in 
producing eminent men of Science have been extraordinary. It has been the 
great (and a truly great) Mathematical University of France. 

Regarded again as a preparatory school for the public works, it has given 
a very high scientific education to civil engineers, whose scientific education in 
other countries (and amongst ourselves) is believed to be much slighter and more 
accidental. 

Regarded as a school for the scientific corps of the Arn)y, its peculiar mode of 
uniting in one course of competition candidates for civil and military services, has 
probably raised scientific thought to a higher point in the French than in any other 
army. 

Regarded as a system of teaching, the method it pursues in developing the 
talents of its pupils appears to us the best we have ever studied. 

It is in its studies and some of its main principles that the example of the poly- 
technic school may be of most value. In forming or improving any military 
school, we can not shut our eyes to the successful working at the polytechnic of 
the principle, which it was the first of all schools to initiate, the making great 
public prizes the reward and stimulus of the pupil's exertions. We may observe 
how the state has here encouraged talent by bestowing so largely assistance upon 
all successful, but poor pupils, during their school career. 

The commission in the course of their report, mention a few 
"marked -defects." "Such is the attempt to give exactly the same 
teaching, lesson by lesson, during a course of two years, to a class of 
one hundred and sixty pupils, with no reference to their varieties of 
ability, or power of application. This practice has a tendency either 
to make many of the pupils superficial, or to exhaust them." "An- 
other defect is the exclusively mathematical spirit encouraged and its 
tendency to prevent the education (of officers both civil and military) 
from being truly liberal." " Nor can we avoid remarking that educa- 
tion has its moral as well as its merely intellectual side, and we were 
not merely as much impressed with the moral and manly, as by the 
intellectual efiects of the Polytechnic teaching." "In spite of these 
drawbacks, many points in its system of teaching is admirable ; and 
it does for the Army, and the services of the Public Works of France, 
what the Universities do chiefly for the Bar and Clerical Profession 
in England." 

We append a note by Prof Gillespie. 



POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL IN PARIS. 4X9 

NOTE. 

We add a very condensed synopsis of the subjects embraced in 
the ^^ Interior Instruction'''' of the Polytechnic School in 1856. 
The reasonings which led the Commission to select these special sub- 
jects, and to pi'oportion them as here shown, may be given hereafter. 
The numbers in parentheses, which follow the topics, indicate how. 
many lectures are given to them. Each lecture embraces one and a 
half hours, of which the first half-hour, at least, is to be given to 
interrogations. The entire course comprises two years. 

INTERIOR INSTRUCTION IN THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. 

I. COURSE OF ANALYSIS. 

Differential Calculus. 

General principles, (8.) Analytical applications, (6.) Geometrical applica 
tions * (12.) 

Calculus of differences, (2.) 

Integral calculus. 

General principles, (6.) Geometrical applications, (5.) Applications to me- 
chanics, (3.) Certain definite integrals, (2.) Integration of differential equa- 
tions of the first and second order, (5.) Linear equations, (3.) Integration of 
equations by series, (1.) Integration of simultaneous differential equations, (2.) 
Equations of partial differentials, (2.) Geometrical applications, (2.) Mechan- 
ical and physical applications, (11.) 

Elements of the Calculus of Probabilities and Social Arithmetic, (3.) 
[The whole course of analysis (including reviews) comprises sev- 
enty-eight lectures, of which forty-five are given in the first half of 
the first year, and thirty-three in the first half of the second year.] 

3. DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRT. 

First Part. — Theoretical course. 

This comprises thirty-four lectures, with constant graphical practice. 

Second Part. — Applications. 

Perspective and shadows, (7.) Stone cutting, (15.) Cutting and combining 
timber, (9.) 

[This course extends through the first year.] 

3. MECHANICS AND MACHINES. 

Mechanics of geometrical motions ; or Cinematics. 

Preliminaries, (3.) Geometrical transformations of motion, (8.) Composition 
of motions, (5.) Of acceleration in geometrical motions, (3.) Of accelj ration in 
some natural motions, (3.) 

Mechanics of forces ; or dynamomeirics. 

Fundamental principles of the mobecular mechanics of sj'stems of material 
points, (3.) Applications of these principles, (6.) Equilibrium and stability of 
solid bodies, (9.) 

Mechanics of the motions impressed by forces; or dynamics of systems. 

Preliminaries relating to free material points, (3.) General principles relating 
to systems of material points, (6.) Dynamics of solids or invariable systems, (4.) 
Applications of the general principles of dynamics, (5.) Theory and calculation 
of machines, (2.) 

*Thc method of infinitely small quantities is required to be exclusively employed ia th* 
applications of the calculus. 



420 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL IN PARIS. 

Hydraulics, Pneumatics^ and Motors. 

Hydrostatics, (].) Experimental hydraulics, (4.) Hydraulic machines, (4.) 
Steam-engines, (3.) 

[This course comprises seventy-six lectures, including those of 

review. It extends through two years.] 

4. PHYSICS. 

Preliminaries, (5.) Heat, (18.) Statical Electricity, (3.) Magnetism, (4.) 
Dynamical Electricity, (10.) Acoustics, (4.) Light, (18.) 

[This course conaprises sixty-eight lectures, and extend through 

two years. It is entirely experimental.] 

5. CHEMISTRY. 

Preliminaries, (2.) Metalloids, (19.) Metals, (35.) Powder, lime, glass, and 
pottery, (6.) Organic chemistry, (5.) Organic chemistry manufactures, (5.) 

[This course is distributed over two years, with many practical 

manipulations.] 

6. COURSE OF GEODESY. 

Trigonometry, [reviewed,] (2.) Measure of time, (2.) Measure of angles, (5.) 
Astronomy, (17.) Geodesy proper, (5.) Geographical maps, (2.) 

[This course is given in the second half of the second year.] 

7. ARCHITECTURE AND PUBLIC WORKS 

First part : Elements of edifices, (18.) 
Second part; Composition of edifices, (16.) 

Third part : Ways of communication. Roads, bridges, canals, improved 
rivers, railroads, (6.) 

8. MILITARY ART AND FORTIFICATIONS. 

First part : General notions, (7.) 
Second part : Temporary fortification, (4.) 
Third part : Permanent fortification, (7.) 
Fourth part : Attack and defense of places, (2.) 

. 9. COURSE OF TOPOGRAPHY. 

[Ten lectures, during second year.] 

10. COURSE OF COMPOSITION AND FRENCH LFTERATURE. 

[This course extends through the last year and a half.] 

11, THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. ' 

[Sixty lectures, during the two years.] 

12. FIGURE AND LANDSCAPE DRAWING. 



N. B. It should be remembered, to account for the brevity of 
some important parts of the course, that the Polytechnic School is 
itself only preparatory to a number of " SpeciaV schools, such as those 
of Civil Engineering, of Military Engineering, of Mining, (fee. 

It ought also to be mentioned that many of the modifications here 
introduced into this course have been warmly opposed and censured 
by various French mathematicians and practitioners. 

W. M. G. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 



421 



SCHOOLS OF APPLICATION FOR rOLYTECHNIC GRADUATES. 

The Polytechnic School was instituted origiually to supply the 
corps of engineers, civil and military, from which it developed into 
a preparatory school for other departments of public service, the 
special studies of which are continued for from two to four years. 
The choice of service is determined by the rank which the students 
attain on the final examination, which is conducted by a special 
board, no member of which is in any way connected with the school, 
and all of whom are experts in some of the specialties into which 
the graduates are to pass. These schools of application are : 

Military Schools. — (1,) The School for Artillery and Engineers at 
Metz ; (2,) of Infantry and Cavalry at St. Cyr ; (3,) The Staff School 
at Paris ; (4,) Imperial School of Cavalry at Saumur. Each of these 
schools comprises a strictly professional course of from two to three 
years. 

2. Schools for the Naval Service. — (1,) The Naval School at 
Brest ; (2,) The School of Marine Artillery at Paris ; (3,) The School 
of Naval Architects at Paris ; (4,) The Hydrographic Engineers. 
■^ 3. School for Government Civil Engineers, ( Corps des Pouts et 
Chaussees,) to whom are intrusted the construction and supervision 
of all public works. The course extends over a period of three 
years, and is both theoretical and practical. 

4. Schools for Mining Engineers and Directors and Inspectors of 
the Government Mines. — The course lasts three years, and embraces, 
besides a thorough course of studies, tlie personal inspection of 
mines and the supervision of actual operations. 

5. School for the Manufacture of Gunpowder [Poudres et Sal- 
petres.) — The main work of this school is to impart to pupils des- 
tined to this branch of the public service a thorough acquaintance 
with all the d&tails of manufacture, so as to superintend the gov- 
ernment works. 

6. Schools for the Administration of the Tobacco Service, including 
a knowledge of chemistry, physics, mechanics, and accounts appli- 
cable to the same. 

7. Schools for the Telegraphic Service, including the construction, 
repairs, and working of the signals used in the Military or Civil 
Service. 

8. Other public services, as may be designated from time to time, 
which require thorough preparation in mathematics and natural 
science. This preparation in the Polytechnic fixes the standard and 
method for these studies in all the schools of France. 



422 IMPERIAL SCHOOL OF ROADS AND BRIDGES. 

CORPS IMPERIAL DES POKTS ET CHAUSSEES. 

The Corps Imperial des Ponts-et- Chausees, in France, existed as far back as 
the times of Henry IV, as a body of government engineers under the Chand 
Voyer of the kingdom, but received its present name and functions from the 
Regent in 1722. Its present organization is due to the Constituent Assembly 
in 1791. It belongs to the Ministry of Public Works, to which are intrusted 
all the vast and varied interests connected with the commerce and industry of 
the country, to which the government makes appropriations, or over which it 
exercises control or supervision. 

THE SCHOOL. 

An essential part of the organization of the Corps is the Ecole des Ponts-et- 
Chaussees, through which alone admittance to the Corps can be obtained. It 
is established in Paris, on the Pue des Saints Peres. It admits internes or 
eleves ingenieurs. and externes ; the latter may be of French or of foreign birth; 
the former must be of French birth, between the ages of 18 and 25, of good 
moral character, and graduates of the Ecole Polytechnique. The externes are 
required to submit to an exaboination, consisting of several compositions on the 
branches on which they are expected to be prepared, a drawing illustrating de- 
scriptive geometry, and an architectural design in colors. If these prove satis- 
factory, the jury allows them to present themselves for two oral examinations 
iu arithmetic, algebra, elementary geometry, rectilinear trigonometry, analytical 
geometry of two and three dimensions, descriptive geometry with applications 
to the cutting of stone and carpentry, differential and integral calculus, archi- 
tecture, mechanics, physics, and chemistry. 

The complete course of the school lasts three years, the term each year ex- 
tending from November 1 to April 30. From May 1 to October 30 they are 
assigned to places where engineering and constructions are going on. 

The branches studied in the school are the construction of roads, bridges, 
railways, canals, ports, the improvement of rivers, civil architecture, applied 
mechanics, hydraulics, steam-engines, agricultural hydraulics, applied mineral- 
ogy and geology, administrative law and political economy. A certain number 
of persons not regular pupils are allowed to attend the lectures, on exhibiting 
cards from the director. Instruction is gratuitous. 

It is from the classes of' eleves ingenieurs, or internes, already mentioned, that 
the corps of engineers is recruited. After the final examination, at the end of 
the course, they become ingenieurs de Sine classe, and then rise by seniority 
through the various degrees of rank. Their social standing is very high, taking 
rank before colonels at the imperial levees, and between all orders among them 
is observed that kind of etiquette belonging to military service. 

On leaving the school, they are at once assigned to service in the first va- 
cancy that occurs, without regard to any special talent any one may possess. 
However, those who have distinguished themselves are sent abroad to study 
the manner of executing work in foreign countries. 

The whole of France is divided into eighteen districts, each of which is under 
the inspection of an engineer, entitled inspecteur-general de 2nde classe, those 
of the first class being honorary members without definite functions. The ser- 
vice of the departments is divided between the ingeniev/r-en-dief de Ire classe, 
and de Inde cla^sse, and the ingenieurs ordijiaire d^e Ire, Inde, et de Sme classe, 
together with a class of men known as conducteurs. 



IMPERIAL SCHOOL OF ROADS AND BRIDGES. 423 

The ingenieur ordinaire has the personal examination of all works propopcd 
or in progress; the questions of the establishment of unhealthy trades, of build- 
ing-lines, and the police of the roadways, also fall within his jurisdiction. He 
inspects, moreover, the work of the various contractors employed by the State, 
and '' must personally superintend the measurement of the various accounts they 
certify." 

The ingenieur of the first class is charged with the preparation of the projects 
for the improvement of his district, the management of credits and of the mon- 
etary matters, the execution of the works either by competition or by regie, 
which means that the State employs the workmen and engages the tradesmen 
to furnish materials on its own account, the direction of the law proceedings, 
and the movements of the employes of the office.. 

The central authorit}' is vested in the general council, composed of all the 
engineers of ever)- degree present in Paris at the time of its holding, and pre- 
sided over by the Minister, or, in his absence, by the diredtur-genercd, or an 
inspector nominated for that purpose by the Minister. This council pronounces 
upon the projects and plans of works and all questions relating to construction, 
all questions of accounts and the property of the State in public works, and 
questions connected with the fulfillment of their duties by engineers. To this 
council a regular report is made by the engineers in charge of the public works, 
approved and commented upon by the inspector, who must visit his district for 
three months every year, to inquire into all matters connected with this depart- 
ment. All observations on work in progress, and the discharge of duties by 
local officers, are transmitted to the Minister directly. 

Connected with the corps is the very useful body of men known as condudeurs, 
who receive their training in the offices of the engineers, and after an examina- 
tion in geometry, the theory of numbers, logarithms, plan-drawing, leveling, 
taking out quantities, measuring work, supeiintendence, and every thing con- 
cerned in carrying a project into effect, they become condudeurs embrigades de 
4:me classe, and rise, by seniority generally, to the first class, but if they possess 
particular merit, or can command patronage, they may rise more rapidly. By 
the law of October, 1850, it was ordered that one-sixth of the engineers should 
be created from the condudeurs. They are engaged upon the field operations 
and specially-assigned engineering, the superintendence of the workmen, the 
measurement of completed works, and the preparation of the working plans that 
are sent out from the engineer's office. 

The salaries paid the various classes of engineers are as follows : To the gen- 
eral inspectors of the 1st class, 12,000 francs per annum; of the 2d, 10,000; 
engineers-in-chief of the 1st class, 5,000 to 6,000; of the 2d, 4,500 ; ordinary 
engineers of the 1st, 2d, and 3d classes, respectively 3,000, 2,500, 1,800. The 
pupils of the school receive 1,200 francs per annum, and 1,800 while engaged 
in practical service. The office expenses of the engineers are paid by the gov- 
ernment, being fixed by the Minister. An additional source of income is the 
works which the engineers are sometimes allowed to undertake for the com- 
munes. 

The Corps is represented by a scientific journal, the Annales des Ponis-et- 
Chaussees, published about six times a year, and characterized by its profound 
theoretical mode of treating all subjects relating to engineering. 



424 



SPECIAL liNSTRUCTIOiN IN FRANCE. 



SCHOOLS OF MINES AND MINERS. 

The earliest school of mines in France was founded by Louis XV, in 1783, 
in Palis, with a course of study and practice extended over three years. The 
winters were devoted to lectures, and the summer months to observation of 
practical operations with the inspectors on their tours to the government works. 
The selection of mining engineers was by law confined to the pupils of this 
school. 

In 1795 the Paris school was changed to a practical school of mining, and its 
pupils, twenty in number, were chosen from the graduates of the Polytechnic, 
or Central School of Public Works, who had attained the greatest proficiency 
in mathematics. 

In 1802 the establishment was removed to Pesey, in Savoy, where a lead 
mine was then worked by the State, and a second practical school founded at 
Greislauterra, in the old department of the Sarre. 

In consequence of the disrupture of territory by the political events of 1814 
and 1815, the sites of those practical schools were lost to Prance, and tiie 
courses were reestablished in Paris as the School of Mines. 

In 1816 the Miners' School of St. Etienne was founded in the coal district of 
the Loire, the seat of the great coal and iron operations of France. 

In 1845 a school of practical mining was instituted at Alais, in the depart- 
ment of the Gard, to train intelligent workmen to become foremen and officers 
of mining establishments. 

Besides laboratories in connection with these mining schools at Paris, St. 
Etienne, and Alais, there are government laboratories for analysis and assaying, 
at Clermont, Grenoble, Marseilles, Vicdessos, and Vesoul — aU modeled on that 
of Paris. 

IMPERIAL SCHOOL OF MINES AT PAHIS. 

The Imperial School of Mines in Paris is located in the Boulevard St. Michel. 
Its aim is to educate mining engineers for the service of the State. Its pupils 
come from the Polytechnic School. Day-scholars may also be admitted who 
are intended for directors of working-mines and metallurgic establishments. 
The course of studies covers three years; instruction is entirely gratuitous. 
Candidates for day^scholars must, 1, be born or naturalized Frenchmen, and be 
at least 17, or at most 23 years old;. 2, prove by a certificate from their home 
authorities that they have a good moral character; 3, show by a certificate from 
a physician that they have been vaccinated. 

The knowledge required for admission comprises infinitesimal analysis, me- 
chanics, descriptive and applied geometry, physics with special regard to gas 
and optical instruments, general chemistry, geometrical drawing and shading 
with Indian ink ; legible handwriting, and correct orthography. 

Preliminary examinations on the above-mentioned subjects are held in Octo- 
ber in tlie Departments by mining engineers, specially designated for this pur- 
pose by the Minister. Scholars of the Polytechnic School, licentiates of science, 
mathematics, and pupils of the preparatory course who have obtained a cer- 
tificate of capacity, are exempt from this examination. 

To be definitely admitted as day-scholars, candidates must undergo a second 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 



425 



examination during the first half of November in Paris before the council of the 
school. Pupils who at the linal examination at the end of the three years' 
course show a sufficient degree of knowledge, receive a diploma of capacity. 
Aspirants for day-scholars' places can be admitted to the preparalory courses 
connected with the school itself and lasting one year. Candidates nmnt be 
native or naturalized Frenchmen, be at least 16 or at most 20 years old, and 
undergo an examination in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, rectilinear trigouom- 
■etry, analytical geometry, physics, and drawing. 

The course of studies is as follows : — 

Preparatory course: Infinitesimal analysis and mechanics; descriptive geom- 
etry (simple and applied;) physics with special regard to gases, steam,' heat, and 
optical instruments; general chemistry; practical exercises in geometrical 
drawing and shading in Indian ink. 

Gentr ill course — First year : Mining, machinery, metallurgy, mineralogy, as- 
saying, paleontology; English and German. Second year: Second part -of 
mining and machinery, metallurgy and assaying; geology; English and Ger- 
man. Third year: Industrial constructions, construction of raiiroads, mining 
legislation, administrative laws; agriculture, irrigation and drainage ; English 
and German. 

The practical course embraces drawing, working in the laboratories, visiting 
of mines and metallurgic establishments in the neighborhood of Paris- geolog- 
ical and mineralogical excursions, and the preparation of papers descriptive of 
such visits and excursions. 

SCHOOL FOR MINERS AT ST. ETIENNE. 

The School for Miners at St. Etienne (Loire) is under the Ministry of Agri- 
Culture, Commerce, and Public Works. Its aim is to educate directors of mines 
and metallurgic establishments. Candidates for admission must be IG years at 
least and 25 years at most. They must prove by a certificate from their home 
authorities that they have a good moral character, and that they have been 
vaccinated. Naval and military men freed from service are admitted to the age 
of 28. 

The knowledge required for admission comprises: French, arithmetic, system 
of weights and measures, elementary geometry, algebra as far as equations of* 
the second degree, elements of linear drawing. Candidates must, from the 1st 
of August till the 1st of September, pass a preliminary examination before 
mining engineers specially designated by the Minister. These examinations 
are held in the principal cities of the Departments. Candidates from the Poly- 
technic School who show sufficient knowledge to pass the second exariiination, 
are exempt from the first. Candidates who have been declared admissible pass 
a second examination at St. Etienne before the council of the school. The list 
made out by the examining jury is presented to the Minister, and he marks 
those who are to be admitted. The course of studies covers three years; all 
scholars are day-scholars ; instruction is gratuitous. Certificates of capacity in 
various degrees are given to worthy scholars, on their leaving the school. 

The course of studies is as follows : 

First division: Geology, 20 lessons; metallurgy, 46; mechanics, IT ; me- 
chanical preparation of minerals and preparation of coal for market, 5 ; theory 
of resistance of materials, 10 lessons. 



426 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 

Second division : Mathematics, 22 lessons; physics, 24; descriptive geometry, 
20; chemistry, 25; mineralogy, 18; shading and perspective, 8 lessons; stone- 
cutting and timber-work, 12; accounts, 8; practical worlsing of mines, 26; 
drawing of plans, 9 lessons. 

The school is under the direction of the inspector-general, aided by the chief 
engineer of mines of the department of the Loire, and professors (who are com- 
missioned mining engineers) of mineralogy and geology; of chemistry and 
metallurgy; of mechanics, construction, &c. ; of geometry, mapping, and draw- 
ing ; of accounts and the laws of mines. 

SCHOOL OF MASTER-MINERS AT ALAIS. 

The Imperial School of Master- work men in Mines at Alais (Gard,) is under 
the MinistiV of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works. Its aim is to edu- 
cate master-miners who possess practical knowledge sufScient to superintend 
and guide the workingmen, and enough theoretical knowledge to understand 
and execute the orders of the directors of the mines. Candidates for admission 
must be at least 16 years old, must produce a certificate of good moral char- 
acter and a cdi'titicate of good health, duly signed by a physician ; they must 
likewise prove by a certificate from a mining-director that they have labored as 
common w^orkmen for a whole year in some mine, if they are less than 18 years 
old; for 18 months if they are from 18 to 20 years old; for two j^ears if older. 
Candidates must undergo a preliminary examination before an examiner desig- 
nated by the sub-prefect of the arrondissement in which they reside. This ex- 
amination is held in August. It consists of reading, spelling from dictation, sim- 
ple arithmetical exercises, and some elementary questions on weights and meas- 
ures. Candidates who pass this examination satisfactorily are at once notified 
at what time they must be in. Alais to undergo the final examination. This 
examination is also on the above-mentioned subjects and on some practical 
knowledge. The course covers two years. The term always commences in 
the first days of November, The school is a boarding-school. The wliole ex- 
pense of a stay of seven months and a-half is fixed at 360 francs. Whole and 
partial stipends founded by the State are generally only given to miners or sons 
of miners. Certificates as "master-miners" are given to worthy scholars'at the 
end of the two years' course. The course embraces the following subjects : 

1. Theoretical course. — 1. Arithmetic: Simple and decimal fractions, sys- 
tem of weights and measures. 

2. Geometry : Measuring of lines, surfaces, and simple solids ; graphic con- 
struction of geometrical problems, drawing of plans, linear drawing. 

3. Physics and chemistry : The general properties of bodies, specific weight, 
thermometer, barometer, gas, heat, steam, chemical properties of metals. 

4. Mineralogy and geology: Rocks and minerals, the geological layers, geo- 
logical description of France. 

5. Mechanics: Simple mechanics, such as the lever, wheel, pully, inclined 
plane, &c., suction-pumps, detailed description of an exhausting steam-engine. 

6. Working of mines : Process of working with the pick-axe and with gun- 
powder, wood-work and masonry of mines, precaution against gas explosions, 
inundations, &c. ; first care to be bestowed on men in cases of accident. 

7. French language. 

II. Practical course. — This consists in working in the laboratories and in 
mines, and in excursions to mines in the neighborhood of Alais. 



STATE, DEPARTMENTAL, AND COMMUNAL SCHOOLS 



OP 

ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. 



France, although not yet possessing a governmental system ot' 
industrial schools, was earliest in the field to aid special depart- 
ments of artistic labor, and to institute museums, collections and 
special schools to stimulate invention, and prepare her artists 
and artisans for a higher career than they would have attained in 
the ordinary course of apprenticeship. The establishment of the 
School of the Fine Arts in 1648; of the government factories of 
tapestry (1606,) furniture, and porcelain arid pottery (1590;) of the 
Schools of Civil Engineering (1722,) Mining (1783,) and Public 
Works; of the Conservatory of Arts (1785) and the Imperial 
Schools of Arts and Trades (1802) — conspired to place the con- 
structions of her engineers, the design and skill of the workshops 
of France, in advance of those of other countries. Before describ- 
ing a few of the leading institutions of each class, we will give a 
survey of Industrial Instruction as it was in 1850, and in 1864, from 
oflScial documents. Except the great State schools, the institutions 
herein enumerated have been established mainly by municipal au- 
thorities and far-seeing manufacturers, stimulated and aided by the 
central government, to meet local wants. 

INDUSTRIAL INSTRUCTION IN 1850.* 

In the scheme of institutions devoted to technical instruction, the first rank 
belongs to the Conservatory of Arts and Trades at Paris, begun hj that famous 
mechanic, Yaucanson, as a collection of machines and mechanical tools, and 
gradually expanded by the government from 1785 until it has become the great 
museum and archives of the industrial arts. It embraces in its range of opera- 
tions: (1) a collection of machines, models and designs, with experts to give ad- 
vice and instruction to those who ask, and motive power to exhibit and test new 
inventions; (2) a library of technological publications in different languages, 
including plans of ornamentation ; (3) annual courses of lectures on the sci- 
ences applied to the great national industries; (4) a school of design. To these 
sources of practical knowledge the workmen of Paris resort in large numbers, 
and with great profit to tliemselves and to the country. 

The three State Schools of Arts and Trades at Chalons, Angers, and Aix — 
the first instituted in 1802, the second in 1811, and the third in 1843, sup- 
ported by the government, are intended to train skillful workmen ; and from 
them have proceeded a large number of master-finishers, founders, black- 
smiths, machinists, carpenters and engineers. 

As to the proportions of theory and practice in the course of instruction, 

* Abridged from an article in the Revue des Deux Mondes, by A. Amphori. 



428 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 

the pupils pass seven hours and a half daily in the workshops, and only five hours 
and a half daily in classes and in the apartments for design. The professors are 
rigorously obliged, in their lessons, to take the most usual point of view ; that from 
which the pupil can best see how to use the knowledge he acquires. Since the 
vote was substituted for ministerial- selection of professors, two years since, the 
courses of instruction have been so arr-anged as to drop out those theoretical gen- 
tlemen who ai-e unable to do what they teach. 

The principal advantage of these schools is not, in our opinion, the direct influ- 
ence which they exert upon the national industry. Tlie two hundred and fifty 
pupils or thereabout who leave them every year, are scarcely the thousandth part 
of the workmen who grow -up in France during the same time ; but the schools 
show a style of instruction which serves as a model for comparison. The pupils 
carry into private workshops theoretical knowledge which they could not acquire 
there, and which is most useful in the explanation of practical labor. Although 
yet imperfect workmen, they improve more rapidly than the others, and sooner 
become excellent foremen. Although we know that among some foreign nations, 
habits supply the place of institutions, among us, these schools will stimulate a little 
our untoward habits. They have another destination, of higher importance; they 
may become seminaries of professors for the industrial instruction which the coun- 
try waits to see organized, and for which we are now endeavoring to prepare a 
way. Once improved by the practical training of the private workshops and manu- 
fectories, the best pupils of these schools will become most useful in the dovelop- 
ment of this special instruction 5 which needs a body of instructors adapted to its 
peculiar needs. 

An institution established at Paris, the central school of arts and manufactures, 
also helps the accomplishment of this same work. The similar nature of its in- 
structions alone justifies the assistance granted it by government, which confers 
upon it a sort of public character.* During an existence of twenty years, the cen- 
tral school has fully justified the expectations of its founders, it is devoted to the 
education of civil engineers, directors of machine-shops, and chiefs of manufacto- 
ries. Besides the four principal courses studied, the mechanic arts, the chemical 
arts, metullurgy and architecture, it instructs its pupils in all the pursuits of indus- 
trial labor. Since chemistry has left laboratories to enter workshops and to per- 
fect there the results of manufacturing processes ; since the physical world has 
been searched for the means of employing heat and steam, which have become 
such powerful agents of production, industry has ceased to be abandoned to em- 
piricism. Every manufacture has asked from science methods quicker, surer, and 
more economical. The central school satisfies this demand. By physical and 
chemical study, it prepares pupils expressly for the direction of industrial labor, 
just as the polytechnic school, by the study of mathematical science, becomes 
a seminary for the department of public works, and for some other special 
professions. 

Under these institutions, which have a general character, may be ranked those 
institutions which we will term local. These may be divided, in respect to their 
destination, into two great classes ; one, consisting of those whose design is to 
instruct in the applications of some one science to the industrial arts ; and the 
other, of those which confine their instruction to the practice of an art or trade ; 
or to the collaterial knowledge necessary to exercise it. To estimate the actual in- 
fluence of both, they must be considered in the place where they exist. 

In the northern section, where manfacturing industrj?^ reigns supreme, we see 
only the arts of design as applied to arts and trades, gi'aiuitously taught. The 
schools of design established in most of the important towns, are generally of 
recent ci'cation. The oldest date from the restoration or from the empire, except 
.that three or four, have an earlier origin. For instance, the school of Arras, where 
some instruction is given, which relates partly to industrial occupations, was 
founded by the states- general of Artois, in 1775 ; that of St. Omer in 1780, and 
that of Calais in 1787. These institutions are every where much valued among 
the working classes. Some of them contain classes of as many as a hundred and 
fifty pupils. Some of them are particularly for children, but most for adults. 

* The State allows the central school an annual sum of $6,000, which Is distributed to can- 
didates (for prizes) by a vote. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 429 

Architectural desiji;n and practical geometry, as applied to cuttin<j stone, wood, 
&c., are ulten among the studies. In all that populous district which extends tVotn 
the Belgian frontier to the western extreniity of Normandy, and contains such 
manufacturing metropolises as Rouen and Lille, there are only two small institu- 
tions whic-h really have the character of industrial schools. One is at Dieppe ; it 
is a scl.jot)! for lace-making and open-stitch for young girls. It was founded during 
the restoration, and increased during the government of July. It receives about 
three liundred pupils, and while giving them a primary school course of instiuc- 
tion, it also instructs them in an occupation. It has exercised a favorable intluenee 
upon the lace numufacture 5 there has been organized in connection with it, a 
boarding department, where some poor girls are supported gratuitously, and c du- 
cated to become skillful work-women and assistant teachers. The other institutions 
situated at Mesuieres, in the arrondissement of Rouen, receives about sixty orphaa 
boys, and trains them for business in workshops appropriate for different trades. 
Sonje local societies, as the society of workmen at St. Quentin, &c., endeavor to 
mstruct the laboring classes in some occupations. 

In our eastern departments, the domain of industrial instruction is less confined. 
There are thei'e some schools, some technic institutions, for the working classes. 
The schools of design are more numerous than in the north, and are more de- 
cidedly directed towards manufactures. The manufacturers of Switzerland, Ger- 
many, and England, have more than once had upon their fabrics the marks of the 
designers, engi-avers, and colorists, trained in the gratuitous schools of the Haut- 
Rhin. Some schools of design of rather wider scope, do great service to industry. 
Among these may be especially mentioned the school of Saint- Etienne, where are 
intructed all the designers employed in the neighboring manufactories, and in par- 
ticular by the ribbon-makers, who are so very jealous about the good taste of these 
articles of ornament. Besides instruction in design, there are given from time to 
time public courses of instruction, established and supported by the towns, and 
.rparticularly elementary courses in chemistry, in mechanics, physics and mathe- 
matics, such as may furnish the workingmen with an intelligent understanding of 
their profession. Among the cities which enjoy to some extent instruction of this 
sort, may be mentioned Metz, Mulhouse, Colmar, Bar-le-Duc, Besan^on, Rheiins, 
Nancy, Dijon, Rive-de-Gier, Langres, &c. These institutions are sometimes the 
results of individual effort ; thus, at Besan9on, a private citizen founded in 1829 
a public and free course of study upon mathetnatics as connected with the arts. 
At Bar-le-Duc, industrial courses were established by an association of subscribers, 
and were taken charge of by the coannune. Local societies, among which the 
hidustrial society at Mulhouse is first in influence and resources, have increased 
the local activity, and give the initiative to the population in general. In Semur, 
a small town of the C6te-d'-0r, a private society. Some manufacturers have imi- 
tated this example; for instance, in the great establishment of Guebwiller (Haut- 
Rhin) gratuitous lessons are given to the operatives in linear design, geometry, 
and machinery. 

There are also in the east of France, several institutions devoted more exclu- 
sively to special purposes. The most important, whose regulations are worthy of 
most attention, are at Lyons, Strasbourg, Nancy, and Saint-Etienne. Lyons stands 
first, both for population and manufacturing wealth. Besides the Lamartine school, 
in wliich are given instructions in mechanics, physics, chemistry, and design, and also 
a course in the manufacture of cloth, a number of private institutions give practical 
instruction in loom-weaving, and the theory of the decomposition of cloth, (decompo- 
sition des etoffes ;) they instruct also how to set up looms after any required pattern. 
Instruction is also given in making patterns, in designing for woven fabrics, and in 
keeping accounts for workshops. These lessons, as will be observed, go to the 
heart of the industry of Lyons. It is only to be wished that it were more liberally 
dispensed ; and that the city would make it gratuitous. Lyons has also schools 
for teaching designing of figures, stone-cutting, and several schools of design for 
journeymen carpenters ; but it is to be regretted that payment is necessary for ad- 
mission to them. Strasbourg has a well organized school of design, maintained by 
the commune. The practical instruction given there, besides elementary theoretic 
instruction in mathematical and physical science, includes iron-work at forge and 
vice, turning, carpentry, lithography, and chemical manipulations. In selecting the 
workshop for a pupil, reference is had to his tastes and aptitudes. At Nancy 



430 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 

there has been for several years established a " house for apprentices" on an en- 
tirely new plan. The results have been considered deserving of encouragement 
by the council-general of the department of the Meurthe. The apprentices form a 
family, and call one another brother. Infractions of rules are determined upon by 
a tribunal composed of all those apprentices who have obtained a certain number 
of go<)d marks. A good mark is given by vote of all the pupils. The penalties 
consist of a system of reparations founded upon the nature of each fault. Thus, 
one who breaks silence when silence is ordered, is condemned to keep silence until 
permitted to break it. If two apprentices quarrel, they must embrace and become 
companions at play for a set time. The pupils of this establishment labor in the 
workshops established in it, and attend the communal schools to receive primary 
instruction. At Saint- Etienne, a school of mines is intended to furnish conductors 
of mines, and directors of explorations and mineralogical workshops. As this in- 
struction is gratuitous, workmen may attend the school to be taught mining. 

In the department of Doubs, a practical school of horology was founded in 1836, 
at Morteau, for the purpose of preserving and increasing the beautiful employment 
which is important to the labor of that section. In the leisure of winter, always 
so long among the mountains, the farmers, shut in so much by the snow, have no 
other means of occupying their time. The town of Besan9on, the department, 
even the supreme government, had encouraged the establishment of the school at 
Morteau, which seemed to promise great success ; hut different causes having di- 
minished the demand for the clocks from Doubs, the school, after having already 
done some good, was forced to be closed. Similar institutions have been unable 
to support themselves at Dijon and Ma§on. The departments and towns ought to 
have afforded them a more liberal support. The same may be said of a school of 
another species, for mounting looms, established at Rheims by a local society, in 
which skillful mounters and weavers had already been trained, but which per- 
ished for lack of funds. 

In this same region, at one of the most ignorant points of the department of the 
Meurthe, a project is being put in execution to which we wish the best success. 
It is intended to establish a special school for a branch of industry to which, though 
humble, a considerable population is confined. The inhabitants of the six com- 
munes of the ancient county of Dabo, at the foot of the Vosges, which was united 
with France only in 1801, have no other means of gaining a living than their 
forest-rights in the public forests, and the execution of carefully carved wood-work. 
Their hereditaiy industry, remaining absolutely stationary, has become surpassed 
by other products of the same kind, and commerce gradually refuses them. The 
projected school is designed to instruct these unskillful turners in methods of labor 
more suited to existing tastes and demands. Instruction will be given in making 
playthings and domestic utensils, such as those made in Switzerland and in the 
Black Forest. In order to have some chances of success, it will be necessary to 
instruct the young, and not the adult workmen, whose traditional habits it would 
be difficult to alter. These latter, having been exclusively employed in doing 
coarse work, would find it very difficult to acquire delicacy of hand. With this 
proviso, the plan of the founders of this school appears excellent ; when it has suc- 
ceeded, it will be another good example of what our eastern departments can offer 
in the way of industrial instruction. 

The southern section of France is not so favored in this respect ; it presents a 
similar aspect to the northern. Schools of linear design of trade, architecture or 
decoration, existing at Marseilles, Avignon, Montauban, Digne, Aude, Grenoble, 
Tai'bes, Grasse, &c., a few courses of instruction in three or four towns in the ele- 
ments of chemistry, of physics, of mechanics, of geometry, are almost the only in- 
stitutions for industrial instruction. The town of Nismes alone is better supplied ; 
perhaps there is not in all France another city where special instruction is given 
on so extended a scale. A course of design for manufactures embraces instruction 
in damasked and in stamped flowers. Another course of geometrical design com- 
pletes the knowledge which the children have received in the elementary schools. 
The instruction in chemistry comprehends lessons in dyeing, an important branch 
of local industry. Admission to all the classes is free. A school of weaving, dat- 
ing from 1836, is liberally opened for theoretic and practical instruction in the 
manufacture of cloths. The theory is of the processes employed both in brocaded 
and in plain stuflfe ; the practice consists in the actual weaving of the cloths in the 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 43 ^ 

loom. The town furnishes the tools, machines, and raw material, necessary for the 
work. By explaining the art of weaving in two aspects, this school has had an 
excellent influence upon the manufactures of Nismes. It was only necessary to 
endeavor to gather into it as many foremen and workmen as possible. In this 
same department, of the Gard, at Alais, has been established a school of master- 
miners. The instruction has not s(j high a character or purpose as that at Saint- 
Etienne, at least in that part of the course designed for directors of machine-shops. 
The practical exercises consist in drawing plans both of the surface of the ground 
and of the mines, and in mining in the mines of pit-coal about Alais. The pupils 
also practice blacksmithing, wagon-making, and carpentry. Admission is not free, 
and scarcely any pupils are expected except those maintained by some department, 
or by some of the coal companies. 

In our western departments the two large cities of Bordeaux and Nantes are 
the only ones which have paid nmch attention to special instruction. In the capi- 
tal of ancient Guyenne, in 1834 and 1835, the municipal council founded public 
and gratuitous courses of instruction in industrial chemistry, mathematics and me- 
chanics, as applied to arts and trades. The chamber of commerce also, a rich and 
active body, established in 1843 a course of chemistry and natural history, A pri- 
vate s(x;iety called the philomathic society, whose assistance h.-is often been valua- 
ble to the laboring population of Bordeaux, has for six years defrayed the expense 
of special instruction ; the practical part of which consists in linear design and 
instruction about the steam-engine. At Nantes, besides that the town maintains 
a free school of design, founded in 1789, there is a private society known as the 
industrial society, whose efforts for young workmen are now appreciated through- 
out France, which is at the head of the industrial training of the masses. It re- 
ceives from the commune, the department, and the State, assistance which is 
increased by private subscriptions. The workmen are counted by hundreds, whose 
first steps it has guided in the rude career of labor. The object of this society is 
^two-fold ; to give its pupils instruction carefully adapted to their condition, and to 
arrange for their apprenticeship in different trades. 

La Rochelle and Brest have also made some efforts to introduce industrial edu- 
cation in the west of France. At La Rochelle, was established in 1844 a theo- 
retic course in ship-building ; at Brest, a society called the society of emulation 
endeavors to instruct in linear design, in drawing plans, &c. In this part of 
France, all children, not merely of those of easy circumstances, but of all who are 
not altogether too poor, attend, without exception, the classical schools. They are 
often interrupted in their studies, by the inability of their parents to bear their 
prolonged expenses, and rarely succeed in reducing to practice, even at a late 
period, the imperfect education they receive. Families unable to send their sons 
to the high school, content themselves with the ordinary instruction. The idea of 
special instruction is scarcely a germ in this soil, which seems ungenial to it. No- 
where is the word " professional" applied to instiuction in a narrower or falser 
sense. 

The center of France, excepting the department of the Seine, whose establish- 
ments deserve a distinct notice, is scarcely less ill supplied than the west. Most of 
the departments are destitute of graded (serieux) establishments also. Schools of 
linear design, or of design more or less applicable to industry, exist only at great 
distances. There are, however, a few institutions in which some practical instruc- 
tion is given. For instance, the prytanseum of Menars, established in 1832 in the 
department of the Loire and Cher, and recently reopened after having been some 
time shut, is devoted to industrial studies. The plan of the institution is similar to 
that of our schools of arts and trades, but unfortunately has not as great resources 
at command. The city of Tours has established a course in physics and chemistry, 
but it has not been organized upon a sufficiently wide basis to attract many auditors. 
At Limoges, the municipal council and the agricultural society, by uniting their 
efforts, have done much good by means of public and free lessons, in geometry, 
mechanics, design, modeling, and stereotomy. In the Haute-L<jire, Le Puy 
received the gift of a free industrial school from private subscriptions, the town 
paying its annual expenses. This institution, though less complete than tliat of 
Strasbourg, is constructed upon the same model, and accommodates a hundred 
children of workmen. There are some special courses at Le Puy also; but the 
practical applications of science are not brought out there. In the department of 



432 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE, 

the Correze, though small and unkindly treated by nature, we see with pleasure, 
at Tulle, a tree school of mechanical geometry. Linear design is applied there to 
the drawing of figures and of machines, to stone cutting, carpentry, and architecture. 

At the other extremity of the central section, in the department of the Seine, 
whose riches and activity contrast singularly with the nakedness and simplicity of 
the country we are leaving, have been united most of the means of industrial in- 
struction which are scattered here and there over the surface of France. Paris, 
nevertheless, contains nothing comparable with the school of weaving at Nism.es, 
with the private institutions for teaching weaving at Lyons, with the national 
schools of arts and trades at Chalons, Angers, and Aix. We seek there in vain 
for an -organized system of practical instruction, provided with all resources neces- 
sary to meet the public demand. All the establishments of this class in Paris, 
except the national conservatory of arts and trades, may be classed in two divisions ; 
one appropriated to those in easy circumstances, or who can pay a monthly fee, 
the other gratuitous, and therefore accessible to the working population. Tn the for- 
mer class are the Chaptal municipal college and the Turgot school, in both of 
which there is a department of industrial teaching •, several schools preparatory to 
the school of arts and trades ; schools of architecture, horology, &:c. From our 
present point of view, the latter class calls for our especial attention. The number 
of public establishments included in it is inconsiderable. Besides the small school 
of the conservatory, there are hardly any other than free classes in industrial de- 
sign. Design for woven stuffs does not occupy so prominent a place as it ought; 
the artistic element of design is preponderant, which will not be surprising when it 
is known that by a singularity of which our administration affords more than one 
example, these schools are altogether separate from the department of commerce, 
and under the direction of that of the fine arts. 

In the vast field for industrial instruction among the working classes, the prin- 
cipal burden has fallen upon private institutions established by charity or by econo- 
mic foresight. In the immense g'ulf of the capital, the action of these establish- 
ments does not appear to the indifferent, or to those immersed in business ; but 
though silent and almost unknown, they are a valuable help to the unfortunate and 
to the helpless, and very profitable to the community. The institution for appren- 
tices in the city of Paris, under the direction of M. Armand de Melun, trains up 
to labor, from the pavements of the city and from garrets and misery, a crowd of 
children who would otherwise have hastened to populate the prisons. While their 
instructors train their minds by primary instruction, and seek to inspire right sen- 
timents into their hearts, they are gradually prepared for the actual life which 
awaits them. Another institution, that of Saint-Nicolas, receives several hundred 
pupils in two establishments, one at Paris and the other at Issy. Its judicious 
directors mingle a proper amount of elementary instruction with manual labor. 
LTn fortunately the limited resources of this establishment do not permit it to fut-nish 
a very great variety of instruction. Other similar institutions are entering the 
same course. The work-rooms for girls are actual industrial schools for the most 
feeble and exposed portion of the laboring population, and that needing most care. 
There are also in Paris small school for apprentices, established almost entirely by 
the contributions of foremen for poor orphans. Such enterprises are worthy of 
judicious encouragement by the municipal council. 

Other public and gratuitous courses of study, founded by private societies, with 
different designs and by different means, are assisting to disseminate technical in- 
struction among the workmen. When a man has some property, and is thus in a 
way to fill a useful place in society and to gain his own living, instruction of this 
kind, carefully adapted to his requirements, dealing with fact rather than with 
theory, simple, and appealing to the good sense of the masses, is likely to produce 
excellent moral effects. I do not say that all these qualifications actually exist ; 
some additions and retrenchments are necessary. The philosophic sentiment of 
the great task of industrial improvement for the masses is not" clearly brought out; 
and the conditions of true practical instruction are often not fulfilled. Yet many 
honorable individual efforts have been made in this direction. They have pro- 
duced real good, and merit efiective encouragement from the Parisian municipal 
authority. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 



TECHNICAL SCHOOLS IN EACH DEPARTMENT OF FRANCE* 



433 



Atn. — The farm-schools of La Saulsaie amd Pont-de- Veyle. 

AiSNE. — St. Quentin. — Course of industrial drawing for adults of all trades; 
60 pupils. The Imperial Free Drawing-scliool; 60 to 70 pupils. 

Allier; — Two preparatory technical schools at Moulina^ with about 100 pu- 
pils, and an agricultural school at Belleau. 

Alfs, (Upper, Lower, and Maritime.) — One farm-school in each of these 
departments. 

Arden'NES. — Charleville. — A professional school w^th 300 pupils. 

Ariecje. — A farm-school at Royat. 

AuBE. — Troycs. — Municipal school of drawing and architecture, with 114 
pupils. A gratuitous course of German and EngUsh, with from 15 to 20 pupils. 
A .sewing-school for girls has 18 boarders and 30 day-pupils. 

AuDE. — A farm-school at Bcsiilas^ with 24 pupils. 

AvEYRON^. — A chair of agriculture at Bodaz. 

Bouciies-du-Rii6ne. — Aix. — Imperial school of arts and trades, and a private 
preparatory technical school, with 155 pupils. 

J/a/-se/7fe5.— Preparatory school of arts and trades, with 70 pupils. 

La Ciotai. — Drawing-class, and apprentice system. 

Farm-school at Montaurone, with 36 pupils. 

Sjhools of hydrography at Mcirseilles, La Ciolat, Aries, and Martigues. 

Calvados. — Caen. — Three public and gratuitous courses for drawing, sculp- 
ture, &c, with 112 pupils. Course of agriculture, with 50 pupils; of horticul- 
ture, with 20 pupils; and of agricultural chemistry, with 75 pupils. A sewing- 
school for girlrf and four orphanages, wherein children of both sexes receive 
primary instruction and are taught some industrial art. 

Bayeux. — Two schools in which girls are taught sewing, knitting, and em- 
broidery. 

Lisieux. — Drawing-school for working men ; 20 pupils. 

Vire. — Public course at the Hutel-de-Ville, for improving the elementary in- 
struction of the working class, and imparting the scientific knowledge most 
useful for the local industries. There are about 70 pupils on the average. 

Conde-sur-Noireau. — Professional courses for the instruction of the foremen 
and workmen employed in spinning, weaving, and other local industries ; 42 
pupils. 

Cantal. — Aurillac. — Trade-school for drawing, mathematics, sculpture, &c. ; 
30 pupils. 

Marat. — Lace-making school; 85 pupils. At this place, and at Mauriac and 
St. Flour, there are also sewing-schools, with 25, 40, and 50 pupils respectively. 
At St. Paul-des-Landes, a farm-school, with 33 pupils. 

Charende. — Angouleme — Public and gratuitous courses of applied physics 
and chemistry, with an average attendance of 100, and a course for drawing, 
with 62. 

Bardines. — A course of horticulture, attended by about 80 persons. 

Charente, (Lower.) — La Eoclielh. — Evening scliool for drawing and geom- 
etry applied to the industrial arts ; 150 pupils. Farm-school at Fuilboreuu. 

Cher. — Farm-school at Lauinoy. 

Correze. — Ta'Ie. — Departmental trade-school for young workmen; 100 pu- 
pils. The technical-schools at the Imperial Manufactorj- of Arms, with 40 pupils. 
There is also at L^^s Plaines a farm-school, with 45 pupils. 

CoTES-DU-NoRD. — Farm-school of Castellaouenan. with 33 pupils. 

At St. Brieuc, a school for lace-making, witli 30 to 40 pupils, and at Treguier 
one for sewing and embroidery, with 25 pupils. 

Creuse. — The flirm-school of Za Villeneuve. 

DoRDOGN-E. — The farm-school of Lavallade. 

DouBS. — Bisangon. — Municipal school for teaching the theory and practice of 
clock and watch-making, established by the municipality in 1862. The course 
occupies three years, and the number of pupils is 30. 

* Communicated by the Prefects of the Departments. 

28 



434 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 

There are also at Besan^on gratuitous courses on the application of mathe- 
matics to arts and manufactures, with 12 to 15 pupils, and a drawing-school, 
with an average attendance of 150 pupils. A chair of agriculture has also been 
founded there. 

EuRE-ET- Loire. — In this department there are 11 sewing-schools established 
by charitable persons at C/iartres, Illiers, St. Luperce^ Dreux, and Nogent-le- 
Rotrou. 

FiNisTERE. — A farm-school at Trevarez^ a practical school of irrigation and 
drawing at Lezardau, and a chair of agriculture at Quimper. 

Gard. — Alais. — School for educating overseers and foremen of mines, founded 
by the Government in 1843; it is supported by the town of Alais and the de- 
partment of tlie Gard, with a subvention from the State. The number of pupils, 
all boarders, is 28. The results are very satisfactory. 

Nimes. — Weaving-school, theoretical and practical, with a course of pattern- 
drawing, founded by the municipal council in 1856 at the expense of the town. 
It is regularly attended by 30 pupils, with most satisfactory results. 

Nimes has also an excellent school of design, likewise founded by the mu- 
nicipal council. It comprises four courses: — 1. A cour-se of artistic drawing, 
including the figure, the round, landscape, and painting. 2. A course of orna- 
mental drawing, with modeling and sculpture. 3. A course of linear drawing, 
including plans, designs of machines, &c. These courses are diligently followed 
by 145 pupils. To these three the municipality has added: 4. An evening 
course for adults, in which workmen are taught drawing applied to carpenters' 
work, stone-cutting, &c. 

The municipal council has founded, in addition to the above, a course of 
chemistry and physics applied to the industrial arts, especially to dyeing. 

Garonne, (Upper.) — Toulouse. — School of the fine arts and industrial sci- 
ences. In this establishment there are courses of drawing in all its'branches, 
of painting, sculpture, architecture, anatomy, arithmetic, geometry, physics, 
and chemistry, of algebra, descriptive geometry, perspective, and stereotomy. 
The number of pupils was about 600 in 1863. 

There are also a commercial-school, (private,) with 120 pupils, courses of 
agriculture, of arboriculture, and an imperial veterinary scho<»l. 

Gironde. — Bordeaux. — Evening-classes for adults founded arid conducted by 
the Philomathical Society. There are in all 21 classes, attended b}'" 1,810 pu- 
pils. The subjects taught, in addition to reading, writing, and arithmetic, are 
geography, geometry, (plane, solid, and descriptive,) algebra, mechanics, (with 
application to steam-engines,) practical hydrauhcs, drawing, physics, chemistry. 
The same society has also opened classes for apprentices. 

Municipal professional course of mathematics and their applications; 130 
. pupils. 

A naval school supported by the department, the city of Bordeaux, and the 
Chamber of Commerce. There are from 150 to 200 pupils, who are taught on 
board the frigate La Brillante, moored in the Garonne. Lastly, a chair of- agri- 
culture. 

Herault. — Montpellier. — A private commercial and technical school, in 
which pupils are prepared for the Imperial School of Arts and Trades at Aix. 

Ille-et-Vilaine. — In this department there are courses of book-keeping and 
drawing annexed to the college at Dol; agricultural-schools at St. Jouan-des- 
Guereis and St. Meen ; and eight sewing-schools at St. Alalo, St. Servan, and 
Fougeres. 

Indre. — Farm-school of Villecliaise^ and a reformatory at Fontgombaulf, kept 
by the Trappists, who give instruction in agriculture and the trades dependent 
thereon. 

Indre-et-Loire. — Tours. — Courses of drawing, with 180 to 200 pupils; of 
horticulture, with 150 to 200 pupils; of chemistry and physics, with about 200 
pupils. 

Farm-school at Chedigny^ with 33 pupils. 
. Landes. — Farm-school at St. Sever. 

Loire-et-Cher. — Minors and Blois. — Professional schools for preparing pu- 
pils to enter the schools of arts and trades, &c. There are also sixteen sewing- 



^ SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 4g^ 

schools at Blois, Menare, St. Aignan, Meusnes, Vendome, Bomoraniin, and Sal- 
bris. 

Farm-school of La Charmoise. 

Loire. — St. Etimne. — School of miners, founded by Government in 1816, to 
train mining overseers and foremen ; 54 pupils. 

Tiie mimicipality has founded a public course of chemistry applied to the in- 
dustrial arts, and a drawing-school chiefly directed to forming pattern-designers 
for ribbons. 

Roanne. — Drawing-school for workmen. 

Agricultural-school at La Coree. 

Loire (Upper ) — Le Puy. — Industrial evening-schools, founded by the town, 
for the instruction of workmen in drawing and mathematics applied to industry. 
There is also an industrial course annexed to the Imperial Lycee. 

Loire (Lower.) — Xanies. — The schools of the Industrial Society and the 
Upper Trade School. 

Imperial agricultural-school at Grandjouan; farm-school at St Gildas. 

LoiRET. — Orleans. — Upper Trade School, with 90 pupils. 

Four sewing-schools. 

Lot. — Farm-school at Le Montat for 36 pupils. 

LozERE. — Mende. — Lace-making school, with Vl pupils. 

Farm-school of Becouldtes; 32 pupils. 

In tliis department there are also five schools for embroidery, and two or- 
phanages, one for boys, the other girls. 

Maine-et-Loire. — Angers. — Imperial School of Arts and Trades. 

Municipal drawing-classes, with 50 pupils. 

Maxciie. — St. L6. — Course of drawing, theoretical and practical, founded by 
the municipality for the benefit of the working class ; 50 pupils. There is also 
a course on gardening and fruit-trees. 

St. Waast-la-IIougue. — School of hydrography. 

Sewing-schools at Couiances and Carentan. 

Marne. — Chalons. — Imperial School of Arts and Trades. 

Rhtims. — Industrial School founded by the Industrial Society of Rheims, with 
80 pupils, and annexed to it three public gratuitous courses on commercial law, 
drawing, and manufactures; 70 to 80 pupils. 

Public courses of physics, chemistry, and drawing; 250 pupils. 

Sewing-schools at Epernay., Montmirail, and Sezanne. 

Mayenne. — Farm-school of Le Camp. 

MoRBiiiAN. — Farm-school of Trecesson; 30 pupils. 

Moselle. — 2Ietz. — Superior industrial school, founded by the town ; 235 pupils. 

Private trade-school at Longwy. 

Nievre. — Nevers. — School of art, founded by the town; 45 pupils. 

Farm-school at Pous^ery. 

NoRD. — Lille.- — School of the industrial arts and of mines. Its object is to 
give technical instruction, on the principal industries of the Nord, to young 
men who have already received a good general education. Its present organi- 
zation dates only from 1861, when it was placed under the direction of the 
Minister of Commerce. Its only revenue consists of the payments of the pupils, 
with a subvention of 7,000 francs from the department. It had only 30 pupils 
at first. As soon as the resources of the establishment wiU permit, evening 
classes are to be opened for adults. 

Class for stokers, founded by the Lille Society of Sciences, and supported by 
the voluntary subscriptions of manufacturers and others using steam-engines; 
15 to 20 pupils. 

Academic scliooLs, founded and supported by the city. The courses of paint- 
ing, sculpture, figure-drawing, perspective and anatomy applied to design, are 
attended by 250 pupils; those of architecture and ornament by 50; those of 
applied geometry, mechanics, geometrical and linear drawing by 250 ; in all, 
550 pupils. The results are very satisfactory. 

Tliere is also at Lille a superior primary school for the sons of artisans ; it 
has 180 pupils. 

Tourcoing. — Courses of physics and chemistry founded by the town ; 20 to 
40 pupils. 



436 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 

"Weaving-school for orphans ; 14 pupils. 

Eouhaijc. — School of drawing applied to manufactures; 14 pupils. 

Course of physics and chemistry adapted to the local industries; 130 pupils. 

Douai. — Academic schools for drawing, &c. ; 130 pupils, many of them adults. 

Valenciennes. — Academic schools for painting, sculpture, and architecture, 
the pupils respectively uumbermg GO, 6Tj and 40; in all, 167. The expenses 
are borne by the town. 

Camhrai. — A trade-school (private) for commerce, manufactures, and agri- 
culture; 186 pupils. There is also another school of the same kind managed 
by the Christian Brothers, with 90 pupils. 

Baiiltul. — Lace-making schools, with 800 pupils, and sewing-schools with 
about 600. 

Lille. — Three sewing-schools, with about 240 pupils. 

Loos. — Sewing-school, with elementary education ; 90 to 100 pupils. 

OiSE. — Farm-schools at Mesnil-St.-Firmin, and at Beauvais. 

Orne. — Alenqon. — Public courses of drawing, arithmetic, and geometry, for 
workmen : 50 pupils in winter, 25 to 30 in summer. 

Farm-school at St. Gauthier. 

PuY-DE-Do3iE.— C^ermoT?^. — Communal trade-school, supported by the town; 
250 pupils. 

Volcic. — School of architecture; 20 pupils; ■ 

Pyrenees (Lower.) — Farm-school of Talon. 

Pyrenees (Upper.) — Farm-school at Virens, near Lourdes ; 30 pupils. 

Tarbes. — Municipal trade-school, with 80 pupils. 

Pyrenees (Eastern.) — Farm-school of Germainville ; 33 pupils. 

Ehine (Lower.) — Graffenstaden, near Strasburg. Trade-school. 

Rhine (Upper.) — Mulhouse. — Trade-school. Under this title have been com- 
bined three special schools, having the same stafi" of professors and premises 
common to them all. They are— 

1. Tlie Free Secondary School, with very nearly the same curriculum as the 
imperial lycees, but with the addition of four elementary classes for boys be- 
tween the ages of 7 and 12. 

2. The Industrial School for boys from 14 to 18 years of age, who, in addi- 
tion to scientific and literary instruction, are taught theoretically and practically 
the construction of machines, or mechanical weaving and spinning, or the 
chemical arts connected with the dyeing and printing of tissues. 

3. The Chemical Laboratory, the courses of which occupy two years. 
This school has in all its departments a total of 312 pupils. 

A theoretical and practical school of weaving by machinery has been estab- 
lished at Mulhouse under the auspices of the Industrial Society of the town. It 
is supported by voluntary subscriptions, and managed by a committee of seven 
members, selected from among the principal resident manufacturers. There are 
at present 36 pupils of the first year, the same number of the second, and 42 
of the third, which is the greatest number that can be accommodated. 'The 
charge for admission to both the theoretical and practical courses is 600 francs 
a year; to the theoretical only, 300 francs; and to the practical only, 400 francs. 
There are also evening courses for workmen at 25 francs per month, but this 
charge is reduced almost to nothing for deserving workmen. 

Mulhouse has also a drawing-school, founded by the Industrial Society, chiefly 
intended to form pattern-designers. There are 70 pupils, many of whom are 
admitted gratis; the others pay 4 francs a month. 

There is, besides, a trade-school for youth of the Jewish community. It has 
at present 47 pupils. Tliey are admitted from 14 to 16 years of age, and re- 
main three years in the establishment. 

Mulhouse has excellent municipal schools for both sexes. The boys' school 
is divided into three : the elementary-school (four years,) the middle-school 
(three years,) the higher-school (two years ) The number of boys in all of them 
amounts to about 1,800. The school-fee is 20 to 30 francs a year, but many are 
admitted gratuitously. 

The municipal school for girls is attended by about 1,200 pupils. They receive 
a good general education, and are taught sewing, embroidery, and other occu- 
pations proper for their sex. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 437 

Lastly, Mulhonse has a superior school of sciences and letters, constituted by 
imperial decree in 1855, under the authority of the Minister of Public Instruc-- 
tion, and supported by tlie town. Its special object is to teach the applied 
sciences, mechanics, descriptive geometry, physics, chemistry, drawing, &c. 
There are also lectures on the literature and liistorj'- of France. Certificates of 
capacity for the applied sciences are granted to deserving pupils. The number 
of pupils inscribed is at present 30, but more than 200 persons often attend the 
lectures. 

Guehiviller. — Popular library and evening-school founded in 1858; 500 pupils 
chiefly of the working class. 

There are also at Guebwiller evening-schools for girls and women employed 
in factories during the day; 145 pupils. 

St. Mar ie-aux- Mines. — Upper trade-school, founded in 1863, to prepare youth 
for industrial and commercial occupations. Fee, 5 francs per mcn;.h. Four 
hours' instruction daih'-, from 8 to 10 in the morning, and 2 to 4 in the after- 
noon. The number of pupils at present (1864) is 17 only. 

Tliere are also in this town gratuitous technical evening classes for adults, 
attended by about 130 pupils. 

Rhone. — Lijons. — The gratuitous professional school of La Mariiniere, so 
called from its founder, Major-General Claude Martin, a native of Lyons, who 
died at Lucknow in 1800, in the service of the King of Oude; 500 pupils, all 
belonging to the artisan class, are here educated during the day, and 200 adults 
attend classes in the evening. 

The Central School for Industry and Commerce was founded in 1857 by an 
association of merchants and manufacturers, and placed under the direction of 
M. G-irardon, professor at La Martiniere, and at the Imperial School of Fine 
Arts. The number of pupils is at present 80, all out-door. The school hours 
are from 7 till noon, and from 2 till 6 in the evening. The pupils are admitted 
at 15 years of age, after an examination. 

The course of instruction, which extends over three years, comprises arith- 
metic, algebra, elementary geometry, trigonometry, descriptive geometry, ana- 
lytical geometry, the elements of the differential and integral calculus, industrial 
physics, chemistr}'-, (organic, inorganic, and analytical,) mechanics, construction 
of machines, metallurgy, resistance of materials, geology, mineralogy, natural 
history, book-keeping, English language, drawing of machines, &c. There are 
also workshops for practice in the manual arts. The instruction is given in the 
form of lectures, the pupils being permitted to make objections and ask expla- 
nations. After the three years' study, they undergo general examinations, and 
if deserving, obtain diplomas. 

The School of Fine Arts, especially intended to give such instruction as may 
be useful to the local industries. 

Course of instruction for stokers ; two hours weekly, generally attended by 
about 50 pupils. 

Theoretical course of instruction for silk-workers ; 80 pupils. 

Course of chemistry applied to dyeing, founded in 1800; 70 pupils. 

Course of artistic design for adults, founded in 1853. There are on the aver- 
age 250 to 300 pupils in the year; the lessons- are given three evenmgs per 
week, from 6 to 8 o'clock. 

Course of linear drawinar, applied to various trades, for adults. Founded in 
1849. Three lessons per week of two hours each ; 203 pupils in the year. 

Course of horticulture and agriculture, founded in 1858. About 60 pupils 
yearly. 

Practical school of horticulture, at Ecully, near Lyons. The lessons are given 
on Sundays, and are attended by 300 persons on the average. 

Course of commercial book-keeping for females, founded in 1857. The studies 
occupy two years, and the average of pupils is 75. The more deserving receive 
diplomas on leaving. 

Course of artistic and industrial drawing for females, founded in 1856 by the 
Primary Instruction Society. Tlie annual number of pupils is about 75; three 
lessons per week of two hours each. 

Adult classes for males, founded by the above-named society; 110 pupils. 



438 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 

Tarare. — Professional courses. Drawing applied to patterns of tissues and 
embroidery, physics, and mechanics; 80 to 100 pupils. 

Saone-et-Loire. — La Crtusot. — Industrial-scliools for both sexes. Attend- 
ance seven hours a day. Number of people : boys, 900; girls, 700. There are 
also evening-classes for adults, and a lace-making school, with above 200 pupils. 

Farm-scliool at Le Montceau. 

Upper Saone. — St. Eemy. — Industrial school, with 15 pupils. 

Tarm-school at the same place. 

Sarthe.— Le Mans. — Course of industrial and ornamental drawing; 100 pu- 
pils; three lessons weekly in the evening. Sewing-school for girls, with 30 
pupils. 

La FUche. — Trade-school, (private,) with 58 pupils. 

Farm-school at La Ghauviniere. 

Savoy (Upper.) — Sallanches. — Clock and watch-making school, founded and 
supported by the town, aided by a subvention of 1,200 francs a year given by 
the Emperor; 10 pupils. There are two other schools of the same kind at 
Gl/uses and Thones, the former with 15 to 25, the latter with only 4 pupils. 

Seine. — The College Chaptal and the Ecole Turgot. 

The municipality of Paris has established seven industrial drawing-schools in 
different parts of the town, some of which are very successful. 

Seine-et-Marne — A private school, with workshops for the practice of 
manual labor at Lagny. 

Seine-et-Oise. — Versailles. — Public courses of geometry, drawing, &c., sup- 
ported by the town. 

Seine (Lower.) — Rouen. — Professional courses, founded by the town. The 
studies occupy three years ; 90 pupils. There are similar courses at Le Havre 
and Montvilliers, with 30 and 60 pupils respectively. 

Sevres (Two.) — Parthenay. — Course of agriculture, dependent on the pri- 
mary normal school, chiefly intended for the pupil-teachers, to whom the lec- 
tures are given on Thursdays. The public day is Wednesday. 

Somme. — Amiens. — Public courses, founded by the Industrial Society. 

Chemistry applied to dyeing ; 100 pupils. 

Mechanics; 100 pupils. 

English language ; 60 pupils. 

German language ; 20 pupils. 

Tarn. — Castres. — Trade-school, founded and supported by the municipality 
to give the instruction required for the local industries. It contains 39 pupils 
of the first year; 37 of the second; 28 of the third; 7 of the fourth; and 6 of 
the fifth; in all, 117 pupils. 

Tarn-et-Garonne. — Montanhan. — Course of mathematics, geometry and me- 
chanics applied to arts and trades. This course, which is public and gratuitous, 
was founded in 1828 under the auspices of M. Ch. Dupin. It is supported by 
the town ; 50 pupils on the average. 

Course of drawing, linear, graphic, and from the round, founded and main- 
tained by the town ; 60 pupils. 

There is also a course of arboriculture and horticulture, with 30 pupils. 

Var. — Farm-school of Salgues ; 33 pupils. 

Vaucluse. — Avignon. — Public and gratuitous courses of drawing, chemistry, 
physics, and mathematics, founded by the town for the benefit of workingmen. 

Farm-school at St. Privat. 

ViENNE. — Farm-school of Monts. 

Yienne (Upper.)— imo.9e5.— The Haute-Vienne Society of Agriculture, Sci- 
ence, and Art, has here founded:— 1. A drawing-school for boys; 100 pupils. 
2. A drawing-school . for girls: 50 pupils. 3. ModeHng-school for boys; 30 
pupils. 4. School of painting on porcelain, for girls j 15 pupils. 5. School of 
geometry; 60 pupils. 

Farm-school at Chavaignac. 

VosGES. — Farm-school at Lahayevaux. 

Tonne.— Drawing-schools for adults at Auxerre^ Joigny, Sens, and Villeneuve" 
sur- Yonne. 

Farm-school at Orme-du-Poni. 



IMPERIAL CONSERVATORY OF ARTS AND TRADES, 

AT PARIS. 



HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.* 

The first attempts to form a collection of machines and looms 
such as that now kept at the Paris Conservatory, were made by 
Vaucanson, at the Hotel de Mortagne, in the Rue de Charenton, 
where he allowed artisans to study them for the purpose of instruc- 
tion. At his death he bequeathed the whole to the Government, 
which accepted the legacy and purchased the Hotel de Mortagne. 
M. de.Vandermonde was the first curator of this industrial museum, 
and, under his skillful management, from 1785 to 1792, 500 new 
machines were added to the collection. 

^ As soon as the revolutionary tempest began to subside, and men's 
minds had returned to a calmer state, measures were taken to col- 
lect and save from dispersion the artistic and industrial riches of 
the institutions which had been destroyed. The Convention, by a 
decree of the 23rd Pluviose, year II. (11th February, 1794,) ap- 
pointed a temporary commission on which were placed several per- 
sons eminent in the sciences and industrial arts, for the purpose of 
collecting in suitable depositories the books, instruments^ and other 
objects connected with science and art that might be useful for public 
instruction. These articles, obtained from numerous and difierent 
sources, among others from the collection of models belonging to 
the old Academy of Sciences, were consigned, some of them to the 
Louvre, others to the Rue de rUniversite, and the rest were added 
to the collection at the Hotel de Mortagne. 

Such was the still precarious state of things when, on the 19th 
Vendemiaire, year III. (13th October, 1794,) the National Conven- 
tion, on the motion of Gregoire, Bishop of Blois, adopted a decree 
which formed the first regular constitution of the Conservatory of 
Arts and Trades. These fundamental articles were as follows : 

Art, 1. There shall be formed in Paris, under the name of Comervatory of 
Arts and Trades, and under the inspection of the Commission of Agriculture 
and Arts, a collection of machines, models, tools, designs, descriptions, and 

* Abridged from Special Report of M. Morin, Director, to Minister of Commerce, Programmes, &c. 



440 CONSERVATORY OF ARTS AND TRADES. 

• 
books in all kinds of arts and trades ; the originals of instruments and machines 
invented or improved shall also be kept at the Conservatory. 

2. Explanations shall there be given on the construcLiou and use of tools and 
machines employed in arts and trades. 

3. The Cummissiou of Agriculture and Arts, under the authority of the com- 
mittee with which it is in communication, shall, in such quarters as may be 
deemed useful to the Republic, use every means of improving arts and trades, 
and principally by the distribution of descriptions, designs, and models. 

4. The Conservatory of Arts and Trades shall be composed of three dernon- 
strators, a draughtsman, &c. 

The premises at first selected for the seat of tlie Conservatory 
were the buildings of the Garde-Meuble, (furniture stores,) but 
political changes and other causes prevented this design from being 
realized. 

The constitution of the Conservatory, and the functions attributed 
to it, among which was the duty of awarding prizes to citizens who 
had introduced useful inventions, led to so great an increase of the 
collections that it was indispensable to provide premises extensive 
enough to receive them all. An application was accordingly made 
to the Directory that the old Abbey of St. Martin might be granted 
for the purpose. 

But this request, though granted by the executive, was not sanc- 
tioned by the Council of Five Hundred, which, in the sitting of the 
14th Venderaiaire, Year Y, (5th October, IVOG,) under the pretext 
of economy, adopted the following resolutions : 

That, for the present, no further outlay shall be made on account of the Con- 
servatory of Arts and Trades, except what "is absolutely necessary to prevent 
the loss or deterioration of the instruments and machines. In consequence, all 
the salaries of the members and servants of the Conservatory are suspended. 

That the National Institute shall express its opinion as to the most econom- 
ical means of bringing into one place those of the said instruments and ma- 
chines which are worth preserving, and of rendering them serviceable to the 
Republic. 

Notwithstanding these resolutions, which apprised the members 
of the Conservatory that it is sometimes dangerous to be too zealous 
in one's duties, they nevertheless persisted in their efforts, and, on 
the 7th Nivose following, the Council of Ancients, acting on a very 
energetic report drawn up by Alquier, rejected the resolution of the 
Council of Five Hundred, and adopted the following : 

Art. 1. The portion of the buildings of the old Abbey of St. Martin-des- 
Champs, and the grounds tinted red on the plan annexed to this resolution, are 
placed at the disposal of the Executive Directory for the use of the Conserva- 
tory of Arts and Trades. 

2. A sum of 59,600 francs, to be taken from the funds voted for the extraor- 
dinar)^ expenditure of the year VI. is placed at the disposal of the Executive 
Directory for the repair of the said buildings, for appropriating the premises to 
their future use, and for paying the indemnity, if any be due, to the sub-tenant 
of the said buildings. 

These buildings, how^ever, which had been used as a manufactory 



CONSERVATORY OF ARTS AND TRADES. 4^^ 

• 

of arms, were not transferred to the members of the Conservatory 
till the 12th Germinal of the Year VII. The members at the time 
were : — J. B. Leroy, Conte, and Molard, demonstrators, and Beuve- 
lot, draughtsman. Some time after, Montgolfier replaced Leroy, 
and Greixoire succeeded Conte. This mode of manajrement was 
retained till the year IX ; Molard then became sole manager, and 
the council ceased to meet. 

As early as 1796, when drawing, applied to industry and descrip- 
tive geometry, which is its basis, were not taught in any establish- 
ment intended for industrial education, Molard had attempted to 
annex to the collections an elementary school of drawing and of the 
first rudiments of the geometrical sciences. From this school, then 
almost the only one of its kind, proceeded a number of pupils who, 
in different ways, became useful to their country, and several emi- 
nent manufacturers, among whom the Conservatory can mention 
with pride M. Selliere, spinner at Senones, (Vosges,) M. Emile Doll- 
fus, (of Mulhouse,) and M. Schneider, ex-minister, and now vice- 
president of its council. Under the management of M. Le Blanc, 
this school became the nursery of geometrical drawing, as it has 
been so well developed in the Schools of Arts and Trades, and in 
the technical schools of the country. The present professors of 
geometrical drawing at the Polytechnic School and the School of 
Bridges and Roads, as well as the School of Mines, and the Central 
School of Arts and Manufactures, were all taught by Le Blanc at 
the Conservatory. 

In 1810, when the continental blockade almost entirely prevented 
the importation of cotton goods, and the Government was very de- 
sirous of developing the manufacture of cottons, Chaptal established 
a spinning-school at the Conservatory. Looms were also put up in 
the old church of the abbey, for the purpose of instructing weavers, 
who afterwards found employment in private manufactories. This 
weaving-school, though essentially a temporary institution, and 
having a character foreign to the more general object of the Con- 
servatory, was discontinued after it had trained a sufficient number 
of workmen to give an impulse to the trade. 

We thus see that, with the exception of the elementary drawing- 
school and this temporary workshop, the Conservatory had not, 
down to this date, any other object than the forming of collections, 
open to the public, of models of the machines, looms, and apparatus 
employed in the industrial arts. The functions of demonstrator 
have in reality never been fulfilled in the proper sense of the word, 
for the very simple reason that explanations given on the spot, in 



^^2 CONSERVATORY OF ARTS AND TRADES. 

galleries open to a promiscuous crowd of visitors, were well nigh 
impracticable. No such demonstrations have therefore ever been 
given, and at the present day, when these galleries are sometimes 
frequented by 2,000 or 3,000 persons in the course of the day, they 
are so inconveniently crowded, that the impossibility of permanent 
demonstrations becomes still more manifest; nevertheless, whenever 
explanations are solicited, from any motive more elevated than mere 
curiosity, the officials of the establishmeui are always ready to give 
them. 

But what can not be done in these crowded galleries is accom- 
plished with ever-increasing success in the amphitheatres ; these 
were first opened in 1819 for instruction in the applied sciences, 
which has received the successive developments hereafter described. 
A royal ordinance, dated 5th May, 1817, appointed for the direction 
of studies at the Conservatory, a council of improvement which was 
presided over by an inspector-general, (the first president was the 
Duke de la Rochefoucauld-Lian court, afterwards Duke de Doudeau- 
ville.) and of which the director and twelve other gentlemen eminent 
in science and art were members. This council was to give its advice 
on all matters, and make any suggestions which it thought calcu- 
lated to extend and multiply the advantages that the Conservatory 
of Arts and Trades was capable of conferring on the national in- 
dustry, and especially on the means of securing to every branch of 
the establishment the greatest possible degree of peifection. An- 
other decree, of the 25th November, 1819, followed by a ministerial 
decision of the 2d December, appointed the council as follows : — 
Duke de la Rochefoucauld, peer of France, president ; Count Ber- 
thollet. Count Chaptal, MM. de Mirbel, Gay-Lussac, Arago, Mplard, 
members of the Institute ; M. Ternaux, manufacturer ; M. Darcet, 
inspector of the Mint ; M. Scipien Perrier, merchant ; M. Widnaer 
de Jouy, manufacturer ; M. Welter, manufacturer. 

Such was the scale of the institution in 1819. Limited to col- 
lections for the increase of which very scanty sums were allowed, 
no longer receiving models of newly-invented machines and appa- 
ratus, and having never been able to organize the service of its 
official demonstrators, it only offered to industry a mute museum, 
from which the manufacturer or artisan might doubtless derive use- 
ful instruction, but altogether isolated from the principles which 
should form its base. The authors of the decree of November and 
the ministerial decision of December, 1819, were well aware of this 
fact, and they therefore decided on establishing at the Conservatory 
a public and gratuitous course of public instruction on the applica- 



CONSERVATORY OF ARTS AND TRADES. 443 

• tion of the sciences to the industrial arts. This instruction, which 

was founded chiefly by the enhghtened efforts of M. C. Dupin, at 

first comprised only three courses : — A course of mechanics and a 

course of chemistry applied to the arts, and a course of industrial 

economy. The first professors named were MM. C. Dupin, Clement 

Desormes, and J. B. Say. They were thenceforth allowed the same 

salary and privileges as the professors of the College of France and 

of the Museum of Natural History. 

In 1820, a royal decree for the regulation of the Conservatory of 

Arts and Trades declared : 

Art, 1. The Council of Improvement {Conseil de perfedionnement) of the 
Royal Conservatory of Arts and Trades shall be re-constituted under the name 
of Council of Improvement of the Conservatory and Schooh of Arts and Trades. 

2. The Council of Improvement shall deliberate on the system of instruction 
and of work, on the sale of the products of the Royal Schools of Arts and 
Trades, and on the regulations and programmes made or to be made. It shall, 
in the first instance, take cognizance of the regulations at present existing, and 
shall present a special report on the maintenance of the same or on the modifi- 
cations that may be deemed advisable. 

3. Every year the Council of Improvement shall draw up a general report 
on the state of the Conservatory, and of tlie instruction there given, and shall 
present observations on the reports sent in from the School of Arts and Trades, 
which our minister shall have communicated to it. This report, with the ac- 
c6mpanying observations, shall be presented to our Minister of Commerce and 
Manufactures. The result shall be submitted to us. 

For several years, and till 1832 or 1833, the council did indeed 
devote its attention to the different questions relative to the schools 
of arts and trades, but in a somewhat perfunctory manner, and 
without taking any real and continuous action. The application of 
the physical sciences becoming every day more extensive, a course 
of physics applied to the arts was considered absolutely necessary ; 
it was founded by a decree of 1829, and thus added fresh popular- 
ity to the courses of the three first professors, which were already 
very numerously attended. Another decree, dated 25th August, 
1836, made three additions to the instruction already given; they 
were : — A course of cultivation ; a course of mechanics and 
building applied to agriculture ; and a course of agricultural chem- 
istry. 

But the seven courses thus established were still insufficient for 
the increasing developments of industry and for the general demand 
of more scientific instruction ; consequently in 1839 another royal 
decree, dated 26th November, founded five new public and gratuit- 
ous courses, viz. : — A course of mechanics applied to industry ; a 
course of descriptive geometry ; a course of industrial legislation ; 
a course of agriculture ; a course of chemistry applied to the arts. 
The course of cultivation, some few days later, was constituted a 



ji^ CONSERVATORY OF ARTS AND TRADES. 

second course of agriculture, and tlie number of courses was thus 
raised to ten. 

A royal decree of the 24tli February, 1840, modified the organi- 
zation of the Council of Improvement, which thenceforth was com- 
posed of the professors only, without the cooperation of other 
members. From this time the Council of the Conservatory ceased 
to exercise the control over the schools of arts and trades which 
had been assigned to it by the decree of 1820. 

On the other hand, the council was directed to present to the 
minister a draught of regulations both for its own interior organi- 
zation and for the conducting of the .public courses, as well as for 
the preservation, increase, and publicity of its collections. These 
regulations, approved on the 1st December, 1843, were drawn up 
on the basis adopted for the College of France and of the Museum 
of Natural History. In conformity with the practice of those es- 
tablishments it was decided that in case of a chair becoming vacant, 
the new professor should be chosen from two candidates, designated, 
one by the Institute, the other by the Council of Improvement. 

At the same time that the regulations of 1843 thus assimilated 
the Conservatory to our great scientific establishments, they also 
deprived it of the direction of the studies in the schools of arts and 
trades. 

But in 1848 necessity and expedience supersede tne regulations. 
On the one hand, a decision of the Minister of Agriculture and 
Commerce, considering that, "though the system of national edu- 
cation is liberally organized for primary and secondary instruction 
in letters and science, the case is very different as regards the teach- 
ing of the sciences applied to industry," charged the professors of 
the Conservatory of Arts and Trades, united in a commission, to 
organize a general system of teaching the applied sciences, and de- 
cided that the courses of the Conservatory should henceforth form 
the higher degree of that instruction. 

A report on this important question was drawn up by the council 
and presented to the minister ; but the events that supervened pre- 
vented the immediate accomplishment of those changes which the 
progress of French industry already demanded at that time. More- 
over, from 1848 to 1855, several professors of the Conservatory 
were successively charged to inspect the Schools of Arts and Trades, 
as well as to revise their regnlations and programmes. Lastly, the 
competitions for vacant masterships in those schools came regularly, 
held at the Conservatory, and several of its professors are always on 
the jury. In fact, it is diflQcult to conceive that all the questions 



CONSERVATORY OF ART3 AND TRADES. 445 

relative to teaching in the Schools of Arts and Trades can be better 
discussed and solved by any other authority than the Council of 
Iniprovonicnt, which, as now organized, is composed, in addition to 
the fourteen professors, of ten members selected from amoiig the 
most eminent manufacturers. 

In 1848 a ministerial decision created a course of ceramics at the 
Conservatory, which the Director of the Sevres manufactory was to 
give ; but after the death of M. Ebelmen these lectures were not 
continued by his successor, though the course, till then given gra- 
tuitously, has not been officially suppressed. 

A decree of the 13th September, 1852, added two new courses 
to those already existing. They were founded at the instance of the 
Paris Chamber of Commerce under the title of Course of Spinning 
and Weaving, and Course of Dyeing, Printing, and Dressing of Tis- 
sues. Another decree of the 30th November, 1852, added a course 
of zoology applied to agriculture and industry, and in November, 
1854, a course of civil architecture was also founded, which raised 
to fourteen the number of gratuitous public courses in the applied 
sciences now provided for at the Conservatory. On the death of 
M. Blanqui, who had succeeded J. B. Say in the chair of industrial 
economy, the views then in the ascendant induced the ministry to 
transform that course into one of industrial administration and . 
statistics. 

At the same time that the oral teaching was thus extended, that 
which the industrial public can acquire from the examination of 
models and machines, as well as from observation and experience, 
received no less important augmentations. All the collections had 
been classified, since 1849, in methodical order ; a complete inven- 
tory and a catalogue had been made, and every object exhibited is 
now accompanied by a card explaining its use. 

A gallery of experiments and of machines in motion, the plan of 
which had been prepared as long ago as 1849, has been completed 
in the old church; reservoirs of water in the tower, and two steam- 
engines, together of 30-horse power, serve to keep in motion a great 
number of hydraulic machines and machine tools. 

But this gallery has a still more iraportant'use ; it serves the pur- 
pose of trying, either at the demand of the different ministries, or 
of private manufacturers, the new machines and apparatus presented 
to the Conservatory for examination. Reports, stating the results 
of the experiments, which are usually made in the presence of the 
inventors, are drawn up, placed at the disposal of the public, and 
even published, almost entire, in the Annates du Conservatoire, 



^ij^^. CONSERVATORY OF ARTS AND TRADES. 

This important branch, which has not been forced on the executive 
by any superior order, but has been organized solely in the interests 
of industry, has been in operation ever since 1852. 

Except the expense of the installation, the trials are made gratuit- 
ously, and more than two hundred reports have already been drawn 
up, not one of which has ever given rise to complaint, a fact which 
clearly proves the care and impartiality with which the experiments 
are conducted. The Conserv.atory also undertakes the verification 
of the standard weights and measures required by the foreign gov- 
ernments which have successively adopted the French metrical 
system. 

To the new galleries of models, which with the old ones are 
worth above 1,300,000 frs., must be added the library, containing 
more than 18,000 volumes of works on the sciences and industrial 
arts, and the gallery of drawings, in which more than 7,000 designs, 
of the most useful and noyest machines, to scale and with dimen- 
sions given, are collected and placed at the disposal of the manu- 
facturing world. Here also are kept the collections of expired 
patents, which may at any time be inspected by the public. 

The universal exhibitions have enabled the Conservatory to obtain 
new machines, models, and drawings. Extraordinary credits, placed 
at the disposal of the Director in 1851, 1855, and 1862, and the 
munificence of French and foreign manufacturers, have now so in- 
creased these scientific and industrial riches that the galleries are 
too full to admit of more additions. The consequence has been 
that in proportion as the collections increased, and the teaching was 
developed by the addition of new courses, the inadequacy of the 
buildings became more and more felt. The plan of enlargement 
adopted in 1842 had not been fully executed when it was discov- 
ered to be insuflacient. In the year 1850, the Emperor, then Pres- 
ident of the Republic, honored the Conservatory with his first visit, 
and soon afterwards decided on adopting a far more complete pro- 
ject, the execution of which, for divers reasons, was not commenced 
till 1862. 

As early as the time of the London Universal Exhibition in 1851, 
our industrial artists, alarmed by the extraordinary efibrts England 
had determined to make to dispute with France the sceptre of taste, 
demanded, as they do now, that a musuem and centre of studies 
should be created in France for art applied to industry. Responding 
to this desire of the industrial interest, the Director of the Con- 
servatory, in a memorial addressed to the Emperor in 1854, ex- 
pressed himself as follows : 



CONSERVATORY OF ARTS AND TRADES. ^^h 

"After a first visit to the Conservatory in 1850, your Majesty was pleased to 
command that a special bill should be presented to the Legislative Assembly 
for the completion of the works of enlargement already begun, and a credit 
was demanded for the purpose; the financial difficulties of the moment, how- 
ever, caused this project to be postponed. Since that epoch, the Universal 
Exhibition of London has proved to England the superiority of France in the 
arts dependent on taste, form, and color. Instead of disputing the fact, the 
Englisli have at once set to work, with their immense resources and habitual 
energy, to found museums and drawing-schools all over tlie country. The 
Queen and private individuals have stripped their galleries to enrich the mu- 
seums of practical art with the finest specimens of Sevres porcelain, bronzes, 
sculptures, &c. In England, primary teachers are now compelled to learn 
drawing, that they may be able early to habituate children to the rules oi form 
and color. 

It would seem as if the English were bent on operating on the human species 
as they have on races of animals, so as to transfbrra a nation of traders and 
artisans into a nation of men of taste. How far the Anglo-Saxon race is sus- 
ceptible of this transformation is a pliilosophieal question beyond my province; 
but one thing is certain, namely, that a few years hence England will have 
made immense progress in the arts of design. In France, on the contrary, 
narrow views of cheap production constantly tend to the degradation of art, 
and if a great establishment, combining some of the most perfect types and 
models of ancient and modern art Avith methodical teaching be not available 
constantly to revive and correct taste, there will be reason to apprehend a 
decline. 

Your Majesty has already been solicited by the ablest of our artists to found 
a great school of drawing at the Conservatory of Arts and Trades, and thus to 
realize the idea conceived in the beginning of the present century by the Em- 
peror Napoleon I." 

The apprehensions expressed m this letter, as far back as 1854, 
were confirmed by the reports of several members of the jury at the 
Universal Exhibition of 1862, and they now proclaim the urgency 
of regaining the time lost in this respect. Almost at the same date 
the Paris Chamber of Commerce expressed a similar wish in a letter 
addressed, on the 30th January, 1854, to the Minister of Agricul- 
ture, Commerce, and Public Works, to the effect that " great ad- 
vantages would accrue from the opening of a museum of industrial 
designs and models of ornament at the Conservatory of Arts and 
Trades, as well as from the constiaiction of halls sufficiently spacious 
to receive the pupils wdio might desire instruction." 

On the 17th February, 1860, the Director of the Conservatory, 
accompanied by M. Schneider, Vice President of the Council of 
Improvement, made an application to the Minister of Agriculture, 
Commerce, and Public Works, for the appointment of a commission 
charged to present, as early as possible, a general plan of organiza- 
tion for teaching the sciences and arts applied to agriculture and 
industry. The minister of the day, M. Rouher, at once admitted 
the principle of the proposition, declared that it harmonized too 
well with the views of the Emperor's Government not to be imme- 
diately followed up, and that it was one of the logical and necessary 



448 CONSERVATORY OF ARTS AND TRADES. 

consequences of the position in wliich French industry would 
tbenceforth be placed. 

In 1862, after the London Universal Exhibition, the director and 
sub-director of the Conservatory, in reply to an appeal made by the 
Imperial Commission, which had called upon the members of the 
jury to point out all the measures to be' adopted in the interest of 
our industry, presented a special scheme for organizing- technical 
education in France by utilizing and connecting existing institutions. 

After stating at length the origin and progress of the Conserva- 
tory of Arts and Trades, as well as the efforts perseveringlv made 
by its director and council to carry out its regulations, which give 
it (Art. 17) "the mission of expressing an opinion on the organiza- 
tion of industrial education, and on the means of making the lec- 
tures and institutions of the Conservatory more and more useful for 
the progress of industry," it will be appropriate to indicate the 
results obtained by the fourteen courses which constitute the public 
and gratuitous teaching of science applied to industry at the Impe- 
rial Conservatory of Arts and Trades. 

The yearly reports addressed to the Minister of Agriculture, Com- 
merce, and Public Works, show that the number of persons attend- 
ing the public courses of the Conservatory is constantly increasing. 
In the year 1862-63, from November to the end of April, the 
auditors for all the courses and lessons amounted to the enormous 
number of 176,829, notwithstanding the absence of two professors 
owing to illness. The great amphitheatre of the Conservatory will 
accommodate 700 persons, the small one 360 persons, and they are 
often insufficient. 

When these courses were first started, Sunday appeared to be the 
day preferred by the public ; but as the instruction given came to 
be more appreciated, the attendance on the week-day evenings be- 
came more numerous, and there is good reason to prefer those sit- 
tings to the Sunday ones, at least for continuous lessons. Another 
circumstance which must not be forgotten is that the winter season 
is better for the evening lessons than either spring or autumn. 
When the days get long, the workshops keep open later, and then 
the studious youth and foremen who are there employed can not 
get to the lecture-room in time. The consequence is that every 
year regularly in the month of April the number of hearers under- 
goes a great diminution. This result, which is also noticed with 
regard to lectures given elsewhere, indicates that, as a general rule, 
public courses ought to be generally held in winter. 



CONSERVATORY OF ARTS AND TRADES. 449 

The oral teaching of the Conservatory of Arts and Trades is ex- 
clusively devoted to science applied to industry ; it addresses an 
audience for the most part composed of apprentices, foremen, and 
workmen already instructed ; but besides these there are also some 
few foreign professors and many persons who take an interest in the 
progress of technology. These public and gratuitous sources thus 
open, with a liberality truly French, to both natives and foreigners, 
constitute a free instruction analogous to the lectures at the Sor- 
bonne, the College of France, and the Museum of Natural History. 
Its object is rather the applications of science than science itself 
properly so called ; but it must nevertheless advance pari passu with 
the latter, and the unequal character of the audience to whom it is 
addressed involves a special difficulty for the professors much greater 
than may be generally supposed. 

To expound the principles of descriptive geometry and of me- 
chanics, as well as their applications, without having recourse to 
scientific formulne of an order too high for the generality of the 
hearers ; to deduce from a few general elements and observed facts 
the laws of natural phenomena, and thence infer the rational pro- 
ces^ses to be followed in the practice of the arts; to render strictly 
scientific instruction intelligible to the average mind in a simple 
manner, without using calculations or reasonino- too hard to com- 
prehend : — these are difficulties of which scientific adepts who have 
never made the experiment can have little conception. 

To this difficulty, which certain courses can not altogether escape, 
must be added, at the Conservatory, that of keeping the instruction 
on a level with all the improvements constantly being made in sci- 
ence and its applications, as well in France as abroad. 

The influences brought to bear on the progress of science applied 
to industry by the Imperial Conservatory of Arts and Trades may 
thus be summarized : — 

Collections of models, machines, and products. 

Lectures on science applied to the arts and to industry. 

Appliances for experimenting. 

A librar}', composed of 18,000 volumes on science and industrial 
art. A gallery of designs placed at the disposal of the public for 
taking copies. 

An elementary school, which would become far more useful if 
transformed into a special high school of art applied to industry. 

29 



IMPERIAL SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND TRADES, 



HISTORICAL SUMMARY.* 

In the year 1802, there were three GoverniBent colleges, which 
formed what was called the French prytaneum. These colleges 
were situated at Paris, [Louis-le- Grand,) Saint-Cyr, and at Com- 
picgne. In these establishments, which were under military disci- 
pline, the pupils were taught French, the classical languages, ancient 
history, geography, drawing of the figure, and mathematics. Most 
of them were educated at the public expense. 

One day, the Emperor, while still First Consul, paid a visit to the 
college at Corapiegne and questioned some of the elder pupils as to 
what they intended to do oh leaving the college. He was much 
dissatisfied with their answers. " The Government," said he, " pays 
considerable sums to educate these young men, and when their 
studies are ended, none of them, except those who enter the army, 
are of any use to the country. Nearly all of them remain at home, 
a burden to their families, which they ought to aicL This shall 
continue no longer. I have just visited the great manufacturing es- 
tablishments in the north and the larger workshops of Paris. I 
everywhere found foremen clever in the manual labor of their trades, 
but scarcely one among them able to draw the outlines or make the 
most simple calculations of a machine to convey his ideas by a 
sketch or a written description. This is a great defect, and I will 
here provide the means for remedying it. There must be no more 
Latin here; that will be learned in the lyceums about to be organ- 
ized; but the study of trades, with so much theory as is necessary 
for their progress ; by this course we shall obtain well-taught fore- 
men for our manufactories." 

This was the real starting-point and the object of the Schools of 
Arts and Trades. A few days later the Moniteur published the fol- 
lowing decision, (2oth February, 1803 :)f "From and after the 

* Compiled from Rejiort of the Inspector, M. Le Brun. 

t A few months later, the Paris section {Louis-lc-Grand) was transformed into a lyceum on the 
creation of these new colleges, and by a decree of the L')th Vendemiaire, year XII, (1804.) the 
college of Saint-Cyr (removed to La Fleche) was alone to bear the name of French prytaneum. 



452 IMPERIAL SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND TRADES. 

month of Germinal, year XI, the teaching in the College of Com- 
piegne shall have for its object the training of workmen and man- 
agers ot workshops." 

The pupils under twelve years of age were divided into three 
classes, in which they received an elementary education: — 1. Read- 
ing, writing, and the rudiments of French grammar. 2. Continua- 
tion of the same studies, with the four rules of arithmetic. 3. The 
same studies, with the elements of geometry and first principles of 
drawing. From this college the pupils passed to the School of Arts 
and Trades, where, according to the occupations which they were 
to pursue, and qualifications, they were distributed among the dif- 
ferent workshops, as, — 1. Smiths, filers, fitters, turners in metal. 2. 
Founders. 3. Carpenters, joiners for buildings, furniture, and ma- 
chines. 4. Turners in wood. 5. Wheelwrights. In these shops 
they worked eight hours a day. There were six classes, according 
to the proficiency and aptitude of the pupils. Only two hours per 
day were devoted to study and to theory, including geometry, de- 
scriptive geometry applied to the arts, drawing and tinting of plans 
and machines. It was also arranged that those who should make 
great progress and display extraordinary talents should receive a 
more advanced education. They were to continue the same studies, 
and were also to be instructed in the application of the principles 
of mechanics to the practice of the industrial arts. 

•Such, as regards both theory and practice, was the system of in- 
struction at the College of Compiegne, which, at the close of the 
same year, assumed the name of School of Arts and Trades. Pu- 
pils were admitted at any age,* and at all times of the year. The 
number was fixed at 500. The Emperor, when hunting in the For- 
est of Compiegne, was very fond of visiting the school, and entering 
into familiar conversation with the pupils. 

By an imperial decree"T)f the 5th September, 1806, the School of 
Arts and Trades was removed to Chalons-sur-Marne. 

That same year the Duke de la Rochefoucauld,f who had been 

* During the j'ear several notices were inserted in the Monitevr, granting scholarships in the 
College of Compiegne to the children of parents who had died in the army or other branches of 
the public service. There was a class or category of very young children, wliose management 
was confided to a lady-governess. In virtue of a decree of the 16th Frimaire, (Tth December, 
3805,) which adopted the children of t!ie generals, officers, and soldiers who fell at the battle of 
Austerlitz, even children at the breast, with tlieir nurses, were sent to Compiegne. 

t The Duke de la Rochefoucauld had founded at his farm of La Montague, near Liancourt, a 
small school for the children of his regiment of dragoons, whom he could not, owing to the regu- 
lations, get admitted as " children of the regiment." This school was afterwards enlarged to 
receive children from regiments whose colonels were friends of the Duke. 

Two non-commissioned officers taught the children reading, writing, and arithmetic. Those 
who v/ished were also taught trades that might !)e useful in the regiments such as tailoring and 



IMPERIAL SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND TRADES. 



453 



repeatedly requested b}^ the Minister of tlie Interior to visit and 
inspect the School of Ooinpiegne, accepted the duty of inspecting 
the school transferred to Chalons, and presided at the distribution 
of prizes there. "He reminded the pupils," says the official journal, 
"that the idea of the establishment was entirely due to the genius 
of His Majesty ; that the Emperor, in adopting them as his children, 
had rewarded in their persons the services rendered by their fathei's; 
he enumerated all the advantages of the institution ; he expatiated 
on the abundant sources of knowledge offered them by the school 
— geometry, physics, chemistry, and, above all, mechanics, that 
daughter of the other sciences, which would some day assure them 
a social position and open to them an honorable and useful 
career." 

I will not here mention in detail all the classes and workshops for 
which prizes were then distributed ; it will suffice to say what they 
were in 1812, after many modifications, and what prizes were 
awarded in that year by the Inspector-General : — 

Prizes. Prizes. 

Forging 2 Cabinet work.f 2 

Fitting 2 Wood-turning, 1 

Mathematical instruments,* 2 Lock making, 1 

<: Compass-makers, 1 

shoemaking. This school contained nearly 80 pupils (in ]791) when the Revolution came. The 
Duke was soon afterwards obliged to leave his country, and his property was confiscated. The 
Government of the day then established, in t!ie Duke's country seat at Liancourt. a new military 
school, of which his little school was, as it were, the nucleus. The schools of Popincourt, St. 
Martin, &c., were removed to the same pliice. The establishment thus formed was at first much 
neglected, but was afterwards better cared for and enlarged. When the School of Mars was sup- 
pressed on the 25th July, 1794, those of its pupils who chose were sent hither, and their costume 
was subsequently adopted for the whole school. 

On the 8th Germinal, year IV, (29th March, 1796.) being the Fete de la Jeunesse, there was a 
distribution of prizes at the National School of Liancourt, and tiie director, M. Crouzet, then 
stated that the ])upi!s were divided into the following classes : — 1. Mathematics. 2. Drawing and 
fortification. 3. French grammar. 4. Writing. 5. Music. 6. Reading (1st division.) 7. Read- 
ing (2d division ) 8. Tactics or military exercises. 9. Trades. 

The Duke de la Rochefoucauhl, having been allowed to return to France some days after the 
18th Brumnire, was almost immediately, in honor of his philanthropy and noble qualities, restored 
to the possession of his Liancourt estate, which had not been sold, owing to the presence of the 
school. This last was then removed to Compiegne, about eight leagues distant. At the request 
of the Minister of the Interior, the Duke consented to pay a visit of inspection to tlie scliool at 
Compiegne, and continued his visits till it was removed to Chalons. Notwithstanding the dis- 
tance he still performed the same functions, and was appointed Inspector-General, but without a 
salary, accepting only his traveling expenses. He held this office till his dismissal in 1821, taking 
great interest in the prosperity of the schools, and also exerting himself to find situations for the 
boys when their education was finished. 

The Duke de la Rochefoucauld was not th'e founder of the Schools of Arts aad Trades, but he 
was at least their benefactor and protector, and he may almost be regarded as one of the founders, 
as his little school at the farm of La Montagne led to the establishment of that at Liancourt. 

* Including philosophical instruments. 

tThe school made furniture for the Crown until 1841 or 1842. This workshop also executed a 
good part of the furniture for which a gold medal was awarded in the Exhibition of 1824. On 
that occasion, Louis XVIII highly commended a flower-stand, with gilt bronze ornaments, which 
were also cast at the school. 



454 IMPERIAL SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND TRADES. 

Prizes. Prizes. 

Wheelwrights' work,* 2 Founding,^ 1 

Clock-makiiig.t 1 Cbasiiig,^ 1 

Joiners' work, 2 File-making, 1 

There was also at Chalons, until 1814 or 1815, a small spinning- 
mill, worked by a water-wheel. When this was suppressed, the 
director of the workshops took the machinery on his own account, 
put it upon the school premises, and worked it by horse-power, ten 
or twelve of the pupils successively minding the spinning, but it was 
not kept up long. The course of instruction was arranged as follows : 

Mathematics. 1st Section. — 1. Descriptive geometry, 1 prize. 

2. Statics, three series or classes, 3 prizes. 

2d Section. — Elementary mathematics, tliree series or classes, 3 prizes. 

Grammar. 1st Division, 2 prizes. 

2d Division 1 prize. 

Drawing. Of the figure, 2 prizes and 1 grand prize for drawing from the round. 

Elements, 2 prizes. 

Tinting, 2 prizes, and 1 grand prize for drawing machines. 

This system of work in the workshops and the school fitted 
them to become foremen and overseers in the trades they had 
learned at school : and the higher theoretical instruction given to 
the more talented pupils allowed them to promote the progress of 
the manufactures to which they devoted their attention. 

But it will perhaps be asked how could it lead to progress in the 
arts of the cabinet-maker, the wheelwright, the chaser, and the lock- 
smith, or, indeed, of the filemaker ? One must remember the state 
of industry at that time and the ignorance of artisans in general, 
and it will be seen that drawing might be of some use even to the 
four trades just mentioned. Even the apprenticeship to file-cutting 
was not then so very ridiculous, as in the very same year 1812, we 
find the Sub-Prefect of Beaupreau, at the first distribution of prizes 
to the pupils of the school there, complimenting them on having 
supplied the country with new and improved tools, and especially 
with better Jiles for the use of locksmiths. 

The school, which had also its workshops, was still improving its 
organization when, on Napoleon's return from Elba, the insurrection 
in La Vendee compelled its removal to Angers, where it has re- 
mained ever since. 

The Restoration still maintained the Schools of Arts and Trades. 
A royal decree of the 26th April, 1817, orders the continuation of 
the schools of Chalons and Angers, " both on account of the object 
they have in view, that of training ■ overseers and workmen skilled 

* A considerable number of baggage and ammunition wagons were made for the army in the 
late wars of the Empire. 

fTown and church clocks, which were much esteemed. 
' t For ordinary iron castings and bronze ornaments. 

§ Modeling of the figure and of ornaments, (continued till 1841,) chasing and gilding. Until 
1843 there was a master for modeling, and many pupils attended his lessons voluntarily. 



IMPERIAL SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND TRADES. 



455 



in the practice of the industrial arts, and for their organization. The 
workshops of different kinds are to be kept in active operation. 
Drawing, and the elements of theoretical knowledge applicable to 
the arts are still to be taught there. The number of pupils kept, 
wholly or in part, at the expense of the State is fixed at five hun- 
dred, of whom three-fifths are entirely gratuitous, one-fifth pay a 
quarter of the school charge, and the other fifth one-half." 

A royal decree of the 31st December, 1826, completely changed 
the organization of the schools, bringing theni up to the level of 
present progress, and giving them facilities for adopting further im- 
provements. The following is a brief abstract of the more important 
regulations : — 

The course, of instruction shall henceforth be Hmited to four years. Pupils 
are to be admitted only once a year, and after examination. 

Candidates must be able to read and to write correctly, and to know the 
four first rules of arithmetic. 

Candidates roust be tliirteen years of age, and not above seventeen. Every 
department retains its right to send three exhibitioners ; one without any charge, 
the second to pay one-fourth of the charges, and the third one-half. The Society 
of Encouragement also retains its privileges in this respect. The number of 
pupils is limited to 600, of whom 400 are to be at Chalons, and 200 at Angers. 
Two-thirds of every day are to be devoted to practice, and one-third to theory. 
Tho- trades taught are tliose of the wheelwright, carpenter, and joiner ; blacksmith, 
filer, fitter, turner in wood, turner in metals ; molders, iron-founder, brass- 
founder. 

The theoretical studies are in the first year : writing, French, "grammar, and 
arithmetic. The following years : geometry, and trigonometry ; descriptive 
geometry with its various applications ; the elements of physics and chemistry 
applied to industry, and the mode of ascertaining the strength and resistance of 
'building materials. Those pupils whom the board considered worthy were 
allowed a fifth year of study.* Ten pupils of the last class miglit be placed out 
as apprentices at the expense of tlie State in large manufactories, to complete 
their instruction. Figure-drawing is suppressed, but the drawing of machines 
and ornaments as well as tinting is continued. 

Important changes were effected by a royal decree of the 23d 
September, 1832, which established the school very nearly on the 
same footing as at present. There was no alteration made as to the 
number of pupils, (600,) in the school charges, (1,500 fr. a year,) in 
the age of admission, (14 to 17,) or in the exhibitions. 

The labor in the workshops was confined to founding in iron and 
brass ; turning in wood, and pattern-making for castings and parts 
of machines ; forging in the rough, and fitting and putting together 
of machines. A board of examination for admission is named in 
each department of France, and the examinations take place simul- 
taneously in August. The programme of admission received one 

• This supplementary year, revived in 1848, as well ns the apprenticeship at the public expense, 
has not been very successful. The ))upils have derived but little advantage from it. Tho*e who, 
at rare intervals, still apply for it, seldom complete their year, notwithstanding the advantnge of 
instruction in one or more workshops. As a general rule those pupils do best who follow the 
ordinary course and work for their living as soon as their apprenticeship is completed. " 



456 IMPERIAL SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND TRADES. 

addition, which is, that the candidate must have served a year's ap- 
prenticeship to one of the trades taught at the school. The de- 
partmental scholarships were granted by order of merit on the list 
of each department. The board places those candidates first whose 
acquirements are not limited merely to reading, writing, and the 
first four rules of arithmetic. Seventy-five certificates entitling the 
holder to a reduction of one-fourth of school charges, were to be 
divided among the department, as an encouragement to the pupils, 
according to the place they obtain on the list of the school, (two- 
thirds for Chalons and one-third for Angers.) The workshop prizes, 
founded in 1825 by a legacy producing 3,000 frs. a year, bequeathed 
by Mme. Leprince, were confirmed. The length of the studies was 
reduced to three years, while the theoretical studies remained nearly 
as they were. Examinations for classing the pupils according to 
their proficiency must be held twice a year in each school, and prizes 
are given at the close of the year ; those for the pupils about to 
leave the school are silver medals. Pecuniary encouragements were 
also awarded to such pupils as the minister might think deserving, 
but they were not to be given till the next year, and on the produc- 
tion of certificates, showing that the holder is following his trade, 
and stating the position he occupies. The prizes of the Government 
were not given to pupils for their progress in any special branch, 
but for general proficiency in all the subjects taught at the school. 
A standard number of marks for each subject according to its im- 
portance was established. Manual labor was to be taken into 
account as well as the theoretical studies and drawing. 

But to permit of this extension of practical instruction, suitable 
workshops were necessary. They were accordingly undertaken at 
the expense of the schools, first at Chalons in 1838, by M. Vincent, 
the director, who gave the first impulse, (at the risk of leaving' his 
successor some little financial embarrassment.) They were com- 
menced somewhat later at Angers, (when M. Dauban was director,) 
and the number of pupils there was then increased to 300. Subse- 
quently the Government intervened, and the works were pushed on 
rapidly, and on a scale sufficiently extensive to meet all require- 
ments, at least for. the time. 

In 1841 the two schools were placed on a footing of perfect 
equality as to the number of pupils, which was fixed at 300 for each. 
But as this number soon became insufficient, it was considered de- 
sirable to found a third school. As the first two schools were in 
the north and centre of France, the Government decided on having 
the third in the south. It was first thought of choosing Toulouse 



IMPERIAL SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND TRADES. 457 

for its site, to -wliicli town it luid been proposed, in 1823, to remove 
the Clialons scliool, but the preference was ultimately given to Aix 
in Provence, within easy distance of Marseilles and Toulon. This 
third school was established on the same footing as the other two, 
with 300 pupils, and the same studies both theoretical and practical- 
After February, 1848, the schools were nominally submitted to 
military discipline; the first division was exercised in musket drill, 
but only during play-hours. In October, however, the arms were 
withdrawn, and the usual studies were continued with great ardor, 
as before. During this same year the inspection was confided to 
General (then Colonel) Morin, who introduced some very beneficial 
modifications in the courses and the drawing-lessons. 

In the programme of the mathematical courses, the most im- 
portant addition was that to the course of industrial mechanics, 
which, taking advantage of the improvements efi*ected by General 
Morin himself in that science as first taught by General Poncelet in 
lectures to the workmen of Metz, became more practically useful 
and embraced a wider field. The course was terminated by dyna- 
mometrical experiments, made in the presence of the pupils, with 
reo-ard to traction and the work of machines. The use of the slidino- 
rule was introduced in the three divisions. Drawing of details of 
machines were made from models obtained from the workshops of 
the best mechanical engineers in Paris, all in linear drawing, as in 
actual practice. The tinted drawings of the third year were made 
on improved systems. The making of projects of factories and of 
important machines was abandoned and replaced by drawings of 
machines with detailed calculations of the principal parts. To teach 
plan-drawing, practical progressive exercises were performed every 
year by the pupils. 

The decree of the 19th December, 1848, sanctioned the existence 
of the schools, their mode of instruction and their organization, as 
well as the various exhibitions given by the Government. It also 
regulated the conditions of admission and the boards charged with 
the examinations in each department. It further confirmed the 
minimum of age, which for some years past had been fixed at 15, 
experience having proved that boys of 14 were not sufiiciently de- 
veloped to bear the bodily and mental fatigue of going through the 
whole course of instruction in three 3^ears. The qualifications for 
admission, which, considering the minimum of age, (now raised to 
15,) and the progress of primary instruction, were by no means a 
proof of capacity, (reading, writing, and the first four rules of arith- 
metic,) were altered so as to become a real test of the capacity of 



458 IMPERIAL SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND TRADES. 

candidates. These qualifications were henceforth to be : reading, 
writing, orthography, practice and demonstration of the first four 
rules of arithmetic, fractions, and the decimal system ; geometry, 
so far as regards plane surfaces. 

In addition also to the oral examination, there were introduced : 
problems in arithmetic and geometry from dictation ; linear drawing 
or drawing of ornaments ; and an exercise in the manual labor of 
the trade to be learned, performed in the presence of a practical 
man. As already stated, the duration of the studies was fixed at 
three years, but a fourth year for improvement was allowed, as a 
recompense to ten pupils in each school, chosen from those who had 
obtained a workshop prize, or one of the fifteen medals. The re- 
wards in medals and money prizes were maintained, as well as the 
workshop prize founded by Mme. Leprince for Chalons and Angers. 

Thus in the progress of fifty years, the schools founded to train 
educated workmen and overseers in the industrial arts, and also, at 
first, to bring up the orphans of soldiers in a trade by which they 
might get a living, have been successively modified so as to keep 
pace with the progress and development which time has wrought in 
industry. They have advanced in theory and practice as occasion 
requires, and have at last come to be more especially applied to 
general mechanical industry, for which theoretical knowledge is in- 
dispensable. 

PRESENT ORGANIZATION. 

The pupils are admitted after examination, and once a year only, on the 1st 
of October. The instruction extends over three years. Sunday is the only 
day of rest; there is no holiday or half-holiday on Thursday. There is no 
time lost ; and the pupils are accustomed to tlie life of the workshop, by. being 
fully occupied six days per week from the time of entering the school. Five 
hours and a half are devoted to theoretical study and seven hours to practical 
work ; in all twelve hours and a half. 

The theoretical study is divided into two parts, four hours and a quarter in 
the morning and one hour and a quarter in the evening. The early part of the 
day, wlien the head and ideas are fresh, is chosen for the mathematical lectures 
and interrogations, and also for drawing. There is little stud}^, properly so 
called, in this portion of the day. The evening sitting is more especially em- 
ployed in study. The grammar and writing-classes are interposed between 
the two sittings, so as to make the best use of the time. The practice in the 
workshop is divided into two equal portions (from ten to half-past two and 
from lialf-past three to seven,) separated by the dinner and the playtime after it. 
This hiterruption of the manual labor rests the body, as the work itself rests 
the mind for the evening studies. The pupils rise at a quarter past five and 
make their own beds. 

The whole school is divided into three classes (or years of study) each hav- 
ing its own professor of mathematics or mechanics and of drawing. There is 
also a professor of grammar for the three divisions, and a professor of writing 
for the first two years only. The chaplain, in addition to the performance of 
divine service, gives a lecture ever}'- week in rehgious and moral instruction. 

I have heard persons dispute the utility of the grammar and writing-lessons 



IMPERIAL SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND TRADES. 459 

for our pupils, who onj^ht to know those branches when admitted. But doea 
not the ortliography of school-boys require to be kept up by practice, and are 
they all adepts in spelling? As for writing they acquire a better hand at 
scliool, and in the last half of the second year they have to practice industrial 
book-keeping. Tlie progress made in these two branches proves their utility. 

In niatheiiiatics the professors go straight to the object in view, witliout 
noticing any of tlie subtleties of the science. But numerous applications exer- 
cise the pupils' minds and fix the principles in the memory by showing their 
utility. In the interrogations the boys are stimulated to answer promptly. 

B;)billier's geometry, composed expressly for our school, is essentially simple 
and precise ; for descriptive geometry we follow Theodore Oliver's method and 
notation ; for mechanics the spirit and method of the course of MM. Morin and 
Trescn, abridged. 

In the first year the professor goes rapidly through the programme of admis- 
sion, thus systematizing the different methods learned elsewhere before pro- 
ceeding with the same subject. He follows his pupils through the two years of 
mathematics proper, during which he teaches them : arithmetic, algebra, as far 
as and including quadratic equations, elementary geometry, comprising curves 
of the second degree demonstrated geometrically, plane trigonometry, the 
elements of descriptive geometry and cinematics or geometrical mechanics. 

In the third year a professor teaches industrial mechanics, including hydraulic 
machines and steam-engines; of physics, the principal general elements, and 
in considerable detail ; lastly a few elements of chemistry, the nomenclature, 
and what bears more especially on materials. Numerous practical applications 
varied for each pupii exercise the pupils in mechanics. The repetitions or 
interrogations are made by the professors and by the foremen of the workshop. 

Drawing is taught nqxj simply. lu the first year the pupils, to get the free 
use of their hand, make designs with the drawing pen, comprising all the prin- 
ciples of symmetry, of joining curves, &c., which they will require later when 
tney come to draw machines. Most of these exercises are taken from architec- 
ture, of which the pupils also learn some of the elements. For this part only, 
the drawings are copied from models. Geometrical drawings, designs of joints 
in carpentry and joinery, elementary exercises in drawings tinted with Indian 
ink and dull colors, as well as two drawings of plans, complete the first year's 
studies. 

In the second year, first the elements of machine drawing ; next come, in the 
hours of study, working-drawings of descriptive geometry, which require the 
most rigorous accuracy. On reaching this point the pupils have acquired neat- 
ness, clearness, accuracy, and precision, and should be able to draw well. They 
immediately apply these principles to the geometrical drawing of machines, of 
gearing, &c. In this second year, the pupils in the workshops, in their drawing- 
lessons, make sketches of tools and various machines to scale, with dimen- 
sions given. In the third year they make drawings of machines and those 
relative to the lectures on mechanics. They also calculate the principal parts 
of the machines they represent. They conclude with making drawings of 
machines in plain tints. 

I have been thus particular respecting the drawing in order to show that this 
graduated method is at once snnple and natural. The complete course of 
drawing in the three years comprises from 100 to 110 designs or working- 
drawings. The professors of drawing also teach by a few progressive lessens 
every year, the principles of topography. These same professors execute, in 
the office of the engineer of the works, the projects and details of machines to 
be constructed in the workshops. Convalescent pupils, after hurts or illness, 
•••ike part in these designs during the workshop hours. 

PRACTICAL INSTRUCTION. 

One-third of the pupils are distributed in the preparatory workshops, that is 
from 25 to 35 pupils in each of the three : the pattern-shop, the foundry, and 
the smithy. The remaining two-thirds, amounting to about 200, work in the 
fitting shop. 

The, Pattern Shop. — The pupils begin with making simple patterns with 



460 IMPERIAL SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND TRADES. 

boards, then each learns to execute all the different joints used by carpen- 
ters and joiners ; next come patterns for founders (proceeding to the most 
complicated and most difficult,) gearing (straight or beveled, with or without 
mortising,) cyliuders, and framework for steam-engines, &c. The pupils also 
make, but only as exercises in the handhng and cutting of wood, and according 
to the demands of .the country, articles of furniture, wood- work for churches, 
pulpits, &c., more or less ornamented. 

The Smithy. — They begin with welding scraps of old iron into masses, and 
making tongs and other tools used in forging ; they next forge small articles for 
exercise in filing and fitting, anJ then parts of machines, from the simplest to 
the most complicated. In the third year the pupils learn to use the steam 
hammer. 

The Foundry. — They begin with plain castings of balustrades, palisades, 
medallions, and the simpler parts of machines ; and then as an exercise, in 
detached ornaments, before executing them on a large scale, the pupils make 
small busts, statuettes, &c. As a general rule in this workshop, as in the 
fitting room, and at the forge, they begin with practice entailing but little 
expense of material. By degrees they come to the framework of machines, and 
the casting of large wheels, either with cogs or with mortise holes to receive 
wooden cogs ; and, lastly, to the casting of steam-cylinders, &c., according to 
the orders to be executed. More carefully executed statuettes of a larger size, 
Joan of Arc, La Tour d'Auvergne, the Magdalen, &c., give them some idea of 
artistic molding which the school of foundry does not indeed profess to 
undertake, though such castings have occasionally been made there.* ' Most of 
the statuettes are executed in ordinary cast iron, and 'therefore can not be 
ornamented with the chisel. All the operations of the workshop are performed 
by the pupils themselves, as making the molds, charging the furnace, working 
the cranes, casting, paring, and trimming. 

The Fitting Shop. — The pupils begin with simple pieces of regular forms, 
requiring great attention to symmetry and precision, and for that reason very 
instructive. For instance they first make two small iron straightedges perfectly 
true in every sense, then two squares accurate in every respect ; next with a 
piece of wrought iron, they make a regular quadrangular prism, and from it an 
octagonal prism ; or a right cylinder, to be aftewards turned into a hexagonal 
prism, &c. After this they make various kinds of compasses, hand and claw 
vices, keys for screws, ratchets, &c., then bow-lathes, bench-vices, pulleys, 
and lastly, all the different parts of machines, according to orders on hand, 
machine tools, steam-engines, &c. 

The general principles are: — 1. To make, as a general rule, only one piece of 
the same kind, in order to know how to execute the greatest possible number. 
2. To do all work, as far as practicable, by hand, and with the simplest tools. 

The object is not to get as much money as possible by making the .same 
thing over and over again, but to learn how to work well at all kinds of things, 
so that the pupil may be able to turn his hand to any branch of his trade where 
he may find an opening, and to fit him for entering any workshop, large or small, 
with a good store of practical knowledge. After one year's work, at most, in 
a^iy specialty, a clever pupil will acquire all the rapidity of execution common 
to good workmen. 

The machine tools, planing, mortising, and filing machines, are seldom used 
by the pupils till they can work well with the hand ; but the less skillful always 
have the advantage of seeing these machines in use and having been obliged to 
make drawings of them must be well acquainted with their principles. Each 
pupil has a vice to himself, and at each bench there are pupils of all the three 
divisions, that the more advanced may teach the juniors. There are also in 
each shop one or two workmen as examples for the boys, and the}^ are also 
employed when required to put up the machines made at the school for private 
manufacturers. 

* The school of Angers cast, on the 10th August, 1861, the bronze statue of the Duke <]e la 
Rochefoucauld, which has been erected in the public square at Ijinnconrt. This statue, 2 in. 80 c. 
(9 ft. 2 in.) in height, modeled by. Mandron, tlie well-known sculptor, (himself a pupil of the 
school of Angers.) was cast in one jiiece with the most complete success, by M. Biesse. the mana- 
ger of the foundry, and a pupil of the school. 



IMPERIAL SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND TRADES. ^Ql 

Classification. 

The classing of the pupils according to merit, which, as already stated, takes 
place twice a year, is decided according to the entirety of tlie studies, tiieoreti- 
cal and practical, and the same number of marks is allowed for tlie practical 
part as I'or all the theoretical studies. Tlie classitication made at the end of the 
year is followed by a distribution of prizes to the most deserving. These prize?, 
for the second and third divisions, consist of books on science or industrial art 
which may be useful to the pupJ tor his studies or after- leaving the school. 
For the nVst division (the pupils who are about to leave) the prizes are silver 
medals, bearing the words: Sckool of Arts aad Trades — Reward, and the pupil's 
name engraved. 

The maximum of medals is fifteen for each school. A sum of money is some- 
times added to give the pupil a start in life, but this is never paid till the 
following year, and then only on condition of the claimant's prodtu-ing certificates 
that he has been working at his trade for the past twelve months. Each first 
workshop in the schools of Chalons and An^'ors receives, provided it attains the 
required standard of merit, the prize founded by Mme. Leprince, amounting to 
one-eighth of 3,000 fr., or 375 fr. for each. 

At Chalons also, ever since 18G3, there have been awarded three prizes of 
honor, founded by M. Xavier Jourdain, manufacturer, of Altkirch, as a testimo- 
nial of his gratitude for the education he received at the school, to which he 
attributes most of his success in life.* The first prize is a gold medal worth 
300 frs., and a sum of 1,000 frs. ; the second a similar medal, and 500 frs. ; and 
the third, a silver medal, with 400 frs. These prizes are awarded to three 
pupils chosen from among the first fifteen on the list, regard being had to both 
stud}'- and moral conduct. 

Ej:p'jnses, &c. — Each school has an annual grant with which it must meet 
"all the expenditure, not only for the teaching staff and management, for 
the bo .rd and other outlay on account of the pupils, but also for materials and 
tools for the workshops, for the clothing of the pupils, and for the repairs of the 
buildings. The school has nothing beyond this grant. The receipts for the 
board of pupils, and for clothes, as well as the proceeds of the sale of things 
manufactured in the workshops, belong to the State. 

These schools receive every year from 300 to 315 pupils — se- 
lected by open competition, in which at least 1,500 candidates 
engage — showing that admittance is eagerly and widely sought for. 

Immediately on leaving the school, the pupils find remunerative 
employment in factories, workshops, railway establishments, on 
bridges and roads, in the navy and navigation companies, as fore- 
men, overseers, molders, pattern-designers, surveyors, engineers, and 
other useful and responsible positions. 

Out of 465 pupils who left the schools in 1861 and 1862, .188 
within twelve months afterwards were at the head of large establish- 
ments, or chiefs of workshops; 165 were pattern-designers for man- 
ufacturers or draughtsmen for railways ; 47 were engineers in the 
imperial navy; 22 were road and land surveyors, and only 2 were 
unemployed. 

Important as these schools are to the public service, and to great 
national industries, the international exhibitions of London and 
Paris satisfied the government that " in the same as well as in other 

* M. Xavier Jourdain has also founded three scholarships at Chalons for boys of his native 
place. 



462 



IMPERIAL SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND TRADES. 



directions, additional eflforts must be put forth to maintain French 
industry at the level which it has reached, and enable it to meet the 
rivalry of other countries in fields once by universal confession ex- 
clusively her own." 

We give below a list of the officers and instructors of one of the 
provincial Schools of Arts and Trades together with the salaries, 
paid to each. 





Salaries. 




Officials. 


On 


After 


After 


Observations. 




entering. 


5 years. 


10 years. 






francs. 


francs. 


francs. 




1 Director, 


5.000 


5,500 


6,000 




1 Engineer of Works, 


3,000 


3,500 


4,000 




1 Treasurer, 


2.200 


2,500 


2,800 




1 House Steward, 


1,700 
2,000 


2,000 
2,000. 


2,000 
2,000 




1 Chaplain, (Catholic,) 


Including 300 fr. for 










a lodgmg. 


1 Professor of Mechanics,. . 


2.000 


2,500 


3,000 




2 Professor of Mathematics, 


2.000 


2,300 


2,500 




3 Professor of Drawing, . . . 


2.000 


2,300 


2,500 




1 Professor of Grammar,. . . 


1,400 


1,800 


2,000 


If librarian, 400 fr. in 
addition. 


1 Professor of "Writing, 


1,200 


1,400 


1,700 


Professes industrial 
book-keeping. 


1 Overseer of fitting work- 










shop, 


2.000 


2,500 


3,000 




3 Other Overseers, 


2,000 


2,300 


2,600 


The foremen hearing 


5 Foremen fitters, 


1,700 


1,900 


2,000 


repetitions receive 


3 Foremen for the three 






^ 


an indemnity of 250 


other workshops, 


1,700 


1,900 


2,000 


fr. [ft-. 
In all (10 years) 2,250 


1 Adjutant of 1st class, . . . 


2,200 


2.200 


2,200 




If of 2d class, 


1,300 


1,300 


1,300 


With clothes and 


1 Director's Secretary, 


1,700 


2,000 




board. 


1 Store-keeper, 


1,600 


2,000 
1,700 






2 Book-keepers, 


1,400 






8 Adjutants, one of whom 










is infirmary wardsman, 


700 


900 


— 


With clothes and 
board. 



The number of hours devoted by each to their respective duties 

are as follows : — 

Director, his whole time, and the engineer nearly the whole ; treasurer, seven 
or eight hours per day ; house-steward, nearly the whole day ; professors of 
mechanics and of mathematics, during ten months or ten and a-half, six days 
per week, from two and a-half to three hours of lessons and interrogations, 
without counting the revision of tasks and time for preparing tlieir lectures at 
home ; professors of grammar and of writing, about the same ; professors of 
drawing, from five to six hours in lessons, or in making drawings for the en- 
gineer or the workshops ; overseers, eight or nine hours daily ; foremen, eight 
or ten hours daily, including the repetitions ; book-keepers, seven or eight hours 
a day, (generally seven.) 



\ 



IMPERIAL CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES, 



HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

The Central School of Arts {^Ecole Centraie) at Paris grew out of 
the necessities of national industry, although its early projectors and 
teachers were in no way connected with the government, or inter- 
ested directly ^in any of the arts or trades which its success has 
greatly promoted. Satisfied from the example of the Polytechnic, 
and the Government Schools of Mines and Mining, of Civil Engi- 
neering, and the Military and Naval Schools, that a course of in- 
struction at once scientific and practical, designed to train engineers, 
architects, and constructors of works, not governmental or public, 
machinists, and technological chemists, and foremen of industrial 
establishments generally, Messrs, Dumas, Peclet, and Ollivier, with 
whom was afterwards associated Lavallee, undertook the enterprise, 
and commenced their lectures and demonstrations in 1829. With 
an equipment of lecture-rooms, laboratories, collections of machines 
and models, and other facilities for demonstrations and manipula- 
tions, which Avould now be thought utterly inadequate, the school 
was from the start an -assured success, both as an investment of the 
time and means of its projectors, and in the demand for its instruc- 
tion by young men aspiring to qualify themselves for responsible 
positions. Its diploma or certificate of competency became at once 
the guarantee of immediate and profitable employment at home and 
abroad, and its reputation and its advantages became not only na- 
tional but international Its students come from the provinces as 
well as from the capital ; and at all times there are representatives 
from abroad. Out of 4,560 pupils admitted up to Jan., 1864, one- 
fourth (1,114) were foreigners. In 1833 the government recognized 
its public usefulness by taking its examinations under the inspection 
of the Minister of Commerce and Public Works ; in 1838 by estab- 
lishing annual stipends to the value of $6,000 for the benefit of dil- 
igent pupils from Paris or the provinces; and in 1857 by assuming 
the whole charge of the institution, with the consent and under an 
agreement with its original projectors and proprietors. We give 
an account of the school as it was in 1836 and 1867. 



464 SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES AT PARIS. 

The money was granted by the Minister in 1838, and in 1842 it ap- 
pears that nineteen of the Counseils Generaux in different departments 
in France voted funds to send up to this college a certain number of 
young men from their towns ; and the Minister had, it seems, provided 
for forty, whose previous instruction and good conduct, and the positions 
of their families, has entitled them to the favor of the State. 

The STUDENTS of the establishment are of three classes — viz., those who are 
brought up by the State ; those for whom funds have been voted by tlie Councils 
General of departments ; and those received at the expense of their families. 

In order to .obtain admission, Government and departmental candidates are 
examined at Paris, before a jury named by the Minister of Commerce for this 
purpose each year. The candidates must have been registered and recommended 
by the department whence they come ; and they must prove that they are between 
the ages of eighteen and twenty-one. They undergo two examinations — one oral, 
the other wi'itten 5 and they must solve with ease certain problems in elementary 
mathematics and geometry. They must write and describe their problems and 
theories well ; draw by rule and compass ; sketch and color» Without these 
qualifications it is impossible to be admitted as a Government student, and the 
juries are instructed to select those who shew most literary attainments, and who 
" appear to have that deception of intelligence which promises an aptitude for in- 
dustrial science, rather than mathematical acquirements," A great preference is 
given to those who have obtained the necessary qualification in a high degree, 
and whose means are limited, and the administration is not to aid those whose 
families are in a position to defray the expenses of their education. All students 
may participate in an " Encouragement Fund" for the first year, but afterwards 
only those who shew the greatest amount of merit ; and an augmentation may be 
accorded to those who are remarkable for still higher qualities. Private stu- 
dents are admitted at any age above sixteen. They, too, submit to both oral and 
written examinations. They must execute certain problems, and write clearly 
and correctly the theories as set forth in the programme. Foreigners as well as 
Freilch students are admitted, provided they can write and read the language. 
In Paris, these examinations are made by a board named yearly by the Council of 
Studies, in the departments by public professors of mathematics, and in foreign 
countries by the university professors; and all applicants must produce proper tes- 
timonials as to their morality. 

The AUTHORITY OF THE SCHOOL is vcstcd in a director and a Council of Studies, 
consisting of nine professors. The director lives in the college, and is charged 
with its administration and correspondence, but he can not appoint professors ; 
these are selected for their practical as well as theoretical experience. The Coun- 
cil admit or reject candidates after reading the statement of their examinations, 
and they report on the progress of each student — as to his aptitude and capabili- 
ties, and whether he is eligible to be transferred to a superior division, or whether 
his friends shall be requested to remove him. The students bind themselves by a 
solemn declaration to take no part in any conspiracy to oppose the execution of 
the decisions of their superiors, and they promise to enter into no coalition for im- 
posing on the junor or senior branches of the college. No students are lodged 
within the college, and they are not permitted to wear any description of 
uniform. 

The COURSE OF instruction is limited to three years, during which period it is 
obligatory. It includes lectures, daily examinations, drawing and graphic exer- 
cises, chemical manipulations, working in stone and wood, physics and mechanics, 
the construction of buildings and other works, and general annual examinations. 
The students are, in addition,. expected to make notes and reports, and to visit the 
workshops and manufactories. Tliey are boarded and lodged at respectable 
houses in the immediate vicinity, at their own expense. Each year there are 
general examinations in every branch of science and art. In the middle of the 
second year the studies are subdivided — one course is general, the other has spe- 
cial relation to the ultimate destination of the scholar. 

The specialities are four in number: — 1. Mechanicians. 2. Constructors, as 
architects, engineers. 3. Mining and metallurgy. 4. Chemistry, apphed in all 



SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES AT PARIS. 



465 



its branches, including agriculture. After that period, the whole energies of the 
student are devoted to those branches of science on which the profession he is 
about to adopt depends. 

With respect to dii'lomas and certificates, the students of the third year are 
admitted to coinpetitioii for diplomas, a programme of examination bjing made 
out for each speciality. The comp 'titors'are allowed thirty-five days within the 
college to" make out their designs and compose their memoir, and then they are 
examined by five professors in public and before the students of two years. After 
the examination, the professors in council grant diplomas to those who have ex- 
celled anA who have passed with the greatest honors, and " certificates of ca- 
pacity" to those who have given less general proof of the highest talent. At each 
examination those who do not advance sufficiently, or are idle, are recommended 
to retire. All the examinations are kept for reference in the archives of tlie 
college. 

The FEES FOR EACH STUDENT, including seA'ei'al extras, are altogether 870 francs 
($174) per annum. That the institution is flourishing, is proved by its being 
mainly self-suppoiting ; and that the country benefits by it, the long array of emi 
nent graduates who might be named together with a statement of their present 
employments, would most satisfactorily illu.strate. 

The following is the programme of instruction somewhat more in detail: 

FIRST YEAR. 

Descriptive Geo-metry. Theory and application to perspective, drawing, and shading; 
Ktoneciitting — details ; carpentry— details. 

Anidylicai Geuntetry and Mec/ta7iics generally. Theory of motion and equilibrium of 
forces . velocity, acceleration, force, mass; general principles of motion, gravity, power, ef- 
fect ; statics of solid bodies. 

Construct ion cf Machines. 

Trnnsf.trmation and Modijication of Motion. 

Physics generally. Laws of gravity, balances, pendulum, and its application : hydrosta- 
tics, liydrodynamics, heat, magnetism, electricity, electrodynamics and electro-magnetism, 
niofeciilar action, acoustics, light, optics. 

For tlie first year the students are made to manipulate, in determining the density of solids, 
liquids, and gasses, the construction and use of barometers, thermometers, and hygrometers ; 
determination of refractive powers, photometers; power of rotation in liquids, saccha- 
rometers. 

Chemistry generally Minerals, and the study of all objects not metallic ; the atmosphere, 
gasses. Metallic: general methods for extraction of metallic oxides; general properties of 
sulphurets, chlorides, <fec. ; general propei'ties of the salts ; metals useful either alone or in 
their combination for the arts. 

Organic chemi.^try. Methods of analysis ;' principal organic products: their uses in the 
arts; acids, and their applications. 

One day in tlie week in the laboratory, to practice the experiments they have seen in the 
lecture-room 

Medicine and Natural History applied to Indrislry. 

Hygeian Science and Physiology, as far as Public Health is concerned : 

First Part. Food, clothing ; inilueiice of heat and coUi ; dampness, and a dry atmosphere; 
sun and winds; the health in dilTtrent professions; sanitary regulations and legislation. 

Second Par!. — Natural History. The animal crtation in all that relates to industry, the 
arts and agriculture; power, produce, and nutriment. The vegetable creation: substances 
employed in the arts ; wood, textiles, cereals, wines, tanning, dyes. 

Braining and Design in its various Branches. During the vacation, plans nnd elevations 
of buildings and works are executed, which must be presented at the commencement of the 
term. 

SECOND YEAR, 

Tlie same as the first year, besides modeling in plaster for stone-cutting, «S:c. 

Industrial Physics. "Properties and con.^truction of furnaces of all kinds for different oe- 
scripfions of fuel, transmission of heat, sublimation, distillation, evaporisation, heating air and 
liquids, refrigeration, liffhtnin2. ventilation, and sanitary arrangements of towns ; construc- 
tions of all kinds in model bricks and plaster of Paris 

During the recess the students visit works and manufactories, and are obliged to present 
detailed reports on tliem. 

The students of the thir<l year complete five different projects, with drawings, calculation 
and estimates on which there are conferences, one on each speciality every month. 

Second and Third Year. Applied mechanics in great detail, applied hydrodynamics, con- 
struction and setting up of machines, analytical chemistry in different branches for ditfcrent 
professions, industrial chemistry both mineral and organic, agricultural chemistry. 

Public Works. Roads, bridges in stone, wood, iron, and suspension ; natural inland navi- 
gation, artificial inland navigation. 

Architecturr 

Geology ana Mineralogy. 

Mining, Wor/cing, and Ventilation Metallurgy and fabrication in iron, steel, zinc, and 
copper ; furnaces and fonnderies for all metals. 

Teehriology. Manufacture of cordage ; stone and wood sawing; textile manufactures in 

30 



466 SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES AT PARIS. 

cotton, wool, flax, silk; cotton sj>inning; expression of oils; grinding, felting, ceramic works, 
and pottery. 

Special Courses/or the Third Year. Steam-engines of ail descriptions ; railways and dif- 
ferent sy.stems for locomotion; the students visiting the most important works with their 
professors. 

The students are examined dai.ly upon the subjects of their lectures, by the pro- 
fessors and repeaters (Repetiteurs.) The utiUty of this latter class of teachers is 
well established in France, and they are found in every institution in which lec- 
turing is practiced to a great extent as a means of instruction ; they prevent the 
burthen of teaching from falling upon professors, whose duty it is to be engaged in 
advancing, as well as in propagating science, and who would be prevented from 
following one or other of these honorable and useful careers, by having the duty 
of teaching superadded to that of lectiu'ing. So well is the necessity of reheving 
the professor understood, that in all courses requiring preparation, special persons 
are appointed, called preparers, who take off this burthen also from the professor. 
The result is, that many men of high eminence are thus enabled to diffuse their 
knowledge among students by lecturing, and are willing to do so, though they 
have other and more profitable employments, to which they would exclusively 
confine themselves, if this were connected with teaching by interrogation and the 
task of preparing experimental illustrations. The pupil is thus greatly the gainer, 
and has at the same time the special examination upon the lecturers which is so 
necessary to complete the instruction, and to which a repeater is entirely compe- 
tent. Young men of talent seek the situations of repeaters as the best method of 
showing their particular qualifications, and the most certain road to a professor- 
ship. For each recitation the pupil receives a mark, and the roll of the class with 
these marks being preserved, its indications are combined with the results of the 
examination, to decide upon the fitness of a pupil when he comes forward for a 
diploma. 

The graphic exercises consist in the drawing of ornamental work, in India ink 
drawing, in drawing with the steel pen and instruments, and in sketching the 
diagrams of the lectures to a scale. Great importance is attached to this part of 
the course, and much time spent in it. The rooms for these exercises are con- 
veniently arranged, and the pupils are superintended during them by a professor 
or a repeater, and visited occasionally by the director of studies or his deputies. 
The drawing-tables are so arranged that the pupils stand while at work, which at 
their age is very desirable. 

The arrangements for chemical manipulation by the students are very complete ; 
they have access not only to the laboratories of the two professors, but to others 
which are devoted to special branches. During the first year every student is 
employed in laboratory duty once a week, and has also the opportunity of per- 
forming some of the principal physical experiments. They are superintended, 
while thus occupied, by repeaters. During the first half year of the second course 
the students are called, in turn, to general duty in the laboratory ; and during the 
second half of the same year, and the whole of the third, the two sections who 
follow the courses of chemistry applied to the arts and metallurgy, are employed 
in manipulations connected with them. There is an officer for their superintend- 
ence, called the director (chef) of the chemical exercises, who is subordinate to 
the professor of chemical analysis. The opportunities thus aflbrded of acquiring 
a general practice tmder the guidance of the distinguished professors of this school 
are invaluable, and form one of the most important features of the establislmient. 

The materials for constructing models of some of the more useful works, and 
apparatus relating to the arts, are furnished to the pupils, and used imder the di- 
rection of their instructors. 

The annual number of students entering varies from 130 to 160. They work 
eight hours and a half in the college, and four at their residences. Four inspec- 
tors are constantly occupied in surveying, independently of those superintending 
the graphic department. 



CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. 4^^ 

The Central School of Arts aud Manufactures, founded in 1829 
by three then youthful votaries of science, (Dumas, Peclet, and 
Ollivier,) aided by M. Lavallee, who zealously cooperated in the 
work, plays, without parade, a most important part in the educa- 
tional system of France. The following notice of its original 
object and results — of its historical development and present sub- 
jects and methods of instruction, is taken from a Report of the 
Commission on Technical Instruction to the French Ministry of 
Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works, in 1864, aud from the 
latest programme of the Institution. 

In 1829, manufactures, thanks to several years of profound peace, were be- 
ginning to assume great importance in France ; but to struggle against foreign 
competition, daily becoming more formidable, it was not enough to possess good 
workmen and intelligent overseers ; skillful engineers were likewise wanted. 
The mauuflicturers, moreover, felt the necessity of themselves acquiring or of 
obtaining for their children that theoretical knowledge without which they were 
unable, not only to direct their establishments themselves, but also to control 
the managers whom they engaged for the purpose. At that time there was no 
school where industrial science could be acquired. 

The Sorbonne, the Conservatory of Arts and Trades, the schools of Chalons 
and^ Augers, though very useful institutions, answered the purpose but very in- 
completely. They did not impart that accurate and profound instruction which 
is necessary for the directors of large manufacturing establishments and indis- 
pensable for civil engineers. 

At the Sorbonne aud the Conservatory the teaching is purely oral, and- the 
fact is indisputable that such lectures are not sufficient for the trainmg of en- 
gineers. They can only answer that purpose when accompanied by frequent 
examinations, numerous experiments and manipulations, graphic studies, con- 
ferences on the subjects treated in the courses, varied projects, solutions of 
problems performed by the pupil under the professor's eye. These various 
modes of teaching must be combined to obtain the best possible effect. Cora- 
pare the Sorbonne with the Polytechnic School ; all the courses of the latter 
are found in the Faculty of Sciences, and nearly all of them are given by the 
same professors. Nevertheless the results of the teaching are very different in 
these two establishments. The Faculty of Sciences lacks those frequent exam- 
inations, those regular and methodical studies wliich are imposed on all the 
pupils of the Polytechnic School. Reduced to its lectures only, the Polytechnic 
School would soon lose its privilege of supplying France with men able to 
render the most important public services. Between the Conservatoiy of Arts 
and Trades, which is a real industrial Sorbonne, and the Central School, the 
same comparison may be established as between the Faculty of Sciences and 
the Polytechnic School. 

The Schools of Arts and Trades supply our workshops with young men who 
promptly become excellent overseers; but the theoretical studies are not suffi- 
cient to form skillful engineers. Some few remarkable men have indeed pro- 
ceeded from these schools, but they were of the sort who will learn wherever 
they may be, and rise to celebrity just as well from the dust and smoke of th© 
workshop as from the benches of a school-room. 



468 CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. 

Tlie Central School, therefore, can not be compared for the services it renders 
either to the Sorbonne, or to the Conservatory of Arts and Trades, or to the 
other technical schools. It remains to be seen whether it is not an unnecessary 
duplicate of its elder sister, the Polytechnic School, and this question we will 
now examine. 

The Polytechnic School was founded at a time when political revolutions had 
thrown scientific studies into the background. Its object was to give those 
studies new life, to impart a common direction to the labors of scientific men, 
to concentrate on one point efforts till then unconnected ; in short, to supply 
our corps of engineers, civil and military, with the well-taught recruits they so 
much needed. And it has nobly fulfilled its mission. The Schools of Mines, 
and of Bridges and Roads, completed the work undertaken by the Polytechnic 
School. 

But the time required by the Polytechnic School, including the preparatory 
and complementary studies, is seven years, which is much too long for candi- 
dates who are anxious to begin practice as soon as possible. The difficulties 
of the examination for admission also exclude a large proportion of candidates ; 
the consequence is that the number admitted every year is very limited. It 
shuts its doors against many hundreds of young men whose minds, though little 
disposed for mathematical abstractions, are none the less capable of studying 
the applied sciences. More than half its pupils choose the military service, and 
of the other half a good part soon abandon the civil services to follow scientific 
pursuits. The Polytechnic School is therefore far from being able to satisfy the 
ever-increasing demands of industry. There is good reason to fear that if the 
pupUs of the Polytechnic School were left free to choose between the posts 
offered by private industry and those reserved for them by the Government, 
the • cleverest of them -would give the preference to industry, which assures 
'them positions, if not more honorable, at least more liberally remunerated ; 
hence might result great prejudice to the State. The Government seems to be 
aware of this, for it has already forbidden its engineers to serve any other com- 
panies but those for railways. 

The Central School, therefore, supplies a manifest deficiency in our system of 
instruction. Its fiinction is to educate our leading manufacturers, and the di- 
rectors of our great industrial establishments ; while the mission of the Poly- 
technic School is more especially to supply properly qualified recruits for- the 
special corps. The success it obtained from the very first, a success every day 
increasing, sufficiently proves its immense usefulness. 

Notwithstanding its high charges, and the fact that it does not, like the Poly- 
technic School, offer its pupils any assured position on the completion of their 
studies, the Central School has found, in presence of other establishments where 
instniction is gratuitous, the number of candidates for admission constantly 
increasing, and to sucli an extent that not more than half of them can be 
received. The late treaties of commerce have rendered industrial education 
more necessary than ever. ' "If the Central School did not already exist," says 
M. Micliel Chevalier, "it would have been indispensable to found one as a 
necessary complement of those treaties." Moreover, it is a tradition in the 
school that its foundation was originated with a view to preparing French man- 
ufacturers, by a sound education, to pass without any violent shock from a 
system almost prohibitive to one of limited protection. 



CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. 



469 



In all the branches of industry the pupils of the Central School have taken 
honorable positions. They stood in the first rank among the creators of rail- 
ways, and some of them, notwithstanding the formidable competition of the 
Government engineers, still hold important positions under the great com- 
panies. At Paris the chief engineers of the rolling stock and locomotive 
department of four great companies (the Northern, the Orleans, the Eastern, 
and the Western) belong to the Central School. In the mining and metallur- 
gical industries, in those of gas, spinning, dyeing, paper-making, plate glass 
manufacture, in the agricultural arts, and lastly in all the mechanical and chem- 
ical industries, we find at the head of large establishments old pupils of the 
Central School, who have nearl}^ all attached their names to important improve- 
ments in the processes they were charged to conduct. 

The above statement is fully proved by the following figures: — Of the 2,051 
pupils who obtained, on leaving the school, the diploma of engineer or the cer- 
tificate* of capacity, we have been able to obtain precise information respecting 
],394 only. Of this last number we learn that 247 are dead, and that the 
1,147 still living are distributed in different careers in the following manner: 

Railways -.—Directors and chief engineers, salaries from 20.000 to 70,000 fr., ... 28 ^ 

Principal engineers, salaries from 10,000 to '20,000 t"r., '''^ Uon 

Ordinary engineers, salaries from 5,000 to ]0,000 fr., 56 p^" 

Employed in various capacities, 157 j 

Civil engineers in general practice, 166 

Ironmasters, working of mines, quarries, &c., 124 

Manufacturers of cloth, cotton, linen, &c., 68 

Architects 55 

" Mechanical engineers, established, 54 

Spinners 43 

Professors of applied sciences, 42 

Manufacturing chemists, ... 38 

Agriculturists, 37 

Co'itractors for public works, 35 

Managers of gas works, 31 

Sugar refiners 28 

Public functionaries 26 

Manufacturers of glass, porcelain, &c 23 

Engineers of bridges and roads in foreign countries, 22 

Paper-makers, 17 

Surveyors of roads, 17 

Total, .,....- 1,156 

The number of crosses and medals obtained by ex-pupils of the Central 
School at the great international exhibitions, is one of those facts which prove 
their merits better than arguments. In 1851 the Central School was too re- 
cently founded for many of its pupils to have had time to take their ranks in 
manufactures. The English Commission having, besides, refused rewards to 
assistants (coll(iboraieurs.) several of the ex-pupils could not be personally 
named, though the estabhshments they managed obtained prizes. Never thelesa 
they received three council medals and 1 7 prize medals. 

In 1855, at the Paris Universal Exhibition, they obtained 10 nominations in 
the Imperial Order of the Legion of Honor; 10 great medals of honor; 17 
medals of honor; 50 first-class medals; 21 second-class medals; and 14 hon- 
orable mentions. 

In 1862, the number of French exhibitors at the London Universal Exhibi- 
tion was comparatively small, but the ex-pupils obtained three nominations in 
the Legion of Honor, one of them an officer, and 41 medals. 

*The diploma is granted to those pupils who pass every part of the examination satisfactorily; 
the certificates to those who answer some of the questions well, but fail in others. 



^tjQ CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. 

In the agricultural shows of 1856 and 1860, ex-pupils of the Central School 
were honored with two great gold medals; three ordinary gold medals ; two 
silver medals ; four first prizes ; and six prizes of the second, third, and fourth, 
class. 

The total number of ex-pupils who have obtained the decoration of the Le- 
gion of Honor, either after great exhibitions or on other occasions, is 56, of 
whom 52 are knights and 4 officers. 

STUDIES AND METHODS OF TEACHING. 

In organizing the Central School its founders took for their model the old 
Polytechnic School, (Central School of Public Works,) with the modifications 
required by the object they had in view. For instance, they excluded from the 
curriculum every thing connected with mathematical theories of too high an 
order, experience having shown that such theories have but few practical appli- 
cations. 

At the Central School, as at the Polytechnic, the pupils are obliged, whatever 
may be the career they have chosen, to attend all the courses and to pass very 
strict examinations. The young men are thus prepared to follow almost any 
profession. It is, in fact, by no means unusual to see young engineers, on leav- 
ing this school, successfully pursue a different career from that originally chosen. 
At the Polytechnic School this generality of instruction extends to the theoret- 
ical studies only, since the pupils at the end of the three years' course are sent 
to one or other of the special schools to complete their education. At the Cen- 
tral School the instruction is purely theoretical in the first year only ; in the 
second and third, theory and practice are blended. 

The founders of the Central School justly remarked in their first prospectus : — 
"All the courses of the school really form but one and the same: industrial 
science is one; every manufacturer must know the whole under pain of being 
inferior to the rival who enters the lists better armed than himself. Arts appa- 
rently widely differing from each other make use of analogous operations, yet 
often employ very different methods. The general education of the Central 
School teaches how to transfer into each process of manufacture the, improved 
methods used in others. It consequently tends to introduce into industrial es- 
tablishments, and into the details of the processes or of the mechanisms, a 
degree of perfection which secures the harmonious working and general success 
of the whole." This was a noble and prolific thought; it has produced abun- 
dant fruit. 

The studies of the Central School and those of the Polytechnic School re- 
quire very different qualifications. Though some of the pupils of the Central 
School have shrunk from the difficult tests required by the Polytechnic, we 
have good reason to believe that among the pupils admitted to the latter there 
are some who would not have succeeded at the former. The pupils who, after 
preparing for the Polytechnic School, enter the Central School, usually take the 
lead of their comrades in the first year, but often fall behind them in the second 
and third. The consequence is that the establishments which prepare pupils 
for the scientific and industrial schools have felt the necessity of adopting a 
special mode of preparation for the Central School.* Again, the council of the 

* In 18G4, out of nbout 400 candidates who competed for admission to the Central School, only 
50 had prepared for the Polytechnic School. 



CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. 4^1 

Central School, which at one time used to admit for the second year's studies 
candidates who were able to pass a satisfactory examination on the subjects 
taught in the first, now require that every pupil shall go through the complete 
course in the school. Experiouce has clearly shown that tiie instruction ac- 
quired elsewhere than at the school can scarcely be a suitable preparation for 
the courses of tlie higher divisions, which are based on what the pupils have 
been taught during the first year. 

The studies of the Central School may be thus briefly recapitulated : — 

In the first year, pupils follow the course of descriptive geometry with appli- 
cations ; analysis, comprising the elements of the differential and integral cal- 
culus ; cinematics, general meclianics, general physics, general chemistry, con- 
struction of machines, and hygienics. 

In the second and third year, courses of applied mechanics, construction and 
putting up of machines, analytical chemistry, industrial and agricultural chem- 
istry, constructions, (civil buildings, public works, and railways,) applied physics 
and steam-engines, metallurgy, mineralogy, geology, and working of mines. 

The course of construction of macliines, which is very complete, as well as 
that of apphed physics and steam-engines, and the course of applied chemistry, 
are peculiar to the Central School. The teaching of mechanics is also con- 
ducted on a new plan, in a spirit essentially practical. 

The oral instruction of the Central School is judiciously completed by impo- 
sing on the pupils numerous studies of projects, by manipulations in the labor- 
a-tory, by visiting workshops, by mineralogical and geological excursions, and 
especially by frequent compulsory examinations, not only at the end of each 
year's studies, but also during the courses and at their close. The pupils, in 
drawing out projects and in chemical manipulations, begin to apply what they 
learn in each course, and thus prepare for the more serious operations of prac- 
tice. 

The numerous examinations, one at least every week, have an excellent effect 
in keeping the pupils always up to their work. "When a falling off appears in 
the marks obtained at the examinations, the director recommends the pupil to 
be more diligent, and, if necessary, summons him before the council of order, 
composed of the director, the sub-director, the director of studies, and a pro- 
fessor or a member of a school-council. The pupil is also cited before the 
council if he commits any breach of discipline, such as being noisj^n the class- 
rooms or amphitheatres, refusing to obey, &c., or if he be frequently absent 
without reasonable cause. If a pupil does not heed the friendly advice of the 
council of order, he is called before the school-council and more or less severely 
reprimanded. Any pupil found incapable of following the courses witli profit 
is requested to leave the school, and if he refuses he is struck off the lists, after 
the minister's approbation has been secured. The pupil who persists in disor- 
derly behavior is liable to expulsion. 

For every pupil an accurate account of his examination marks and notes of 
conduct is kept in a ledger reserved for the purpose, and extracts therefrom are 
sent to parents when requested. These notes are useful not only as enabling 
the superiors of the school to form a correct judgment of each pupil's progress 
and conduct, but they also play a very important part when, on the pupil's 
leaving the school, after completing his studies, the council of professors has to 
decide on the terms of the certificate he deserves. 



472 CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. 

At first the council of the school, when definitively classing the pupils ac- 
cording to their merits, took into account only the marks obtained at the final 
competitive examination at the end of the third year, when each pupil had to 
present a project on a given subject. But experience soon showed that a pupil 
who answered correctly the questions put at the examination was not unfre- 
quently a very indififerent pupil favored by a Ixicky chance. It was therefore 
decided that the average marks of the third year should be added to those of 
the competition in appreciating the merits of the candidate. As pupils were 
often found to be somewhat negligent in the second year, it was subse- 
quently deemed advisable to carry this principle still farther and take into 
account the marks of the second year in awarding the diploma or certificate of 
capacity, and in assigning the pupil his place in the list published in the Moni- 
teur. With all these precautions, it is scarcely possible that there should be 
any great mistake in appreciating the merits of the pupils. 

This fact seems to have been well understood by manufacturers, for most of 
them require candidates to produce either a diploma or certificate, and as the 
latter is of less value than the former, we every year see old pupils who have 
obtained certificates only, present themselves again to compete for the diploma. 

The number of diplomas and certificates has perceptibly increased during the 
last few years, although the examinations are more severe than formerly ; this 
increase is owing to tlie greater strictness of the examinations for admission, 
which can be successfiilly passed only by pupils who possess considerable talent 
and have made good use of their previous opportunities. It is easier to get 
admitted to the Central School than to the Polytechnic, but far more difficult to 
obtain a diploma there than to leave the Polytechnic with a place under Gov- 
ernment. At the Polytechnic School 'the number of pupils who fail at the ex- 
amination on leaving seldom exceeds two or three per cent. 

Prof P. Jenkin, a fellow of the Eoyal Society, a member of the Institution 
of Civil Engineers, and professor of Civil Engineering in University College, 
and lecturer on the same subject in the University of Edinburgh, before the 
House of Commons Select Committee on Scientific Instruction in 1868, re- 
marked in substance : 

The Ecole Centrale is the great school for mechanical engineers, although 
other specialities are as well provided for. There is nothing whatever corres- 
ponding with it in England. Neither King's College nor University College is 
intended to answer the same purpose, and the teaching is on a much lower 
level. My own lectures for civil engineers are only preparatory for such a 
course as tliat of the French school. I heard a lesson in mathematics given in 
the second year, which required the student to have a very considerable amount 
of mathematical knowledge before he could at all follow it. In the first year 
they have the differential and integral calculus. The result of the good prepa- 
ration, and of the whole course, is to turn out men who have received a very 
good scientific education, and who are very competent to take places imme- 
diately, especially as draftsmen. There is a peculiarity in the practical teach- 
ing, viz., ihe getting up the projets. There are eight every year, and a month 
is allowed for getting out the drawings, the estimates, and the specifications for 
each — as for instance one on shafting; one on girders; one on locomotives; one 
on boilers, &c. This kind and amount of practical work, done under the severe 
cross-examining and supervision of the professor, as to all the details, is of the 
highest value. 



CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. 473 



PROGRAMME OF CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS— 18G8. 

The Central School of Arts and Manufoctures, founded in 1829 by private 
enterprise, but adopted by the State in 1859, continues under the Mhiistry of 
Ag-ricuhuro, Commerce, and Public Works. Its main object is to educate engi- 
neers and Ibremen for all branches of industry, and for public works, the 
direction, of which does not necessarily belong to the Government engineers. 

Diplomas o'' Engineer of Arts and Trades are delivered annually by the Min- 
ister to the pupils designated by the school-council as havitig passed through 
the entire competitive examination in a completely satisfactory manner. 

Certificates of capacity are granted to fliose who, not having passed through 
all the subjects of the examination in a perfectly satisfactory manner, have 
nevertheless given proof of sufficient knowledge in the most important branches. 

CONDITIONS OP ADMISSION. 

The school receives day-scholars only. Foreigners can be admitted, and on 
the same conditions as natives. The duration of the studies is three years. 

The cost of instruction, comprising the expenses of the various manipula- 
tions, is 800 francs annually. 

Independently of these 800 francs, the pupils must deposit in the school 
treasury, at the commencement of every year, a sura of 35 francs, as a guar- 
antee for such objects belonging to the school as may be lost or spoilt by their 
fault. This deposit, which must at each term of payment (there are tln'ee in 
the year) be maintained at the total of 35 francs, is reimbursed to each pupil at 
the end of the year, or when he leaves the school. 

Each pupil must, on entering the school, be provided with the objects and list 
of^what will be delivered to him, and which a duly authorized purveyor will 
furnish, on demand, at a price fixed each year by the director. 

Subsidies may be granted by the State to pupils who are at one and the same 
time recommended by the high position they take in tlie school, after the various 
examinations, and by want of means. -These grants are made for one year 
only, but may be continued, and even augmented, in favor of pupils who render 
themselves worthy thereof by their conduct and by their progress in knowledge. 

The State subsidies may be cumulated by allowances granted to the pupils 
by the departments and the communes. 

The total of the subsidies are paid into the school treasury. 

If the total of the grants obtained by a pupil exceeds the cost of instruction, 
one-twelfth of the surplus is paid to him, every month, for his board. 

Candidates who desire to obtain a share of the State grants, must make a 
written declaration to that effect, to be sent in to the prtfectxtre of the depart- 
ment. This declaration must be accompanied by a petition addressed to the 
Minister, and supported by a certificate of birth and a certificate of good con- 
duct from the head of the establishment in which the candidate has completed 
his last year of studies, or, in default of this, by the mayor of his last place of 
residence. 

Admission can only be obtained by means of competitive examination. 

Tlie examination is pubhc, in so far as it is oral; it takes place in Paris eveiy 
year, in two distinct sessions, between which the candidate may choose. 

The tests consist in written compositions, and in oral examinations, bearing 
upon the following subjects: — 1. French language. 2. Arithmetic. 3. Ele- 
mentary geometry. 4. Algebia, as far as the general theory of equations, ex- 
clusively. 5. Rectilinear trigonometry. 6. Analytical geometry. 7. Descrip- 
tive geometry, as far as left surfaces, exclusively. 8. All those parts of physics 
which precede the theory of heat in the Ij^cees. 9. In chemistry, the general 
principles and the metalloids. 10. Natural history. 11. Drawing, free-hand 
and linear, and washing in. 

All the matters comprised in the detailed programme are equally obligatory. 
Candidates whose knowledge of any one of these subjects is considered insuffi- 
cient, can not be admitted. 

The written compositions may have reference to all the divisions of the pro- 



474 CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND MANUFACTDRES. 

gramme ; correct and methodical writing, as well as a regular and very legible 
handwriting, are essential conditions. The candidate must, beside, execute, 
under surveillanre. a diagram, [epure.) in descriptive geometry, and an architect- 
ural design, including ornamental parts, which the candidate must draw on a 
reduced scale, after a model drawing. Some part of this drawing should be 
washed in in pale tints. 

Tlie oral examinations follow the written compositions. 

All candidates must prove that they have filled their seventeenth year pre- 
viousl}'" to the 1st of January of the year in which they present themselves for 
examination, and must produce certificates of vaccination and of good conduct 

The expenses connected with the examination are defrayed by the school, 
and candidates have nothing to pay. 

After the conclusion of the coacours^ the list of the pupils to be admitted is 
definitively fixed by the Minister on the proposal of the School Council. 

COUESE OF STUDIES. 

First Year. — Analysis and general mechanics, 60 lessons. General physics, 
60 lessons. Inorganic and organic chemistry, 60 lessons. Theoretical and ap- 
plied cinematics, 24 lessons. Construction of machines, 20 lessons. Hygienics 
and applied natural history, 20 lessons. Mineralogy and geology, 30 lessons. 
Architecture, 10 lessons. Industrial drawing, 20 lessons. 

Second Tear. — Applied mechanics, 6U lessons. Strength of materials em- 
ployed in machines and constructions, 24 lessons. Construction and mounting 
of machines, 60 lessons. Analytical and industrial chemistry, 40 lessons. Met- 
allurgy, 20 lessons. Civil constructions. 60 lessons. Industrial plmsics, 45 
lessons. Industrial and commercial legislation. Ceramics, 8 lessons. Dyeing, 
12 lessons. Glass-making. Mining, 20 lessons. 

TuirclYear. — Applied mechanics, 6 ) lessons. Construction and erection -of 
machines, 55 lessons. Analytical chemistry, 20 lessons. Industrial and agri- 
cultural chemistry. General metallurgy and metallurgy of iron, 60 lessons. 
Mining. 20 lessons. Public works, 60 lessons. Steam-engines, 35 lessons. 
Railways, 40 lessons. Naval constructions, 25 lessons. 

In addition, the following practical exercises and studies are required : — 

First Year. — Various chemical manipulations. Exercises in general physics, 
stereotomy, and taking of plans. Architectural and topographical designs, and 
working drawings. Problems in the infinitesimal calculus, general mechanics, 
and general physics. 

In the course of the year the pupils all undergo 27 examinations on the dif- 
ferent brandies of study, and a general one at the end of the year. During the 
vacation after the first year's studies, the pupils are expected to make plans of 
buildings and machines; also to write an essay on the resistance of materials. 

Second Year. — A practical study of the flow of gases with the aid of an 
anemometer and a ventilator ; each pupil to draw up a paper on the subject. 
Construction with bricks, according to given plans, of various chimneys, a 
baker's oven, a lime-kiln, a hot-air stove, &c. Each pupil to make a survey and 
draw a plan of a water-course, and to measure the volume of water in a stream; 
a paper to be sent in upon the details of these operations. Practical exercises 
in a factory on the construction of machines. Twenty-seven manipulations in 
analyzing and assaying. Drawings and projects of machines and buildings. 
Each pupil passes 21 examinations on the different subjects studied, besides the 
general examinations at the end of tlie year. During the vacation after the 
second year, the pupils are to visit manufectories, &c., and to hand to the di- 
rector, on resuming tlieir studies, a diary giving a summary account of the studies 
made and the factories visited; an album containing notes and sketches made 
on the spot; fair drawings of the most remarkable objects contained in the 
album ; and a paper on q\iestions of applied mechanics. 

Third Year. — Projects, in two series; the first in the more important subjects 
of all the courses, and comprising four different studies, required from all the 
pupils of the division. The second belongs exclusivey to specialties and con- 
sists of four projects on subjects connected with machines, buUdings, metal* 
lurgy, and chemistry. 



ESTABLISHMENT OF ST. NICHOLAS, 



REPORT OF E. DUCPETIAUX. 



In 1827 Monseigneur de Bervanger, at that time directing a charitable associa- 
tion of mechanics under the protection of St. Joseph * (the first experiment in 
those adult classes which have since accomplished so much good,) conceived the 
idea of opening an asylum for orphan and poor children, for their training to the 
laborious occupations which must one day support them. He soon collected seven 
in the gai rets of the Faubourg Saint IMarceau ; such was the modest beginning 
of an enterprise since so largely developed. By charitable aid it became possible 
after six mouths to hire a larger tenement ; others were occupied in succession, 
the rent rising from twelve hundred francs to five thousand. At last, convinced 
that buildings of its own w^ere necessary to the establishment of the institution 
upon a substantial footing, Mgr. de Bervanger decided to purchase two roomy 
houses, one at Paris, 112 Rue de Vaugirard, and the other at Issy, the ancient 
jchdteau of that name, now 36 Grande Rue, capable together of accommodating 
about a thousand children, all boarders. 

The Paris house is the principal one, that at Issy being only a sort of auxiliary 
where the younger children are kept, in preparation for their removal to Paris. 

The house in Paris has been portioned out upon a plan which seems to us to 
contain many defects, especially in regard to classification, and to ease of house- 
hold services and supervision. The small court which gives entrance from the 
Rue de Vaugirard is lined on one side with cook-shops and refectories, and on 
the other by the laundry. In front is the building occupied by the management. 
Behind this building extends a large area divided into a garden for the use of con- 
valescents, and a play-ground. A large building surrounds this area, and stretches 
on one side quite to the Rue de Vaugirard. The work-shops occupy the base- 
ment and first story of this building. Above are the dormitories. The chapel, 
infirmary and recitation rooms are in the wing that extends toward the street. 
The buildings have been erected with an economy which we fear has been secured 
at the expense of strength. Thus^ although new, they present a general appear- 
ance of dilapidation, which, together with the lack of neatness, makes a suffi- 
ciently unfavorable first impression upon the visitor's mind. 

Children are not received, except at from eight to twelve years of age. Those 
less than ten are sent by preference to Issy, where they receive special attention. 
They are required to bring a copy of their record of baptism, and a certificate of 
vaccination, unless they have had the small pox. Before final admission, they are 

• This association, commenced in 1822, lasted until July 1830. It was composed of nearly 
seven thousand mechanics of various kinds, a thousand or twelve hundred heads of com- 
mercial houses or manufactories al.^o belonging to it under the name of protectors. On Sun- 
days and feast days the members met for divine service; recitations and games occupied the 
rest of the day. Mechanics holding a commendatory certificate from their cure, were lodged 
and boarded gratis until emi)loyment could be found for them, and schools were open ev(Xj 
day at the hour for quitting work. 



476 



SAINT NICHOLAS AT PARIS 



examined by one of the phj^s'cians of the institution. Orphans are required to 
present a copy of the record of the death of their parents. 

The price of board, payable monthly in advance, is four dollars a month for 
orphans with no parent, and five dollars, for children not orphans. Four dollars 
are also paid to cover ordinary expenses at the entry of the new pupil. For this 
moderate sum, the establishment undertakes the general charge of providing for 
the maintenance, instruction and apprenticeship of the children. 

The number of pupils had reached eight hundred m 1845, and nine hundred 
in 1846. It has varied little since the last date. This number consists of very 
heterogeneous elements, although some of them belong to poor and honest arti- 
san families ; and though there are even some scions of noble families, ruined by 
the revolutions, most of them have no family, no known parents, no name, and 
were running in utter abandonment to certain destruction. Charitable societies or 
generous patrons have rescued them and entrusted them to the care of Mgr. de 
Bervanger, who alone in the institution knows the secret of their birth. To pre- 
serve this secret, each child is designated only by a number by which he is known 
in the house. 

The regulations are the same for all. The diet is adapted to the Rge, appear- 
ance and appetite of the pupils. It is at breakfast, soup and bread ; at dinner, 
three times a week, soup, bread and meat, with a dish of legumes instead of the 
meat; on the other four days, at lunch, a piece of bread ; and at supper, bread, 
legumes, or salad, or fruit. Sundays a little wine is allowed, and at the annual 
festivals, a dessert also. The food of the officers scarcely differs from that of 
the pupils except in quantity, and some slight additions of milk, wine, and fish 
The whole is regulated by a bill of fare according to which, the distribution is 
made. 

The establishment furnishes clothes and washing for the children, does their 
mending, and provides for each a mattress, bolster, two coverlids, two pair of 
sheets, four pair of stockings, four napkins, two pair of pantaloons for winter and 
two for summer, a waistcoat, a coat of cloth or knitwork for winter, five blouses, 
a cap, two pair of shoes, six handkerchiefs, two belts, suspenders, and combs ; 
all marked with the number of the scholar. It also provides books, paper and 
pens for the classes. Children are received with whatever they have on, and at 
leaving, are permitted to wear away their every day suit. 

Although the system of education in the establishment is a christian one, the 
director, out of regard for the character and prejudices of the mechanic popu- 
lation of Paris, has avoided giving it a clerical or monastic character. The teach- 
ers are laymen, and the name of " brothers." which they use to each other or 
receive from the pupils, is simply a token and bond of affection. The manage ■ 
ment of Saint Nicholas is entrusted, amongst the superior, a council of adminis- 
tration, and certain almoners and intendants. Under their orders the brethren 
are employed; the principal of them being the sacristan, the casliier, the proc- 
tor, the prefect of studies, the prefects of health, of music, and of the work- 
shops. Mgr. de Bervanger has laid down the attributes and duties of all per- 
sons employed, in a sort of constitution containing excellent precepts, and which 
might be consulted to great advantage in the organization of similar establish- 
ments. 

The household proper, cooking, expenditure, washing and ironing and the in- 
firmary are in charge of a number of sisters of charity. The number of persons 
«mployed is seventy grown people, permanently ; twenty-five masters or foremen 



SAINT NICHOLAS AT PARIS. 



477 



of exterior workshops; and thirty persons, hired by the day. Seven or eight of 
the children are also employed. 

This huge force permits the maintenance of an active and continual watch over 
the chiMrens' department; and any who arc likely to corrupt their companions, 
are at once sent back to their parents or guardians. The brothers sleep among 
the children. One is watching in the dormitories, during the whole night, and 
the rooms are kept constantly lighted for fear of accidents. The children change 
about their sleeping places from time to time, and great reserve is practiced in 
regard to this arrangement, that there may be no way for the children to learn 
any thing evil. The older children get up at half past five in summer and six in 
winter ; the younger always at a quarter past seven. All go to bed at eight in 
winter, and nine in summer. The instruction includes reading, writing, arith- 
roetic, and spelling; the elements of French grammar, geography and history, 
grammatical and logical analysis, book-keeping, linear drawing, practical geome- 
try, singing, a thorough knowledge of instrumental music, gynniastics, swimming, 
the rudiments of physics, chemistry, practical natural history, land-measuring 
and gardening. 

The instruction in physics, chemistry, natural history, geometry and instru- 
mental music, is given only to the children in the first divisions; as also that in 
book-keeping, linear drawing, and singing. All the pupils are permitted to learn 
gymnastics and swimming, if their parents or guardians have consented. The 
instruction in surveying, and in some other of the above studies is given while 
h<^rticulture is taught, at Issy. 

The children do not remain, in school more than three hours together, and are 
kept busy on one subject from half an hour to an hour and a half at the furthest. 
Those who do not work in the shops spend eight hours daily in studying and le- 
citing, except the smaller ones, who rise later, and have but six hours and a 
half. A class consists of from fifty to seventy pupils at most. There is an ex- 
amination several times a year, and a solemn distribution of prizes at its conclusion. 

The business of the brothers is to render the studies attractive and varied, and 
to habituate the children to tell what they have learned or observed. They per- 
mit them to ask questions, and answer with good humor. Nothing is left to ar- 
bitrary decision; the smallest details are regulated according to rule; and the 
children know their rights and the penalties for non-fulfilment of duty. 

The brothers extend their care not only to the instruction, but also to the 
general training of the children. They endeavor to imbue them with all such 
knowledge and habits as may insure their future prosperity by rendering them 
honest, industi'ious and skillful artizans, by making them enjoy their labor, by de- 
stroying notions consistent only with a high social position, and by fortifying them 
against the bad examples which they will probably meet in the world. 

Musical instruction occupies a large place in the system of education. Music 
is reckoned not only a means of recreation and enjoyment, but as an art which 
may become a useful means of subsistence to the young graduates. A number 
of them have in fact obtained situations of more or less value, in regimental 
bands. The establishment owns five thousand dollars worth of musical instru- 
ments, which when not in use are arranged in glazed cases. Besides the military 
band, the musical director has organized a choir for the chapel. Every Sunday 
at four o'clock in the afternoon, the children chant a Salve with remarkable skill, 
upon which occasion part of the chapel is open to strangers. 

In the principal area of the establishment are erected a gymnastic apparatus. 



478 SAINT NICHOLAS AT PARIS. 

see-saws, and various other machines, for the amusement of the scholars. Swim- 
ing lessons are given at Issy, where there is a large basin ; the pupils at the Paris 
house march out there from time to time, with their band at their head, to prac- 
tice various exercises. 

Various workshops have been established for pupils who are to serve their ap- 
prenticeship in the establishment ; including, besides the baliery, the shoemaking 
shop, the tailor's shop, &c., which are kept up for the use of the institution ; 
others in various occupations which are partly trades, and partly arts, and are 
especially followed in Paris. Such are the occupations of chaser in bronze^ 
watchmaker, lacemaker, designer of patterns for woven fabrics, mathematical in- 
strument maker, ornamental worker in gold and silver, engraver in jewels and 
metals, maker of bronze settings, worker in imitation jewelry, embosser, saddler, 
hardware man, maker of lackered snuff-boxes, worker in steel ornaments, iron- 
monger, painter on porcelain, worker in ivory, machinist, and cutler. Unfortu- 
nately, the revolution of February, which threw the industrial interests of Paris 
into disorder, did not spare the workshops of Saint Nicholas; and many of them 
are discontinued, or unprosperous. Efforts are however making by the admin- 
istration to repair these misfortunes and to .maintain regular labor. 

The pupils do not enter the workshops except upon the express application of 
their relatives or guardians, and only after their first communion. The manual 
labor occupies on an average eight and a half hours per day ; and the apprentices 
attend school two hours daily, unless their parents or guardians prefer to have 
them spend that time in the workshops, in order to become sooner perfect in 
their occupation; The apprenticeship occupies from two to four years, accord- 
ing to the trade. When it is ended, the pupils are allowed, if they choose, to 
remain in the establishment, and whatever they earn over and above their ex- 
penses is deposited, if they wish, to their credit in a savings' bank. Parents are 
permitted to have their children educated for whatever business they choose, 
having reference to their inclinations, strength, and intelligence. At the time 
of our visit, the number of apprentices was about a hundred. 

The workshops are an expense to the establishment ; but as pecuniary gain 
is no part of the scheme, the same maintenance is given to the children in the 
shops as to the younger ones, although their support costs more. Those 
who labor need more food ; and besides, a larger number of overseers is neces- 
sary, to keep up the prescribed amount of supervision. The profits from work 
done go to the foremen of the shops, which makes them interested in carrying 
forward the apprentices, and in conforming to the regulations of the establish- 
ment. They are likewise obliged to furnish the tools used by the apprentices- 
The masters are especially holden to conduct themselves toward the children Uke 
kind fathers ; and not to keep them at work too long in any one part of then* 
employment, but to instruct them in the whole of it. All this is stipulated in 
the engagements made between the parents and the masters, and with the 
approbation of the estabhshment, which, however, does not bind itself to con- 
tinue to keep any of the parties, either masters or apprentices ; in order that it 
may always be able to remove from the institution any individuals whose pres- 
ence is esteemed harmful. 

In the classes, workshops, &c., the children receive good marks for application 
and for progress. Thrice a year they receive books, images, &c., in exchange for 
these marks, at a certain rate. The record of these marks is posted in the par- 
lor of the house every week ; as are also the marks given for weekly compost- 



SAINT NICHOLAS AT PARIS. 479 

tions, and the quarterly record, which last is sent to parents or guardians. 
Pupils whose names remain upon the good conduct list during the whole 
quarter, receive a reward at its termination. There is a formal distribution 
of prizes, annually, just before the short vacation. 

For the encouragement of the children, the managers arrange for them from 
time to time special recreations, for which some little expense is incurred. 
During the summer there are long walks, on which tlie pupils carry their 
provisions in their knapsacks ; in winter, there are exhibitions in natural pliilos- 
ophy, ventriloquism, &c. These amusements are much desired by the children, 
and stimulate them proportionately to good conduct and sustained appHcation. 

There is a sufficient play -hour between the periods of study and of labor. 
The hours of rc'creation on Sunday, are from eight to ten, forenoon, an hour 
at noon, and from two to four, afternoon. On week days, they are an hour 
each, at half past eight, noon, half past three, and in the summer at eight in the 
evening. These periods are of half an hour only for those employed in the work- 
shops. Sunday afternoon at three, the pupils from the workshops perform 
pieces of military music to an audience of their relatives who have come to 
visit them. During play hours the pupils may practice gymnastic exercises. 
Thursday, weather permitting, the brotliers walk out with the children not 
engaged in the workshops; those bemg taken out on Sundays during tlie 
summer. 

Parents and guardians may see their children in private every day, but during 
pl%y hours only, and when the children have not been shut up for punish- 
ment. There are three vacations a year ; three days at new year's, three at 
Easter, and eight Immediately after the annual distribution of prizes. Pupils 
are not allowed any vacation in September, unless at the request, or with 
the permission, of the person paying their board. 

The house is governed in a manner altogether paternal. The masters are 
aware that harshness brutalizes, destroys every honorable sentiment, and 
inspires a distaste for study and labor. Even when punishment is necessarj'-, 
the children are to be convinced if possible tliat severity is resorted to only for 
their good. Punishments can almost always be commuted for with good marks. 
Those guilty of grave misdemeanors are shut up during play hours, under 
charge of a brother ; but these detentions axe not to take place during all hours 
of recreations, as some fresh air and exercise is necessary for the health of the 
children. If there is no amendment, they are forbidden to take their usual ' 
walks. Very seldom, the allowance of food is curtailed. The idea of shame 
and of penalty is attached to many things quite indifferent in themselves. The 
general rule is to inchne the children to good conduct by encouragement ; and 
in punishment, regard is always had to their health. No prison is used, 
because the regulations permit no child to be alone without supervision, 
and moreover, because it is undesirable to accustom their minds to that form of 
punishment. Those whose thoughtlessness is likely to lead the others astray, 
are kept apart. A jury of the most steady children returns verdicts against 
violators of the i-ules, or such as have tempted their comrades to any consider- 
able transgression. In such cases the punishment applied is a humiliation simi- 
lar to that used in the regimental discipline, unless the parents prefer to 
withdraw the culprit. The masters are cautious to prevent the abuse of this 
authority, but the practice has succeeded well, and punishments under it 
have become rare. To maltreat the children is strictly forbidden, on the prin- 



480 SAINT NICHOLAS AT PARIS. 

ciple that judicious aad moderate means will prevail where an indiscreet 
severity could only irritate. 

The regulations and discipline are alike in the two houses at Paris and Issy, 
except as required by the difference of age in the inmates. The latter also 
serves as a convalescent hospital for invalids from the former, where they 
can enjoy country living, and exercise in the open air. A horticultural school is 
likewise established there with a green house and an orangery. 

The plans of the superior of Saint Nicholas include the founding of an analo- 
gous establishment for young girls. This would be close by that at Issy, 
but entirely separated from it. It would be of great advantage by saving part 
of the two thousand four hundred "dollars a year now expended for sewing and 
washing. The kitchen garden ground there, brought entirely under cultivation, 
would furnish the necessary fruits and legumes for its consumption. This com- 
bination would be very similar to that adopted at Ruysselede. 

It is difficult if not impossible for us to state a decision upon the merits 
of the enterprise of M. de Bervanger. At the time of our visit, the vacations 
were just ending, and the reassembling of the pupils occasioned, doubtless, more 
disorder than usual ; various important repairs were in progress ; most of the 
workshops were either unoccupied or going on only irregularly. Accustomed to 
the strict propriety of the Belgian establishments, we were probably more 
displeased than many other visitors would be, at the appearance of certain por- 
tions of the building, and at the careless manner in which that important matter 
seemed to be attended to. Nevertheless, the zeal and devotion of the director 
are certainly worthy of all praise. Confined to his own individual resources, 
and deprived of all official patronage, his perseverance has overcome impedi- 
ments which would certainly have stopped any man not inspired by truly char- 
itable purposes, and by confidence in the excellence of the principle upon which 
the establishment is founded. By the side of the numerous high schools 
and boarding schools intended for children of the rich and middling classes, he 
has undertaken to establish a modest boarding school for poor and morally 
neglected children. This end has been attained. The work is doubtless 
susceptible of numerous improvements, but even as it stands, it has solved an 
important problem, namely, that of reforming and maintaining at the lowest 
possible price, in the midst of a great city, a numerous class of poor, who, 
without such assistance, would inevitably have grown up to swell the ranks 
of the mass of vicious men who always gather in centers of population. 

The cost of purchasing and furnishing the two houses of Paris and Issy, was 
nearly $240,000. Of this sum there was unpaid, in 1849, about $125,000. 
This debt, if funded, would represent a rent of about $6,200; not at all too 
large for an establishment so useful and important. 

, In 1844, of an average number of seven hundred and fifty childreu, and 
a hundred and six persons employed, the total expense was $39,843.52. 
Deducting receipts for sales from workshops and elsewhere, amounting in aU to 
$2,156.31, the annual expense remains at $37,647. Each child, therefore, costs 
$50.25 ; about fourteen cents a day; about one-thu-dof what the pupils at Petit- 
Bourg cost. 

Por complete education and maintenance of one thousand pupils — the 
number which both houses can accommodate — the director estimates that 
he ought to receive $60,000 a year, of which $24,000 would be for food, 
gardening, and payment of certaua female assistants, and $12,000 for interest. 



SAINT NICHOLAS AT PARIS. 48] 

This is sixty dollars a year for each child, which is the fixed rate for tnosc not 
orphans. The deficit occasioned by the reduced rate of $48.00 at which orphans 
are received, would be made up by gifts, subscriptions, and returns from sales. 

The following notice of this institution is given by Rev. George Fox- 
croft Uaskins, in his Travels in England, France, Italy, &c., 1854. 

But of all the institutions which I visited in Paris, none interested me so much 
as that of St. Nicholas. The great aim of the institution is to provide for the 
wants of these boys, a large poi-tion of whom were orphans ; to inspire them with 
a love of virtue and of industry ; and to fit ihem, by the practice of their reli- 
gious duties, to become one day not only good christians, but also skillful work- 
men. It is an institution of charity, 'because the sum demanded for board and 
tuition, one dollar a week, is so small as to come within the means of the poorer 
cli'.sses, and of those benevolent individuals and societies who have at heart the 
reformation and instruction of the destitute and abandoned. How many of these 
boys, think you, are sheltered, fed, and instructed in this home for the homeless 
and deserted? A hundred or two ? More than that. Three hundred, peihaps? 
More than that. Five hundred ? Yet more. There are at the present time 
more than twelve hundred boys iu this mammoth refuge ! They are divided into 
two dep.artments, a senior and a junior, according to age. I visited both depart- 
ments. All are governed by the same rule, and all are under the fotherly direc- 
tion of Mgr. Bervanger. The two establishments are about half a mile a; art. 

This institution is governed and disciplined by a congregation or brotherhood, 
composed of secular priests and laymen, who devote themselves to this work, with 
a single eye to the glory of God and the welfare of youth, demanding nothing for 
their labors but a bare support, looking forward for compensation to the treasury 
of God. 

The first and great aim of the directors and teachers is, to infuse into the boya 
a love of virtue and religion ; the second, to impart elementary and scientific 
instruction : the third, to accustom them to habits of industry, and teach them a 
profitable trade. 

The spiritual direction and religious instruction of the children is confided to 
the reverend fathers of the order of St. Dominie, who give four pious instructions 
every week. Catechism is taught every day. The scholars are divided into 
twenty classes, according to their age and degree of intelligence. They are not 
allowed to make their first communion till they have attained the age of eleven or 
twelve years. The singing and music at mass and vespers is performed by the 
pupils, under the direction of their musical teachers. I think I shall never forget 
the pleasure and edification with which I assisted at the Divine offices at St. 
Nicholas, on the Sunday which I passed in the institution. It was in the chapel 
of the senior department. There were about six hundred and fifty boys present. 
All behaved with the most perfect decorum. In discipline nothing was wanting. 
All appeared to unite in the singing, but without a discordant note. Tlie time 
was so well observed, that every word was articulated and heard as if pronounced 
by a single voice. 

In the schools are taught reading, writing, arithmetic, orthography, grammar, 
geography, history, book-keeping, dravi-ing, geometry, vocal and instrumental 
music, chemistry, and natural history. Out of the schools are taught surveying, 
agriculture, horticulture, gymnastics, swimming, and various handicrafts. 

There are about twenty workshops attached to the institution and within its 
precincts. Before the children commtmce their apprenticeship, theii- tastes, their 
preferences, their physical strength, and their intelligence are consulted. I ob- 
served, in passing through the shops, a large number of boys employed busily in 
carving, cabinet-making, turning, nmsical instrument making, jewelry, brass fin- 
ishing, tailoring, shoemaking, <fce., &c. The boys are apprenticed for a certain 
number of years to master workmen, who pay to the institution, for the boai'd of 
their apprentices, the same as is demanded for the other inmates. 

31 



482 ECOLE SAINT NICHOLAS AT PARIS. 

The following notice of the Ecole St. Nicholas is taken from a "letter 
addressed by B. Samuelson, Esq., M. P., to the Vice-President of the Com- 
mittee of Council on Education concerning Technical Education in various 
countries abroad," and printed by order of the House of Commons, Novem- 
ber 20, 1867: 

One of the most interesting estabhshments in France is the Ecole St. 
Nicliolas, which educates and teaches a trade to eighteen hundred pupils. It 
was founded by Monsignor de Berringer, and is now conducted by the Christian 
Brothers, under the superintendance of a board of managers, of which the 
Archbishop of Paris is the president. 

It consists of two schools, one in the Rwe de Vaugirard, near the Luxem- 
bourg, and the other at Issy, in the suburbs of Paris. Issy, which receives 
children at the age of seven years, is a preparatory school for the one in the 
Rue de Vaugirard, to which they are transferred if sufficiently advanced at the 
age of ten. When they have completed their school education, they may, if 
they desire it, be placed as apprentices in the workshops forming part of the 
school buildings. The apprenticeship lasts four years, and the boys are taught 
by masters who follow their respective trades for profit. All without exception 
are boarders, and pay fourteen pounds ten shillings per annum for their board, 
education and clothing, but in the fourth year of apprenticeship this payment is 
defrayed by the master. 

The entire income from school-fees and subscriptions is about twenty-five 
thousand pounds, and the subscriptions do not probably amount to more than 
one-tenth of this sum. There were seven hundred boys in the school of the 
Rue Vaugirard, and one hundred and forty apprentices in the workshops when 
I visited them. 

The staff of teachers, all of whom arfe '* freres," is ample. The boys are well 
clothed, and although their food would probably be considered insufficient for 
growing English lads, the}' looked healthy. I inquired whether they had lost 
many pupils during the cholera epidemic of 1865, as I knew it had been severe 
in that part of Paris, and was told they had only one, and that one an imported 
case. 

The dormitories are scrupulously clean, and both these and the class-rooms 
are airy and well lighted. The instruction, though nominally primary, is 
carried beyond what have hitherto formed practically in England and Prance 
the limits of elementary education. 

I saw about sixty boys of from twelve to fourteen, in the drawing-classes. 
The work of even the younger boys was good, and the older ones drew the 
details of machinery from models and dimensions correctly and neatly. 

Some of the architectural drawings also were good ; one or two would not 
have disgraced an architect's office. Reading was made the occasion for 
exercises in parsing, the derivation of the words, both from the roots and from 
the Latin, being given by the boys. 

In arithmetic, vulgar fractions were well worked, and the theory appeared to 
be fairly understood. Comparing tliis scliool with some of the best elementary 
schools that I saw in Germany and Switzerland, ITound tlie drawing here 
mucli better, and the results of the general instruction very fair, tliough the 
methods were inferior, and the art of the teacher was evidentlj^ not understood 
as it is in those countries. The boys in the workshops were being taught the 
stock trades of Paris, the manufacture of bronzed articles, of optical and 
musical instruments, carving in wood, gilding, saddlery, &c., and some two or 
three youtlis of seventeen or eighteen were modeling in clay; one showed 
considerable talent, • and great expectations were entertained of him as a 
sculptor. Half-a-dozen boys were drawing shawl-patterns for one of the great 
Paris designers. The work was real paying work such as I had seen in no 
other apprenticeship school, except perhaps at Crefeld. 

The apprentices have special classes in mechanical, ornamental and figure 
drawing, and in vocal music, between the hours of divine service on Sundays. 



DEPARTMENTAL AND COMMUNAL SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 



Out of the numerous technical ^schools in France which private 
enterprise or the competitions of international trade have created 
in the great centers of industry, we select a few only for detailed 
description. 

TECHNICAL SCHOOL (LA MARTINIERE) AT LYONS. 

The technical school at Lyons, known as La Martiniere^ was founded by 
the bequest oif Major General Claude Martin, who left Lyons a poor boy, and 
having fought the English under Tippoo Sahib, entered the service of the East 
India Company, and died at Lucknow in 1 800 — leaving one-half of his estate 
to found an industrial school in India, and the other half a similar school in his 
native town. 

Its endowment pays the annual sum of 100,000 francs. Gratuitous instruc- 
tion is given to about five hundred pupils, in addition to which there is aa 
evening school, which is attended by two or three hundred adults. It is well 
provided with buildings and apparatus, which cost more than a million francs. 

Its purpose, broadly sketched, is to give to the children of the poor, just before 
they commence their apprenticeship, a course of scientific instruction, having 
constant reference to industrial needs. Pupils are admitted between the ages 
of twelve and fourteen and a half ; older pupils only exceptionally; their 
parents must be residents of Lyons or in the Department of the Rhone. Be- 
sides the conditions of being health}^, of having been vaccinated, or having had 
the small-pox, they must pass a prehrainary examination, which is held between 
October 15th and 30th, in reading, writing, and the first four rules of arithmetic. 

GOVERNMENT OP THE SCHOOL. 

The direction of the school is in the hands of an administrative commission, 
consisting of the mayor of the city, the executors of the founder, and seven 
others chosen by the municipal council and approved by the Minister of the 
Department. It regulates all the internal and external affairs of the school ; 
authorizes all expenditures, fixes the salaries, arranges the curriculum, inspects 
the classes, elects the professors and dismisses them at pleasure. All orders are 
given in its name. It receives from the director a quarterly report upon tlie 
condition of the school. 

The director is charged with the execution of the orders of the commission, 
and a general supervision. He makes a quarterly report to the commission, 
and another to the parents or guardians of the pupils. 

The registrar is the financial agent, and is, if possible, chosen from among the 
family of tlie founder. He makes no payments, except upon order from the 
commission. He reports to tlie director. 

The censor is an officer having inspection of the studies and the expense of 



484 DEPARTMENTAL AND COMMUNAL SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 

the school, and fills the place of the director in case of absence. He makes a 
quarterly report directly to the commission. Under his care are the buildings 
and apparatus. He must give four hours a day to his office. 

An inspector and two sub-inspectors have immediate care of the furniture and 
apparatus, and watch over the discipline of the school. They are under the 
orders of the censor, but they report to him or to the director, according to the 
nature of the matter in hand. 

The budget of the institution is annually submitted to the prefect of the 
Rhone and the municipal council of Lyons. 

INSTRUCTORS. 

The corps of instructors includes the following officers : — Professors. Assist- 
ant professors. Class teachers, {charges de cours.) Tutors or assistants, {mai- 
ires.) Repeaters, (repetiteurs.) Overseers of the workshop. Assistant repeat- 
ers. These titles are conferred by the administrative commission, and their 
application is rigidly observed. 

The duties of professors, assistant professors, teachers and masters are dis- 
tinctly defined. They have charge of the courses, and make certain reports to 
the director, concerning the conduct and proficiency of their pupils, and to him 
they must give previous notice of intended absence. Failure to give such no- 
tice, and absence not approved by the administrative commission, are punished 
by the retention of a part of their salary. They make also an annual report to 
the commission, concerning the proficiency of their scholars. 

The repeaters assist in the recitations, taking upon themselves the more me- 
chanical and laborious part of the business of it, and give additional instruction, 
as the instructors with whom they are connected may require. Their assistants 
are chosen from among the prize graduates of the school. 

It is desired to connect, as far as possible, the same instruction with the same 
pupils throughout the two years. 

The students of mathematics are divided into six sections, each of wiiich has 
a professor, assistant professor, or teacher. 

There is a professor or assistant professor of chemistry for each year of the 
course. There is also a repeater for this branch, w4io has the oversight of the 
manipulations, and is assisted by a preparateur and two assistant repeaters. 

The professors of chemistry are responsible for the apparatus and chemicals, 
although the preparattur has the immediate charge of them. 

DISCIPLINE or PUPILS. 

The pupils are required to be regularly present, to be punctual, and to pre- 
serve perfect silence during school hours. The following punishments may be 
inflicted : — 

Increase of work ; the lowest place in the class ; the ordinary retention ; 
retention upon bread and water ; expulsion. 

Expulsion is inflicted by the administrative commission alone, and then only 
after eight days' notice to the family of the offender. 

COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 

The course of study extends over two years, and includes the following 
branches : — 



DEPARTMENTAL AND COMMUNAL SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 



485 



1. Mathematics, embracing aritlimetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometrj^, de- 
scriptive geometry, physics and mechanics. 2. Drawing appHed to the indus- 
trial arts. 3. Morals. 4. Grammar and writing. 5. Manual labor. 6. Chem- 
istry. 7. Fabrication of goods. 8. Practical carving. 

The branches 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, are studied by all; 6, 7, 8 are special courses, 
pursued by only a part of the pupils. The seventh course (fabrication of goods) 
includes a weaving-school, and an advanced chemical class. 

During the course of chemistry, the principles of optics involved in the art 
of .dyeing are taught. To answer practical demands, there are workshops con- 
nected with the school, where are practiced turning, carpentry, working in 
metals, working with the point, {la mise au point j carving soft stone and wood, 
and modeling in plaster. 

This course is extensive, but it is carried through successfully by the econ- 
omy of time secured by the method hereafter detailed. 

The academical year commences November 3d, and closes the day after the 
distribution of prizes. There is a vacation of eleven days at Easter. During 
these vacations instruction is given to such as desire it, to fit them for entering 
or pursuing the studies of the school. 

The sessions in term-time begin at fifteen minutes to six in the morning, and 
last until seven o'clock in the afternoon, the weariness of such a long session 
being relieved by practice in the workshop. 

The hours which in other schools are commonly devoted to recreation, and 
Thursdays, (generally kept as holidays,) are dedicated to manipulations m the 
workshops. 

We present a table of recitations : — 
Morning. — Chemistry, 6.45 to 8.15. 
Drawing, 8.30 to 10.15. 
Mathematics, 10.30 to 12.05. 
Afternoon. — Fabrication of goods, 2.30 to 4. 
Morals, 3 to 4. 
"Writing, 3 to 4. 
Grammar, 3 to 4. 
Mathematics, 4.15 to 5.30. 

Repetitions on theory of manufactures, 5.30 to 7. 
Practical carving, modeling, and molding, 5.30 to 7. 
In the workshops, 1st division, 12.5 to 1.10. 
2d " 1.10 to 2.05. 
3d " 2.05 to 3. 
Chemical manipulations, Thursdays, 6.45 to ] 0. 
Work in the workshops, " 10 to 1.45. 

All apparatus required for the studies and recitations is furnished by the in- 
structors to certain pupils called heads of divisions, (chefs de brigade,) and is, 
after it has been used, collected by them, and locked away. 

Pupils not able to keep up with the class (retardataires) are formed into a 
separate class by themselves with a more confined range of studies. 

It is intended that the pupils shall prepare a part of their lessons at home. 

COURSE FOR ADULTS. 

The course for adults is held during the evening, after the hours of work, from 
November 10th until March 20th. All adults are admitted, and the attendance 



486 



DEPARTMENTAL AND COMMUNAL SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 



is very satisfactory. Provision is made in them for those whose education has 
been neglected, and that past graduates of the school may increase their stock 
. of knowledge without neglecting their daily occupations. The course is prac- 
tical, and has reference to the trades practiced by the auditors. 

METHOD OF TEACHING. 

The method of teaching adopted at La Martiniere was devised by M. Taba- 
reau, a workman of Lyons. Its fundamental principle is concerted action 
carried to its farthest extent, in listening, in questions, in answers, and in 
work, while above all the attention is incessantly stimulated. It is so carried 
out that, since aU is done collectively and individually, even to the oral ques- 
tions and the written answers, the whole lesson is directed at once to each and 
all. Inattention is rendered almost impossible by the liability of each one to 
be suddenly called upon. 

The recitations are conducted upon a plan which, in exactness and rapidity, 
resembles that of a military drill. Let us detail this plan. 

The recitation room is furnished with tables on each side of a central aisle. 
Each table will accommodate seven pupils, and the places at each are num- 
bered from the aisle toward the wall, from one to seven. Now, considering the 
pupils to form ranges parallel to the aisle, the row nearest the aisle is called 
range one, the next range two, the next range three. Again, the fourth range 
from the aisle is called range one, the fifth from the aisle range two, and the 
sixth range three. The seventh place from the aisle, or last range, is again 
called range one. All the pupils in the places called range one are considered 
to belong to the first series ; all in the places called range two to the second 
series, and in range three to the third series. The object of this arrangement 
is that no two pupils of the same series shall sit beside each other and copy 
from each other's slates, for a written question or an example is given to a 
whole series at once. 



Nos. 


Series. 




Series. 


Nos. 


of the 


1131 2I1I3I 211 




1 1 21 31 11 21 311 


ofthe 


tables. 


Pupils. 


Pupi 


s. 


tables. 


1 


7 


' 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


•7 


2 


3 


7 


6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


4 


5 


T 


7 


7 


4 


3 


2 


1 


Free 


1 


2 


3 


4 


^ 


6 


7 


6 


•7 


•7 


6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


passage 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


1 


6 


5 


^ 


3 


2 


1 


way. 


1 


^ 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


10 


11 


7 


« 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


12 


13 


1 


6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


1 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


« 


7 


14 



DEPARTMENTAL AND COMMUNAL SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 43^ 

Each place at the tables is provided with a large slate for performing opera- 
tioBs, and a little hook which can be seen from the professor's desk. 

Let us now suppose the class assembled. At each table is a pupil called the 
head of the division, {chef de brigade.) The professor gives the word of com- 
mand, " Slates!" upon which the heads of tiie divisions come forward to his 
desk and take each a box containing seven small slates, and returning hang one 
upon each hook before a scholar. These boxes, be it remarked, lie, when on 
the teacher's desk, in pigeon holes, each of which corresponds to a particular 
table. All being ready, the professor says, "First series I" and puts a question, 
and immediately ''Second series — third series I" giving a question to each. The 
question is generally the same, but modified somewhat in its terms, so that the 
answer in eacli series shall be different, the professor possessing a table of ques- 
tions prepared for this purpose. The whole three series now prepare the 
answer, or if it be the problem, the solution. AVhen the answer or solution is 
ready, it is Avritten by each upon his small slate, which is then hung upon the 
hook, and when all the hooks are filled, the order is given, the heads of the 
divisions collect the slates of the whole class, replace them in the boxes, and 
put the boxes in their places before the professors. They carry back another 
set of small slates, and the process is repeated. 

"While the second set of questions is being answered, the professor has time 
to examine the slates first brought back, the process being the more rapid, since 
all the slates froin the same series should present the same response, and the 
professor is provided with a complete set of answers. 

After the second set of small slates is returned, questions are put upon the 
first set. Then another set is distributed, and the same process is again repeated. 

For oral answers, the pupils are numbered at each table, and, when a ques- 
tion is put, the professor says, "third, fifth," &c., meaning the fifth at the third 
table, &c., rapidly calling on one after another to complete, explain, or correct. 
So the pupils' attention is kept constantly on the stretch, and great attention is 
paid that no time shall be lost. All is executed with the precision of a military 
drill. For instance, if an operation is to be performed on slates, the cry, 
"slates!" (like "attention!") brings the right hand of every pupil to the handle 
of his slate, then at two quick raps, which follow, the slate is placed in position 
for work. 

The system just detailed is applied, as far as circumstances allow, to all the 
branches taught. 

INSTRUCTION IN DRAWINQ. 

The method adopted at LaMartiniere to teach drawing is quite pecuhar. It 
is considered by the devisers tha't the usual plan of copying from prints delays 
rather than advances the pupil, inasmuch as he is never required to exercise his 
mind in the study of perspective. Therefore the scholar begins immediately to 
draw from a model. He is taught to consider his model as an assemblage of 
geometrical figures, cones, cjdinders, etc., and starting from this he is soon able 
to draw a machine at least, since in this the whole arrangement is mathematical. 

For four or five months he draws upon a slate, then upon paper; and within 
the same 3^ear is exercised in making plans, sections, and elevations of ma- 
chinery. During the first year he uses no rule, square or compass, having only 
the eye for guide. During the second year he sketches and draws from mem- 



4«^ DEPARTxMENTAL AND COMMUNAL SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 

orj, and designs machinery, availing himself of the various instruments used 
by drauglitsraen. The course is finished by washing in a perspective drawing 
of some machine, and by a composition upon some given subject of perspective. 

The room in which the exercise is carried on presents a peculiar aspect. The 
students are gathered in groups of twenty-five about models or machines, raised 
on a pedestal, each student sitting astride on a peculiar seat, with a board be- 
fore him, which is provided with various appurtenances serving to elevate it, 
depress it, or to otherwise change its position. 

The method has proved very successful, and the system of drawing from the 
model at first has not disappointed its devisers. 

INSTRUCTION IN MORALS. 

As only day-scholars are received at this school, the opportunities for moral 
instruction are somewhat limited. But considering that in the poor families to 
which the pupils generally belong, there is little time for that home influence 
which is the chief reliance in the moral education of youth, and that it is the 
aim of the school not merely to make good workmen but good citizens for the 
State, it was determined to establish such a course. 

It was thought that an ecclesiastic, kind, intelligent, and well-informed, and 
moreover one possessing a fondness for children, would be the best person to 
fulfil all the requirements of the position. 

An hour a day is assigned to morals, and the course is conducted in a familiar 
manner. The subjects are: our duties towards God, society, and self; moral- 
ity, good, evil, reason, society, and the conduct of our internal self, a course 
more complete probably than is given in any other school not distinctively reli- 
gious. 

THE APPARATUS. 

The school is well provided with apparatus, and possesses a collection of ma- 
chines and models. For the chemical course, there is for every trio of scholars 
a set of reagents, a spirit-lamp, and a gas-trough. 

The collection of apparatus illustrating geometry and mechanics is very com- 
plete. To the students of geometry are furnished little boxes of wood serving 
as horizontal planes of projection, on which are constructed, by needles, all the 
geometrical figures which can be represented by straight lines. There is a large 
collection of models of machinery, capable of performing their proper move- 
ments. 

For the drawing classes are provided models and a peculiar apparatus illus- 
trating perspective, consisting of geometrical figures constructed of iron wire, 
representing the various changes undergone by them in accordance with that 
law of optics. 

This list is completed by a collection of drawings upon pasteboard, on a large 
scale, of the various objects required to illustrate the courses. 

The museum containing^ this collection of apparatus is open to the general 
public twice a week, and members of the corps of instructors are present to 
give explanations. 

PRIZES AND STIPENDS. 

There is an annual distribution of prizes in each department of the school, 
given after an examination conducted by juries consisting of emment gentlemen 



DEPARTMENTAL AND COiMMUNAL SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 489 

not counected with the school, who are selected by the administrative commis- 
sion. The prizes consist of medals bearing tiie effigy of the founder, of books, 
and tools. The medals for the pupils of ihe second year are of silver ; for those 
of the second year, of bronze. Besides, bronze medals are given to all pupils 
of the second year who have received honorable mention. In awarding the 
prizes the rank obtained by the pupil during the year counts as a third. 

Diplomas are issued, and good places are found for those pupils who have 
especially distinguished themselves. 

As assistance are classed certain moneys given to the poor families of worthy 
pupils, these sums being large enough to be of material help. In this last form 
of award, attention has been paid to the moral effect upon the pupil of becom- 
ing so early a benefactor to his family. 

SCIENTIFIC SPIRIT OP THE SCHOOL. 

"We will conclude this short sketch with an abstract of the general instruc- 
tions given to the professors. 

They are to vary the subject as much as is possible, both to show the con- 
nection that exists between the sciences, and to give rest to the mind by the 
change from one subject to another. All the faculties ought to be harmoni- 
ously cultivated. All is connection and ramification in these studies, and it is 
from comparing them that we derive results useful to humanity. Useless de- 
tails, not leading to some essential or practical result, should be withheld. 
Abstract ideas should be, so far as possible, replaced by the concrete. Abstract 
ideas should be presented only so far as is necessary to perfect -the demonstra- 
tion of the logical connection of the argument. 

So far as possible, appeal is to be made to the senses, for what we have seen 
with the bodily eye remains by us the longest of all. Show as soon as possible 
the practical application of a truth. It is by this last plan that we refresh the 
mind of the pupil, and that the students at this school are enabled to bear so 
long a session as ten hours without fatigue. 

Teach that only which the intelligent workman is not likely to forget. It is 
a mistake to load these young minds with too much purely scieniific detail, 
which is sure to be sooner or later forgotten. It is not impossible to impress 
the highest truths of science upon minds not familiarized with her. It is here 
that the toil of the professor must supplement what is lacking in the pupil. 
There is no food whicli is not suitable for the mind, if both mind and mental 
food are fitly prepared for each other. It is the difficulty of this double prepa- 
ration that is to be overcome by talent and method. 

Such is the scheme of La Martiniere. "Whatever be the results as to much 
of the scientific matter taught there, whether the pupil remember or forget it, 
it is certain that he will carry away habits of order, of method, and of study, a 
taste for work, a correctness of reasoning, much technical knowledge, and a 
sufficient initiation into manual labor, all which will profit him much in what- 
ever he may do. 

Mr. Samuelson, in his Letter on Technical Education Abroad, while expressing 
doubts of the great superiority of the Methode Tabareau, remarks: "This scliool 
imparts to boys twelve to thirteen years of age, in the course of two years, a 
wide range of scientific knowledge. The arrangements which I saw for teach- 
ing drawing from models, the laboratories, and the models in wood of machinery 
produced by the pupils in the workshops, were really admirable." 



490 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 



Since the foregoing account of the La Martiniere School was drawn up from 
a pamphlet history of the same, we have read the evidence of M. Girardin, to 
the Commission on Technical Instruction, which is very favorable in the esti- 
mate of the methods and results of this school. 

The majority of the pupils of La Martiniere succeed in the careers in life 
which they select. There are in the town of Lyons a large number of skilled 
artisans wlio hnve sat on the benches of the school; the principal dyers are old 
pupils of the school, and to them is due the increased prosperity of the trade 
of the town by the remarkable discovery of the new and fashionable colors. 
The Polytechnic School has also received many of the pupils, and it is to their 
first success in La Martiniere that they owe the brilhant position they have ob- 
tained, the just recompense of their assiduity. 

The metliod of teaching descriptive geometry is thus described: — "Each 
pupil is furnished with a small tin box about eight inches long, four inches 
broad, and three-fourths of an inch deep. This is filled with yellow wax, so 
prepared as not to turn too hard. This represents to the pupil the horizontal 
plane of projection. The edge opposite to him is the ground line, and he can 
imagine to himself the plane of elevation passing through this ground line. 
Small strips of iron wire represent lines in space, the projections on the hori- 
zontal plane by laying them on the box, and those on the plane of elevation by 
fixing them on the edge which represents the ground line. The movement of 
these strips on the wax is effected by direction of the teacher, and the pupil is 
enabled easily to understand a diagram in descriptive geometry." 

M. Girardin is director of the Central School at Lyons, which was estab- 
lished by an aasociation, to be a complement to La Martiniere — but for paying 
scholars in reference to the industries of Lyons. Drawing, from models and in 
projections ; chemistry, with the greatest facilities of manipulations ; mechanics, 
from models and parts of machines constructed by the pupils in the workshops ; 
visits once a week to certain manufactories, from which figured sketches must 
be brought back to the school — are among the technical subjects and methods 
of this school. There are twelve professors, who are paid according to the 
hours devoted. 



DEPARTMENTAL AND COMMUNAL SPECIAL SCHOOLS. 491 

SCHOOLS FOR WATCHMAKING. 

A few years ago the watch and clock trade of France, which had been very 
flourishing, was greatly depressed by the superior article in taste and iiicety of 
mechanism produced in Switzerland. To enable the workmen in the large fac- 
tories, and the fabricators of detached pieces working in their own houses all 
througli certain districts of France, to perfect their taste and skill, individuals, 
municipal authorities and the State encouraged in the primary schools instruc- 
tion in drawing; opened cabinets of finished watches, movements, and detached 
pieces, for public inspection and private examination and study; offered prizes 
for the most finished as well as the cheapest specimens of workmansliip; and 
instituted special schools for practical instruction in all the details of design and 
construction in this domain of art. The school at Morteau, in the department 
of Doubs, established in 1836, and another at Besan9on, founded a few years 
later, were both aided by the departmental council, and the latter, by an annual 
grant of 16,000 francs. In consequence of these encouragements, the Besan(;on 
trade in the article of watches, gold and silver, has rapidly increased. In 1845, 
the total make was under 45,000, and in 1865 it was over 300,000 — an increase 
due to the superior article brought into the markets of Paris. 

SCHOOL AT BESANCON". 

The school at Besangon is one of the best of its kind in Europe. The in- 
struction is both theoretical and practical — general and technical. The full 
course extends through three years. The candidate must be fourteen years old, 
and have had a good primary school education, and must pass an examination 
as to his general intelligence and aptitudes. 

The general course embraces the French language, ornamental penmanship 
and drawing, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and physics. The special and tech- 
nical instruction covers all the requirements of manufacturers, finishers, and 
repairers. The practice is had in workshops, where the successive steps, of 
rough-casting pinions, making dials, and finishing various kinds of escapements, 
jeweling, and all accessory and finishing operations of putting together, casing, 
and regulating, are systematically taken. 

Through this and other schools, a class of accomplished and skilled manu- 
facturers and foremen have been educated, and a large number of intelligent 
and trained workmen have been scattered all through the department of Doubs, 
which enables its watch manufacturers to compete for a large share of the trade 
of the world. 

SCHOOL AT CLUSES. 

In 1863, another school was established at Cluses, in the arrondissement of 
Bonneville, on the road from Geneva to Chamounix, towards which both the 
department of Savoy and the government gives pecuniary aid and supervision. 

The object of the school is : — 

1st, To train workmen for the manufacture of the different parts of watches, 

2d. To procure the necessary instruction for those who are destined to be 
repairers, or makers of watches. 

The school is administered by a director, with the concurrence of a council of 
administration. The director is nominated by the Minister of Agriculture, &c., 
and chosen from among persons well acquainted with the various branches of 
the art of watchmaking. His salary is fixed by the Minister. 

The council of administration consists of the prefect, who presides; thd 



492 



DEPARTMENTAL AND COMMUNAL S5PLCLA.L SCHOOLS. 



sous-prefet^ who acts as vice-president ; the director of the school ; a member 
of the council-general of the department, the mayor of Cluses, and two of the 
principal watchmakers of the arrondissement 

The council receives once a year from the director of the school a report of 
the management, and gives its opinion as to this management ; it determines, 
on the proposal of the director, the division, the hours, and the programmes of 
the lessons and exercises ; it regulates all matters concerning discipline, and 
improvements to be introduced; and takes particular care that the instruction 
retain its practical character. 

The instruction given in the school is gratuitous, and is both theoretical and 
practical. 

The practical instruction comprises all the methods and operations suited to 
give to the pupils the manual dexterity necessary for one, or for several of the 
special parts of watchmaking. 

The theoretical instruction comprises thg elements of arithmetic of geometry, 
and of meclianics. The pupils are besides practiced in making drawings of the 
various detached parts of a watch, and of the tools used in watchmaking. 

The normal duration of the instruction is two years, and in no case can a 
pupil be allowed to remain more than three years in the school. 

The staff of teachers consists of a master, intrusted with the theoretical in- 
struction, and of heads of workshops, {clufs (Tatditr.) 

These teacliers are all appointed by the prefect, but proposed by the director. 
Their salaries are fixed by the Minister, who also regulates the number of pupils 
to be admitted each year. 

Candidates must be twelve years of age, and must produce: — 

1. A testimonial of good conduct. 

2. Must prove by examination that they have a knowledge of reading, 
writing, spelling, and the first four rules of arithmetic. 

3. Must produce a certificate of vaccination. 

They must, on entering the school, be provided with a certain number of 
tools, and must deposit a sum of twenty-five francs as a guarantee for any 
losses or deteriorations caused by their fault. 

The pupils are distributed among the different workshops in the school, ac- 
cording to the judgment of the director. The proceeds of the work done in 
the workshops belong to the State. 

The pupils are all daj^-scholars, and are placed by their parents in families 
domiciled in the commune of Cluses, and approved by the administration of 
the school. 

The administration may, however, at the request of the parents, or for mo- 
tives of its own, undertake to place the children. In these cases the parents 
must pay in advance every three months a sum of which the maximum must 
not exceed six hundred francs a year. 

A certain number of places in the school are reserved temporarily for jour- 
neymen watchmakers who wish to perfect themselves in the fabrication of oiie 
part or of several parts of the watch works. 

Grants (within the limits prescribed annually in the budget) may be made to 
pupils whose families are in straitened circumstances, and who have" merited 
such aid by their industry and their good conduct. These grants sliall be ap- 
plied to the expenses of their board and lodging, and similar assistance may 
be afforded to the journeymen admitted temporarilj' into the school. 

The pupils are subject to the supervision of tlie administrative authorities of 
the scliool, not only within its walls, but also when out of doors, or with the 
families with whom they live. 

General examinations take place at the end of each year, in the presence of 
the director and of several members of the administration. At the conclusion 
of the examination, places according to merit and conduct are assigned to the 
pupils. 

Certificates of study are given to pupils of the second year who are judged 
worthy of receiving them. These certificates indicate the degree of ability 
attained by the pupil as a watchmaker, with mention of the special part of the 
watch to which he has particularly devoted himself during his stay in the school 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 



493 



LACE AND RIBBON-FABRIC SCHOOLS. 

To extend and perfect the elegant and dififieult handicraft fabric of lace- 
work, a school of design, as well as a practical school for acquiring taste and 
dexterity in all the manipulations of twisting the thread, pricking the patterns, 
and working from the designs, exists at Dieppe. Numerous schools exist in 
difierent towns of France, (St. Etienne, Lyons, &c.,) where the trade in ribbons 
is largely carried on, for training not only designers of patterns, but artistic 
workmen in the chemistry of colors and all the details of weaving this fabric. 

WEAVING SCHOOL AT MULHOUSE. 

The weaving school at Mulhouse was established in June, 1861, when the 
treaty of commerce with England was concluded which inaugurated a new 
tariff legislation and a closer competition between French and foreign industry. 
Under the lead of the Chamber of Commerce, whose members were impressed 
with the great services which such a school would render to young men, who 
could study the general theory of weaving and its various applications, the In- 
dustrial Society and other citizens of Mulhouse subscribed the sum of 40,000 
francs to inaugurate the enterprise in a hired hall, and continue the school for 
at least three years. After that period of successful operation, the school was 
incorporated and became proprietor of a large building constructed especially 
for its use, and provided with all needful material, fliers, warping-mills, dress- 
hig macliinery, and power-looms with one to six shuttles, and a steam-engine. 

The school has two divisions — a theoretical and practical. . The pupils of the 
first division decompose all the various kinds of tissues, whatever the design, 
and arrange them anew upon the cards. They are also taught free-hand draw- 
ing and design, building and machine drawing, commercial arithmetic and book- 
keeping. The second division are trained in all the manual labor of construc- 
tion, repairing, adjusting, and keeping in order the various machines; the 
manner of handling the threads, setting in motion, and all the details of prepa- 
ration and operating, under the direction and supervision of master-workmen. 
After a satisfactory examination, and trial-lessons, before experts, a certificate 
of capacity and skill for positions of directors, masters and weavers is given, 
which is a sure passport to employment at home and abroad. 

COTTOX-SPINNIXG SCHOOL. 

The spinning-school at Mulhouse was established in 1864, under the auspices 
of the Industrial Society. A capital of some 30,000 francs was realized by 
subscription, payable in three annual instalments, which maintained the school 
for three years, when it became self-supporting. It aims to train not only di- 
rectors but master-workmen, who in addition to technical knowledge, may have 
correct ideas of industrial economy. The plan embraces a building composed 
of a hall for an industrial museum of designs and models of all machines used 
in spinning, and specimens of material ; three rooms fitted up with from four to 
five thousand spindles each, for fine, ordinary, and rough work; a separate hall 
in which to set up new machines sent by constructors for trial, and to give to 
all its pupils instruction in drawing and design, as well as in the practical and 
theoretical working of the cotton mills, including a thorough knowledge of 
cotton culture, the conditions which determine the price of this staple, and a 
system of industrial book-keeping. 



494 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 

INDUSTRIAL AND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF THE CREUZOT ESTABLISHMENT. 

One of the most remarkable features of the Paris Industrial Exhibition of 
1867 was the display of the products of the vast mechanical workshops of 
Messrs. Schneider & Co., at Creuzot, situated in the Blanzy coal basin, about 
thirty miles west of Chalons-sur-Saone. The existence of this coal field, and 
of a deposit of oolitic ironstone extending over a vast district, led to the orig- 
inal establishment of Creuzot. The works were founded in 1781, and dragged 
on a precarious existence until they were purchased by Henry Schneider in 
1836, after having been abandoned for several years. "When they passed into 
his hands, 60,000 tons of coal were raised and 4,000 tons of iron produced 
annually. The wonderful change which has been wrought in this district, not 
only in the productive capacity of the mines, but in the intellectual, moral, and 
economical character of the population, is thus described by B. Samuelson, 
Esq., M. P., in his ^'■Letter on Technical Education^'''' addressed to the Commis- 
sioners on the subject, and printed by order of the House of Commons. 

The works now cover 300 acres; the workshops and forges 50 acres; and 
the mines yield annually 250,000 tons of coal and 300,000 of iron ore; 300,000 
tons of coal and about 120,000 tons of ore are purchased. The iron-works pro- 
duce more than 100,000 tons of iron, besides machinery, locomotive and marine, 
iron bridges and viaducts, and even iron gunboats and river steamers, of an 
average yearly value of £600,000. The pay-sheets return 9,950 work-people, 
and wages amounting to £370,000 per annum; and the steam-engines are 
equal to a duty of nearly 10,000 horse-power. These marvelous works have 
therefore been virtually created in thirty years, and in fact, the well-built, well- 
pave. 1 town of Creuzot, with its churches, its schools, its markets, its gas and 
water- works, and its handsome public walks, inhabited by nearlj- 24,000 well- 
fed and decently-clad people, has taken the place of the wretched pit village of 
2,700 inhabitants in 1836. There is no overcrowding, the space in the dwelling 
houses averaging 1,100 cubic feet per head of the population. Notwithstanding 
his public duties, Monsieur Schneider retains the chief direction of the works. 
During the session of the Chamber, the immediate management on the spot is 
in the hands of his son, but in the recess he resides at Creuzot. After having 
conducted me for several hours through these vast works, Monsieur Schneider 
returned to his oflBce to complete and dispatch his correspondence, and debate 
the most minute economical points, items of cost, and rates of carriage with the 
heads of departments, shewing himself, as he expressed it, '' industriel jusqu'au 
bout des ongles." * * * * 

To describe the works in detail would cany me beyond the limits of this 
report. I saw no new mechanical contrivances ; the best English designs we're 
followed ; but no appliances for producing perfect work, or for economizing the 
cost of production, have been omitted ; and the new forge, contained under a 
single roof, 1,300 feet in length and 310 feet in breadth, is probably unequaled 
in the world. A very large proportion of the personnel of every rank in this 
great establishment was born and has been trained on the spot, and the possi- 
bility of thus forming highly-skilled workmen, competent engineers, and ac- 
countants, is due in a great measure to a system of education, dating as far back 
as 1841, which, though it is modestly styled elementary, is far more advanced 
and "special" than the term implies. The course, not necessarily followed by 
all, but open to all of su.fificient capacity, extends over nine years, and includes 
advanced instruction in French literature, history, geography, natural philos- 
ophy, the chemistry of metals, algebra, geometry, mechanical and free-hand 
drawing, and modeling. The more promising boys are sent to the secondary 
and higher technical schools, and many a Creuzot laborer's son may be found, 
who, having passed through the Ecole des Arts et Metiers at Aix, has returned 
to fill a responsible position in the technical management. The other bo_ys are 
drafted from the school into the works, and placed there strictly according 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 495 

to the capacity which they have shown at school ; some as simple workmen, 
others as accountants or as draughtsmen. Education is not compulsory, but no 
Creuzot boy is admitted into the works who can not read and write, and none 
who has been turned out of the school Ibr misbehavior. No doubt many of the 
boys, as they grow up, unlearn much of what they have acquired ; it is not in 
one generation that the most strenuous efforts in favor of education can be ex- 
pected to bear fruit, but a proof that they are not illusory as to the ma.ss may 
be found in the fact that whereas amongst those employed at Creuzot, but com- 
ing from the villages or from a distance, 31 per cent, of the conscripts, on the 
average of the last six years, were illiterate, only 9 per cent, of those born or 
brought up in the town were unable to read and write. There are adult 
classes, less as a corrective of deficient- elementary instruction than as a help to 
those who wish to carry their studies beyond that of the echool. They are held 
on Tuesday, Friday and Saturday, and include, at the outset, reading, writing, 
arithmetic, geometry, natural philosophy, chemistr}', geography, history, linear 
and free-hand drawing, and music. But of late years, six of the heads of de- 
partments, pupils of the Ecole des Arts et Metiers, have been appointed to 
teach special classes, bearmg directly on the occupations of the workmen, and 
including, as one of the most important, a complete course of machine-drawing. 
Though the proportion of adult pupils here, as elsewhere, is small, 5 per cent. 
of the whole number of workmen, the result is that Monsieur Scimeider, in 
walking through the sheds, where several pairs of marine engines were being- 
erected, was able to inform me that there was not a man amongst the mechanics 
employed in that department who could not make an accurate drawing of the 
work in which he was engaged. What this signifies and is worth, a mechanic 
alone can fully appreciate. Of the 268 superior engineers, managers, book- 
keepers, &c., 127, or nearly one-half; were educated at Creuzot : 5 were pupils of 
the Ecole Gentrale ; 5 of the Imperial Mining School ; 20 of the three Ecoles 
des Arts et Metiers ; 2 of t4ie Ecole la Martiniere at Lyons; 104 of various 
schools. Most of the latter, however, were of middle age, and entered Creuzot 
when its present system was in process of creation. The schools, which were 
opened in 1841 with 91 children, contained 4,065 in 1866, of whom 2,219 were 
boys; the entire number of children in Creuzot between the ages of 5 and 15 
being 4.638 at the same period. There are 11 schoolmasters, under a chief 
director, in the boys' schools; and the girls are taught by 11 "soeurs." The 
school-fees are 7d. per month for the children of persons employed in the works, 
and 14d. for those of strangers. Wages, though they have increased one-half 
during the last twenty years, are still low compared with those to which we are 
accustomed. They amount, on the average of the entire establishment, to 2s. 
lOd. per day, including the unskilled laborers and boys. The average wages of 
those employed at the mines and coal-pits are 2s. 8d. ; at the forges, 3s. ; at the 
blast-furnaces, 2s. 3d. ; and in the workshops, 2s. 9d. ; but tlie more highly- 
skilled mechanics will earn as much as 6s. 6d., and the puddlers from 6s. to 9s. 
6d. per day. The lowest wages of the latter, according to the pay-sheet ex- 
hibited at the forge at the time of my visit, were 5s. 6d., and it is worthy of 
observation that whilst in nearly every department the working staff is recruited 
among the children of the work-people, they are averse to the rude task of the 
puddling furnaces, in spite of the attraction of high pay; so that in this branch 
the labor is imported generally from the surrounding villages, boys being taken 
into the forge at the ages of 16 and 17, wiien their frames are approaching ma- 
turity. But the tendency of modern improvements is to substitute mechanical 
and chemical processes for such work as that of puddling ; and it will probably 
not be long before it is superseded. Meanwhile the employment of children of 
tender years during the night is almost entirely dispensed with. Girls under 
17 are never admitted; women do not work below the surface as they do in 
Belgium ; and the few females in the works, only 4 per cent, of the whole, are 
employed in the light day-work of dres.^ing ores and similar occupations. Boys 
scarcely ever enter the works before 14. Every person is paid inmiediately by 
the proprietors, and nearly all by the piece or the ton. The ruinous system of 
contracts with middlemen, pursued in our iron-works, is unknown. There are 
no "butties," no forge contractors earning their £2 per day, no "underhands" 
paid by puddlers : the humble laborer comes into personal contact with the 



496 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 

managers, and his work is appraised by men of education and paid for accord- 
ing to its relative value. Tables shov/ing the actual daily earnings of every 
man are suspended in the workshops of the several departments, so as to be 
open to the inspection, and to stimulate the emulation of all. 

In reference to the moral condition of the population, I will simply state that 
during fifteen years, the entire number of serious felonies in the town of Creuzot 
was 23 ; but of these, only 9 would have been felonies according to our law. 
The number of misdemeanors was about 40 annually; but many of these would 
not have constituted breaches of the law with us ; amongst others I may men- 
tion simple bankruptcy, maiming to escape military service, and abusive lan- 
guage. I was told that three policemen form the entire preventive force. 
Drunkenness is rare. T certainly did not observe a single case during my visit. 
That the people are frugal appears from the amount of their savings: £97,500 
deposited by 540 persons employed in the works; £212,000 the value of free- 
hold property at Creuzot belonging to those so employed; £130,000 of the 
same belonging to thoso formerly employed ; £94,000 belonging to strangers. 

SCHOOL FOR PRINTED STUFFS AT ROUEN. 

The Art School of Rouen was instituted in 1742, to aid in perfecting a local 
industry, and has since been continued in the interest of one of the staple man- 
ufactures of the town, Indiennerie, or printed stuff, such as chintz. 

It has a two-fold character: the classes for general art instruction, as the ele- 
mentary, the antique, the living model class, and the class for l^Indienne, are 
held in the afternoon between 12 and 5 ; and the practical classes for workmen, 
in geometry, machinery, and construction, between 8 and 10 in the evening. 

SCHOOL FOR THE SILK MANUFACTURE AT LYONS. 

The School of the Fine Arts at Lyons was established with a view to ad- 
vance the silk manufacture, by training designers and artists in flower painting 
and grouping, and in color ornamentation generally. This object is not lost 
sight of, although this has ceased to be a leading object of the Academy. 

WEAVING- SCHOOL AT MULHOUSE. 

The weaving school at Mulhouse teaches the general theory of weaving, and 
its application to all the various branches of the art. It is under the patronage 
of a local society of industry, and is governed by a managing committee.- 

It is open eight hours daily, with the exception of Sundays and legal 
holidays. There is also a special course of two hours every day for journey- 
men. The course is theoretical and practical; the theoretical part including the 
study and the analysis of the structures of fabrics, with especial reference to 
the wants of the district, drawing patterns and plans of machines, estimating 
the cost of material and finished goods, bookkeeping, &c. The practical part 
consists of the mounting, arranging, adjusting, repairing and keeping the 
machines in good order, including the steam apparatus, besides going through 
all the processes, including preparatory operations. All the instruction is given 
to each pupil separately, and in the practical part by skilled workmen. 

There is an examination at the close of the course, and certificates are given 
to those who have deserved them hy industry and good conduct. 

The fees are three hundred francs each for the practical and theoretical 
courses, and twenty-five francs monthly for the special course. 

The school is fitted up as a manufactory, provided with steam-power, repair 
shops, and all varieties of machines and models, and provision is made for 
trying experiments with new machines or new processes. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTION 

IN THE FINE ARTS, AND IN DRAWING. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The Imperial Schools of the Fine Arts in France originated in 
the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, which was founded by 
royal decree, January 20, 1648, on the application of LeBrun, 
Sanagin, Corneille and others, and incorporated by letters-patent in 
1655, and endowed with an annual grant of four thousand livres in 
1663, through the influence of Colbert. The corporation originally 
consisted of a protector, (the first was Cardinal Mazarin,) a director, 
a chancellor, four rectors, four assistant rectors, a treasurer, four 
professors, (one of whom was professor of anatomy, and another of 
geometry,) a historiographer, secretary, and two ushers. 

Every day for two hours in the afternoon, the painters held a 
public assembly, to which young artists under certain regulations 
resorted to design and paint, and the sculptors to model. There 
were twelve professors who had each charge of the school for a 
month. The professor on duty set the copy, subject, or model for 
the month. In one week two models in the sculpture hall were 
set, which was called setting the group. And the paintings and 
models made after the professor's copies, model, or group, were 
called academic figures, or productions. Two prizes for drawing 
were distributed every quarter among the students, and four others, 
two for painting and two for sculpture, were competed for once a 
year. 

To encourage and form artists still further, Louis XIY, in 1670, 
established at Rome a school or academy of painting and sculp- 
ture, wherein those who gained the annual prize at Paris, were 
entitled to a subsidy from the King to maintain them at Rome for 
three years, in a building provided expressly for their accommoda- 
tion by the academy. 

In 16*71, the Royal Academy of Architects was instituted by the 
same great minister, (who was also the founder of the Academie des 
Inscriptions et Belles-Le tires, in 1663, and of the Academie des 
Sciences in 1666, which received the royal ratification in 1669.) In 
these academies, variously modified and even suspended and 
abolished, we find the origin and even prototypes of the existing 

32 



498 IMPERIAL SCHOOL OF THE FINE ARTS. 

state schools of the fine arts in France, which are now under the 
administration of the Minister of the Imperial Household and the 
Fine Arts. 

The following appropriations were made by the government for 
the art schools in the department of the Minister, in 1867 : 

For the French Imperial Academy at Rome, staff, apparatus, and repair of 
buildings, 167,000 francs. 

For the Imperial and Special School of the Fine Arts, for the same expenses, 
220,000 francs. 

For the Imperial Special School of Drawing and Mathematics, for the same 
expenses, 58,000 francs. 

For the Imperial Special School of Drawing for young women, for the same 
expenses, 14,000 francs. 

For the Imperial School of Fine Arts at Lyons, staff and apparatus, 4T,000 
francs. 

For the Imperial School of the Fine Arts at Dijon, for the same expenses, 
15,000 francs. 

The Budget for the year 1870 contains the following, among 

other items, in addition to the provision made for the above special 

schools of the fine arts. 

For the decoration ot public monuments, 520,000 francs. 
For the purchase of works of art, and casts, 14,000 francs. 
For the annual exhibition of works of art, 24,400 francs. 
For the preservation of ancient historic monuments, 880,000 francs. 
For the works of art, and art ornamentation of pubhc buildings, 1,082,640 
francs. 

SCHOOLS OF THE FINE ARTS. 

The Imperial School of Fine Arts at Paris was organized during 
the period of the Republic (Jan. 23, 1803,) and received its present 
constitution by an Imperial decree, bearing date Nov. 13, 1863. 

It is open to French citizens only, the requisites being to 
make their desires known, and to prove their French citizenship ; 
they are not to be under fifteen nor more than twenty-five years of 
age. Foreigners are admitted to the course of study on receiving 
special permission from the Minister, but they are not allowed to 
compete for the grand prize of which we shall speak hereafter. 

The school provides for the study of painting, sculpture, archi- 
tecture, and engraving on copper-plate, medals and precious stones, 
three ateliers being occupied by each of the first three classes of 
students, and two by the engravers, one of which is assigned to the 
engravers upon copper-plate, a provision indicating partly the 
relative number of students in each branch, and partly the de- 
gree of importance attached to instruction therein. These ateliers 
are under the charge of artists having the title of Les pi-ofesseurs 
ehefs <r atelier. 

Besides the work done in the ateliers, the following courses of 
theoretical study are prescribed under other professors, viz : 



IMPERIAL SCHOOL OF THE FINE ARTS. 



499 



1. History of art and aesthetics. 

2. Anatomy. 

3. Perspective. 

4. Matiiematics. 

6. Descriptive geometry. 
6. Geology, physics and elementary chemistry. 

*l Strengtli and cost of materials, superintendence and accounts. Admin- 
isti'ation el compatibilite^ construction et application sur les chaniiers. 
8. History and archaeology. 

These courses are obligatory, but not equally so upon all. 

All must pursue the courses upon history, aesthetics and archae- 
ology. The students of painting, sculpture and engraving are i*e- 
quired to study in addition, anatomy and perspective. The students 
of architecture can omit the course upon anatomy. 

Besides the professors already mentioned, extraordinary instruc- 
tion upon subjects connected with art is occasionally given by persons 
not connected with the school, on receiving permission. 

Connected with the government of the institution are a secretary, 
an agent comptahle, a conservator of models and works of art, and 
a librarian, all nominated by the Minister and placed under the im- 
mediate authority of a director, appointed by imperial decree for a 
period of five years. The director alone has charge of the execu- 
tion of all regulations, corresponds with the administration upon the 
affairs of the school, and controls the funds. 

Besides these officers there is a superior council (conseil superieur 
d^enseignement,) of which the professors having charge of the ate- 
liers can not form a part. It is composed of the superintendent of 
fine arts, who is its president ; the director of the administration of 
fine arts, the vice-president, and certain professionals appointed by 
the Minister, namely, two painters, two sculptors, two architects, an 
engraver, and five other members. It performs its functions gratu- 
itously, and one-third of its members retire every year, although 
the retiring members can be immediately reappointed. 

The director receives 8,000 francs yearly. The professors receive 
a salary of 2,400 francs, in addition to which the professors placed 
over the ateliers are provided with studios at the public expense. 

French Academy at Rome. 
The great feature for the encouragement of the study of the fine 
arts is the opportunity of a residence at Rome, [grand prix de 
Home,) which is open to competition not only to members of the 
school, but to all French citizens between the ages of fifteen and 
twenty-five. Members of the school can also compete without be- 
ing compelled to study for any specified time, so that no obstacle 
is put in the path of the more energetic and those inclined to make 



500 IMPERIAL SCHOOL OF THE FINE ARTS!. 

rapid progress. Three examinations are held in the school annu- 
ally, for painting, sculpture and architecture, every two years for 
the engravers upon copper-plate, and every three years for the 
others. After two examinations, the best ten in each class are se- 
lected for a final examination for the great award, the successful 
aspirant to which is sent to Rome, [grand prix de Rome,) the mode 
and programme of all the examinations being drawn up by the su- 
perior council. This council selects also a list of names of judges 
for each class, which list is presented to the Minister, who chooses 
from it the five juries of award, consisting of nine members for 
each of the three classes, painting, sculpture and architecture, and 
five members for each of the other two classes, the engravers of 
medals and precious stones forming one class. Each jury passes 
judgment upon one class only, the results of both the preliminary 
and the final examinations being laid before it. Hence the result 
can not fail to be more fair than if the decision depended upon one 
examination alone. 

The successful aspirants, one in each class, are now sent to Rome, 
where they are obliged to remain two years, after which they can 
travel two years longer, following their own tastes, but must previ- 
ously notify the administration of their intentions. During these 
years they receive a regular annuity from the government. An 
exception is made however for the fifth class, the engravers of med- 
als and precious stones, who receive this annuity only three years, 
and must remain at Rome for the same length of time as the 
others. 

During the stay of the students at the school a regular report of 
their progress is made every three months by the professors placed 
over the ateliers, to the director, who transmits these reports to 
the superior council. If any of the students appear to possess 
unusual talents, they are recommended by the council to the Minis- 
ter as deserving particular encouragement. 

A report of the progress and occupations of the prizemen is 
made to the Minister every six months by the director of the im- 
perial academy at Rome. 

IMPERIAL SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS AT LYONS. 

The Art School at Lyons was instituted with especial reference 
to the needs of the industrial arts, and particularly for those who 
are to be employed in designing for the silk-looms of the city. 
• The school is placed under the supervision of a director appoint- 



IMPERIAL SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS. 5OI 

ed by imperial decree,) whose office is properly only executive. 
His duty is to supervise the work of the professors and the 
scholars, and he is responsible for the archives, models and other 
apparatus belonging to the institution. He is ordered to allow no 
change in the prescribed mode of instruction, this being carried so 
far that he must prevent the use of any models except those furnish- 
ed and recognized by the school. All infractions of these rules 
must be by him reported to the prefect of the Rhone, he himself 
having no power of punishment over the pupils, beyond fifteen 
days' suspension. Under his orders are the secretary, the monitor, 
whose care it is to sec that all the pupils are present and orderly, 
and the janitors and porters. The professors are not subject to his 
orders, although they are to look to him to supply their places in 
case of their absence. 

The director and professors form a council of administration, 
presided over by the prefect or his substitute, holding its meetings 
once a month. The secretary is present, but simply as a clerk. 
The most important duty of the council is to decide upon the 
degree of advancement arrived at by the students, in order to 
classify them properly. But their decisions are not valid without 
the signature of the prefect himself. 

The branches taught are the following : 

Class 1. Elementary drawing and drawing from the antique. 

" 2. Drawing from the hving model. 

" 3. Painting from tlie living model. 

*' 4. Sculpture and ornament. 

" 5. Architecture and ornament. 

" 6. Engraving upon copper-plate, wood, and stone. 

" 7. Drawing and painting in water-colors from flowers. 

" 8. Composition applicable to manufactures. 

" 9. Course of perspective. 

The third class, and the painting of flowers in oil, are optional. 
But the study of the human figure, being useful in both art and 
manufactures, is required of all. The painting of flowers in water- 
colors is especially directed to the benefit of those who are to be 
engaged in drawing patterns for the manufactories. 

To become a pupil of the school, the applicant must be of 
French birth, must have completed his twelfth year, and must be 
able to read and write, besides having some elementary knowledge of 
arithmetic. It is also required that he have been vaccinated, unless 
he has had the small-pox. If his parents are not residents of 
Lyons, he must find some citizen to be responsible for him. 

No foreigner or child of foreigners can be admitted, except by 
written permission from the prefect, and until recently such were 



502 IMPERIAL SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS. 

Dot allowed to contend for the prizes. If there are more applicants 
than can be admitted, those are preferred who intend to become 
draughtsmen in the silk manufactories of the city. If the appli- 
cant is somewhat advanced, he is permitted to enter an advanced 
class, but must first execute one or more designs under the eye of 
the professor of the class into which he desires to enter. These 
drawings are presented to the council, which decides upon his peti- 
tion. Before this council are brought such designs executed by the 
newly-admitted members as the professor of the elementary class 
selects for that purpose, and the council decides whether those who 
have drawn them shall be admitted into the school ; a regulation 
designed to prevent the admission of all not endowed with suflS- 
cient talent to profit by the instruction. 

The academical year begins on the 1st of November and continues 
to the 15th of August, being closed upon Saturdays and certain 
other holidays. The school opens at 9 and closes at 2 until the 
1st of March, when it opens and closes an hour earlier. Students 
fifteen minutes late are ijot permitted to enter, but are considered 
absent, as are also those who leave before the school closes, and 
two absences in the same week are punished with suspension, unless 
sufficient excuse is given. 

Fifteen days of unnecessary absence may be punished by expul- 
sion. The hours of work are to be passed in silence, and no one is 
allowed to visit a student while in the school, without special per- 
mission from the director. 

There is an annual distribution of prizes, for which every pupil 
is obliged to contest, on pain of expulsion from the school, unless 
excused by the director. The programmes and modes of examina- 
tion are drawn up by the professors of each class and presented to 
the council, being subject to modification by them, after which the 
prefect approves of them and they are posted up in the school. 
The work upon the subjects proposed is now performed in the ordi- 
nary school hours upon paper furnished and signed by the profess- 
ors and director, and no models or sketches relating to the work in 
hand can be brought into the room. Those studying architecture 
are however allowed to work from five in the morning until night 
on the day when their work is to be finished. 

Work on these is to be finished on the last day of the term, and 
the sketches are to be signed on the back, the signature being well 
covered so that the name can not be read without tearing the paper 
over them. 

A jury of three members for each class decides upon the merits 



IMPERIAL SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS. g03 

of these sketches and sends in a sealed report to the director, only 
to be opened on the day when the prizes are distributed. 

A singular provision of the law forbids the insertion in this 
report of any theoretical observations upon the methods of teach- 
ing, the progress of the students, or the fitness of the professors. 
After the distribution of the prizes the successful sketches are ex- 
hibited to the public for two days, and then hung up for a year in 
the school rooms and pass into the archives of the institution. 

We will now enter into a few details upon part of the programme 
of studies already given. 

Five evenings in the week, from November 1st to April 1st, for 
two hours, between six and eight, all the students are required to 
draw from the nude model, a privilege to which the director can 
also admit any one not a member of the school. 

The pose is given to the model by certain professors, each of 
whom decides the position for a month, when he is succeeded by 
another. 

As there is much choice in the places of drawing from the model, 
the best places are given to those students who have taken gold 
medals in the school. The others are assigned by order of merit 
in an examination held for the especial purpose, in which all con- 
tend, except the elementary class. 

Absence from this session is punished with the same penalties as 
absence from the morning session. 

Perspective is taught by a weekly lecture of an hour's duration, 
from eight to nine in the morning, and by practical exercises from 
eleven to one, of the same day. 

The course is obligatory upon all the students of the elementary 
class, no one being allowed to enter a higher class without a certifi- 
cate from the professor of perspective. Exceptions are sometimes 
made by the council, but even in this case the student is obliged to 
take this course with the lowest class. 

There is an annual prize, for which are entered the portfolio of 
exercises on perspective made during the year, and a design upon a 
given subject, made in two days under the supervision of the pro- 
fessor. 

Descriptive geometry and stereotomy are taught in weekly les- 
sons, between half-past six and half-past nine in the evening, and 
are obligatory upon all the students of architecture. At the end 
of the year the portfolios and a plaster model of a given section of 
stone are entered for a .prize. Absence from this course and that 
on perspective is punished as in previous cases. 



504 IMPERIAL SCHOOL OF FINE ARTS. 

Practical geometry is also taught in weekly lessons, between 
eight and nine in the morning, and the pupils are exercised in the 
field in surveying and in making plans. 

Prizes are given for the best books of exercises, and after an oral 
examination all prizes of the school are delivered at the same time. 

Besides these courses there is given in the amphitheatre an an- 
nual course of lectures upon comparative anatomy, as applied to the 
fine arts. These lectures, which are open to the public, are given 
twice in the week, between three and four in the afternoon. The}^ 
include a demonstration of the most remarkable anatomical ar- 
rangements of man and the inferior animals, with special reference to 
motion and to the anatomy of expression, and are illustrated by the 
study of living models. The physiological phenomena involved are 
explained. This course is concluded by a profound comparison, in 
regard to form and expression, of the principal productions of the 
fine arts, such as pictures, bas-reliefs, statues, &c. 



ART SCHOOL AT DIJON. 

The Art School at Dijon was instituted for the study of the fine 
arts in general, and without regard to any particular practical end. 
It is open five days in the week, from November 1 to August 15, 
Its curriculum presents the following annual courses : 

1. Drawing from prints. 

2. " " bas-reliefs. 

3. " " the nude and models. ■ 

4. Painting. 

5. Sculpture. 

6. Architecture. 
1. Perspective. 

Lessons upon perspective are given by the professors of architec- 
ture, and all the pupils are obliged to attend them. During the 
months of May and June they are discontinued, and their places 
are supplied by lessons upon anatomy, in connection with design, 
given by some one of the physicians of the city. 

Particular attention is given to rendering the pupils familiar with 
the use of the stump, chalk, and drawing in sepia. 

As in the other art-schools there are annual prizes to contend for, 
which is however optional with the students. 

Prizes are given for excellence in the following branches, among 
others : historical and genre composition, copying prints, drawing 
heads, designing ornaments, and copying architectural designs. 
The prizes consist of two medals in each class and are adjudged by 
artists and amateurs, invited by the director for that purpose. 



SCHOOLS OF ARCHITECTURE. 



605 



INSTRUCTION IN ARCHITECTURE. 

The education of architects, during the middle ages, was left to 
the guilds, into which the aspirant entered as an apprentice, gradu- 
ally working his way up to the position of master-builder, for the 
two positions of designer and master-builder were not then divided. 
But in course of time the guilds, never purely industrial organiza- 
tions, became more and more inefficient, and influenced by politics 
and religion, and it was with the intention of providing elsewhere 
an education for architects, now becoming a distinct body, that the 
Academy of Architecture was incorporated in 1671, at the sug- 
gestion and efforts of the great Colbert. After various vicissitudes 
in the revolutionary period, it was reorganized on its present basis 
as a separate section in the Academy of the Fine Arts in 1816. 

Section of Architecture. 

The ARCHiTECTrRAL Section of the Special School of Fine Arts at Paris 
comprises two divisions. To obtain admission to this section, it is necessary to 
pass an examination, which is held twice during the year. After admission, 
the pupil can, at will, pursue the whole course in one or two sessions. 

Candidates are examined upon arithmetic, including decimals, weights and 
measures, square root and logarithms; algebra as far as equations of the second 
degree and proportions ; elementary geometry, plane and solid ; descriptive 
geometry and universal history, with reference to the development of art. 

The courses pursued in the school are as follows: Trigonometry; conic sec- 
tions; mensuration and surveying. Statics, on the parallelogram of forces, 
centre of gravity, and machinery. Physics, on weight, heat, electricity and 
magnetism, acoustics and optics. Chemistry, its elementary laws, the principal 
elements and compounds. Descriptive geometry, of straight lines, planes, and 
curved surfaces. Perspective, of straight lines, surfaces and shi.dows; scales 
of perspective ; abstract and applied problems in drawing up perspective de- 
signs auel in calculating distances, angles, and points of sight from designs 
already made ; circles in horizontal or inclined planes, cylinders, cones, spheres, 
and salient surfaces of various orders of curves, the whole course on perspective 
closing with various problems. Stereotomy ; stone vaults of the diflerent 
forms, vStone apertures and stone stairs ; carpentry. 

Construction ; — theoretical, including the discussion of the various forces, re- 
sistance of materials, and the stability of structures; — practical, on the natural 
and commercial history of the stones, woods and metals used in building or in 
decoration, the forms given to them in the arts, their strength, defects, and the 
accidents to which they are liable, and the means of preserving them. 

The various structures, or parts of structures, formed by each ai e studied, 
and the historical development of the art. Thus, of stone are formed piers, 
columns, entablatures, stairs, roofs, ceilings, vaults, inverted arches, tunnels, 
terraces, dykes, and roads ; of wood, blinds, sash, floors, stairs, roofs, and 
bridges of various dimensions ; of iron, bolts, rivets, balustrades, columns, 
arches, trusses, girders, roofs, stairs, and large bridges. 

The classes of workmen employed for each, and the tools used by them, are 



50G SCHOOLS OF ARCHITECTURE. 

also described, including the putting up of scafifolding, masonry, carpentry, lock- 
making, and founding. 

Finally, foundations of all descriptions, including those laid in water, are 
studied, with the various accidents to which they are liable. 



CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE. 

The Central School of Architecture, in Paris, was established in 1865, 
on a foundation of 400,000 francs, is under the management of Directors elected 
by the subscribers to the fund, but is subject to the supervision of the Ministers 
of Public Instruction and of the Fine Arts, both of which have created schol- 
arships and half-scholarships which are competed for by the pupils of the 
school, and are represented in the commissions which conduct the admission 
and competitive examinations. 

The school is situated in the Hotel de Chaulnes, in Eue d'Enfer. Its object 
is to supply a sound practical education in aid of existing institutions, which 
give more of the artistic qualities of an architect's education. 

The school is open to foreigners as well as natives. The fee for the annual 
course is 850 francs, payable in three instalments, namely, 400 francs on admis- 
sion, 250 francs on the 10th of February, and the remainder on the 10th of May 
following. In addition to this, each pupil deposits 40 francs to cover any losses 
or damage occasioned by his fault. 

The examination takes place in November, either at the school itself, or in 
any provincial town, or before a professor of any foreign university, if not a 
native. Those pupils who do not exhibit sufficient aptitude or assiduity for 
success, are not allowed to continue in the school. At least one-third of the 
candidates fail, and nearly the same proportion admitted prove incompetent. 

Candidates for admission, if examined in Paris, are required to send in a 
drawing of an ornament in bas-relief, the plan, section, and elevation of a 
building ; and a written composition ; these are replaced, in the case of pro- 
vincials or foreigners, by certificates of local architects. In all cases the can- 
didates are examined orally in the following branches of knowledge : arith- 
metic, including fractions, decimals, the metrical system, roots and -powers ; 
algebra, including simple equations, negative quantities, roots and powers of 
algebraic expressions, radicals of the second degree, equations of the second 
degree, and questions relating to compound interest and annuities ; geometry, 
plane and spherical, witli problems ; trigonometry ; descriptive geometrj'-, conic 
sections, curved surfaces and plane sections; geography, distribution of sea and 
land, zones, elements of ethnography, political geography of Asia, explaining 
the revolutions which have successively changed the geography of China, Tar- 
tary, India, the GTreek and Mussulman dominions in India, the Assyrian, Per- 
sian, Macedonian, Roman, Arab, and Ottoman empires in "Western Asia, Phoe- 
nicia, Judea, and Egypt ; political geography of Europe ; revolutions which 
have changed the distribution of nationalities in the "West ; maps of Greece and 
of her colonies in the time of Pericles, of the empire of Alexandria, of the Ro- 
man empire under Augustus, and of the empire of Charlemagne ; Mussulman 
dominion during the Khalifat of Cordova; and lastly, Europe in 1453, 1648, 
and 1865. Candidates Who have already made some progress in architectural 
studies are invited to submit their drawings or compositions to the examiners, 
who will take them into consideration as evidence of capacity. 



L 



SPECIAL IxXSTRUCTlON IN FRANCE. 597 

INSTRUCTION IN INDUSTRIAL DRAWING. 

The artistic superiority in form, color, and finisli, universally accorded to the 
commercial products of the workmen and factories of France, until quite re- 
cently, is to be attributed mainly to the general feeling for art which pervades 
all classes in that country, which the churches and other public and private 
edifices, erected and ornamented from designs of professional painters, sculptors 
and other artists, have fostered ; and to the influence of the numerous galleries 
and collections of pictures and statuary, the master-pieces of the most eminent 
ancient and modern artists, in stone, ivory, glass, wood and metal, freely opened 
and actually visited by workmen as well as other citizens. To these agencies 
must be added the influence of the workshops established and aided by the 
government, such as the great factories at Sevres, the Gobelins and Beauvais ; 
and of the higher academies of the fine arts, at Paris, Lyons, and Dijon, and 
the numerous schools of drawing and design in all parts of the country. 

Within the last ten years the importance of multiplying schools of design 
for training artistic and skilled workmen for every department of manufacturing 
and mechanical industry, with a view of maintaining the superiority of the 
workshops of France, has been pressed on the attention of the government. 
This is due to the International Expositions of London and Paris, which showed 
the rapid progress made by other countries in departments of labor in which 
France had before held an uncontested superiority. 

The Report of Professor Wornum to the English Department of Practical Art 
in 1853, "on the organization and character of the Art Collections and systems 
of instruction in Schools of Design in Paris," rudely exposed the want of system, 
both in these collections and in the Schools of Design for Working Men — rich 
as these collections and numerous as these schools were. The Reports of Com- 
missioners deputed by the French Government, and the municipal authorities 
of Paris, Lyons, Mulhouse, and other cities, on the Expositions of 1856, 1862, 
and 1867, showed the necessity of immediate attention to the subject. 

M. Chevalier, in the Introduction of the Report of the French Juries in 1863, 
warned the nation "that rivals were springing up, and that the prominence of 
France in the dominion of taste will ere long receive a shock. While we are 
stationary, others are rising ; and this upward movement is nowhere more con- 
spicuous than in England, in consequence of the attention of the government 
to Schools of Design." M. Rouher, the Minister of Commerce, Agricultlire, and 
Public Works, in a report to the Emperor in 1863, calls "for the appointment 
of a Commission to inquire into all the means which may spread and develop 
artistic skUl and professional information every where, even in the agricultural 
portions of the empire. This Commission was appointed, and after a thorough 
investigation into what had been done and was doing in France and other parts 
of Europe, recommended: (1.) Better and more general preparatory instruction 
of all classes ; (2.) The protection of young persons from the cupidity of parents 
and the greed of capitalists, by their too early employment in labor; (3,) Pro- 
vision for special technical instruction for all young persons, both boys and 
girls, engaged in workshops; (4,) The establishment of special courses for 
adults, and particularly of drawing, in all its forms and applications ; (5,) The 
formation of collections of models and copies in all the great industrial centers, 
and especially of a Museum of Industrial Art, at Paris ; (6,) The estabhshment 
of higher institutions and special courses of technical instruction. 



5Qg SPECIAL liSSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 



SPECIAL SCHOOL OF DRAWING APPLIED TO THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS AT PARIS. 

This school was instituted in 1835. The office for entering names of new 
scholars is open every week-day from 10 A. M. till 4 P. M. The entrance-fee 
is 5 francs 50 centimes for the morning course and 25 centimes for the evening 
course. The conditions of admission to the former are: age 9 years, knowledge 
of reading and writing, and to the latter, 15 years of age. The morning classes 
commence at 1.30 A. M. in summer and at 8 A. M. in winter. The study is 
divided into 2 divisions of 2 hours each. 

The evening classes for adults commence at 6.45 P. M. and close at 9 or 10 
P. M., when there are courses of anatomy and ornamentation. 

For the modeling classes and the study from living models there is instruction 
once a week in the evening. No one is admitted who is younger than 12 or 
older than 20 years. The course for scholars older than 15 years covers 4 
years, that for scholars younger than 15 years, 5 years. 

The- morning course embraces the following subjects : geometry, rectilinear 
and applied trigonometry, perspective, arithmetic and algebra; geometrical 
drawing, drawing of plants, drawing of animals, drawing of figures, drawing 
of ornaments ; sculpturing, drawing from nature and models. 

The evening course embraces the following subjects: arithmetic; geometr}'-; 
geometrical drawing ; architecture ; anatomy ; drawing of figures, animals, or- 
naments, and plants ; composing of ornaments ; wood-engraving. 

We have no details as to attendance or methods. 

SCHOOL OF DRAWING FOR YOUNG WOMEN IN PARIS. 

The School of Drawing for Young Women (Ecole Speciak de Dessin pour les 
Jeunes Personnes) in Paris, is situated on the Rue Dupuytren, in the Faubourg 
St. Germaine. Its purpose is to give instruction in all varieties of drawing of 
figures, ornaments, scenery, animals, and flowers. The directrix of the school, 
who is also the professor, is Mademoiselle 'Ma randon de Montyel. Mademoi- 
selle Rosa Bonheur is ordinary directrix. There is an annual concour^ when 
prizes are distributed, consisting of silver medals, the best pupil receiving the 
grand prix d^honneur, a large medal with a diploma. The pictures presented at 
the concour are exhibited, either previously or afterwards, in the halls of the 
school.^ This school and the Special School of Drawing belong to the depart- 
ment of the Minister of the Imperial Household and Fine Arts. 

Supply of Plaster Casts. 
There are at Paris two public establishments where plaster casts are made 
and sold. One is at the Louvre, where casts are taken from the antique statues 
in that collection, and the other is connected with the Ecole des Beaux Arts, 
where casts are made of every description, particularly of ornamental and arch- 
itectural fragments. The council of the school appoints a molder and assigns 
to him all the necessary rooms free of charge, and pays half the cost of materials 
and workmanship, agreeing to reimburse him in case any particular cast does 
not sell well enough to leave a reasonable profit, receiving, on the other hand, 
one,-fourth of the proceeds. The objects to be cast and the tariflf of prices are 
to be fixed by a Committee of Academicians, with which the molder is asso- 
ciated. Copies of these casts are distributed to all the art schools in France. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 509 



PRIMARY SCHOOLS AND NORMAL SCHOOLS FOR PRIMARY TEACHERS. 

To secure the introduction of drawing into elementary schools generally, 
Guizot, in his course of studies for the seminaries in which the primary teachers 
were to be taught and trained, provided for their instruction in drawing; and 
so important is the branch now considered, that special professors of the highest 
reputation have been appointed to impart it. 

MUNICIPAL SCHOOLS OP PARIS. 

In 1863, a plan for the reorganization, the extension and improvement of in- 
struction in drawing in Paris, was submitted by a Commission, of wliich M. 
Dumas, President of the Council, was chairman. This plan was accepted, and 
the necessary appropriations and regulations were made. Instruction in this 
branch is now obligatory in all public schools of every grade, for girls as well as 
boys. Teaching this branch is made a recognized profession, to practice which 
a diploma is granted only after an open and searching examination. Every 
school must have the models and copies provided and recommended by the 
highest authorities in art. Prizes are instituted, open to all the schools, and 
professors are paid in part in proportion to the number of prizemen who are 
trained by them. The awarding of these prizes is made the occasion of public 
interest and instruction. 

Progress of Instruction in Draioing in Paris. 
In 186*7, drawing was taught in 120 primary schools for girls, and in 65 
schools for boys, and in 32 special classes for adults ; 1 schools are maintained 
by men for male pupils, and 20 by ladies for gratuitous instruction to girls. 
Upwards of 35,000 copies of models from the collections of the Louvre, and 
numerous photographs of ancient classic statues made by M. Eavaisson, have 
been distributed in the schools of Paris. The appropriations by the municipal 
authorities have increased from 30,000 francs in 1863 to 312,000 francs in 1867, 
and the pupils from 2,888 to 12,000. 

DRAWING IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

In 1853, under the ministry of M. Fortoul, on the recommendation of a spe- 
cial commission, of which M. Ravaisson was the reporter, and composed of emi- 
nent artists and educators, the study of drawing was made general in all 
lyceums, commencing in the sixth class, and extending from year to year to the 
end of the course. 

By the terms of the decree, (Dec. 30, 1853,) all the models were to be se- 
lected from the master-pieces of art ; and a beginning was at once made by 
distributing such models selected from the copies taken in plaster in the depart- 
ment "du Moulage'' of the Museum of the Louvre, *and the "Atelier du Mou- 
lage" of the School of the Fine Arts. In 1865, M. Ravaisson presented to the 
minister (M. Duruy) for his approbation, which was promptly given, two divis- 
ions of a collection of models from modern and ancient artists, which, disposed 
in a progressive order, and faithfully reproduced, offer for study and imitation 
the chefs-d'ce.uvre, in which sculpture, glyptics and painting have attained the 
highest degree of perfection, and which will be, in art, what our instruction in 
letters and philosophy is, the reunion of the master-pieces of the Homers, and 



510 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 



the Platos, the Virgils and the Terences, the Descartes, the Bossuets, the Cor- 
neilles, of different epochs. 

To give to this branch an assured position in the system of pubhc instruction, 
a decree of Jan. 31, 1866, approved by the Minister of Finances, extends to the 
teachers of drawing a retiring pension at sixty years of age, and after thirty 
years of service. 

PROGRAMME OF INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING IN LYCEUMS. 

1. Imitation and Free-hand Drawing. — This commences in the sixth or lowest 
class, and is attended to at different hours on different days. In the fifth and 
sixth, one hour per week is devoted to preparatory exercises. These are 
designed, first, for the imitation of simple figures, such as some of the regular. 
solids and some parts of vegetation ; second, some portions of the head. 

In the fourth class there are two lessons per week ; first, on the theory and 
practice of the elements of perspective ; second, the elementary study of the 
human form and its proportions, with reference to drawing ; third, drawing of 
parts of the head and then of the entire head, from photographs or pictures. 

In the second and third classes, two lessons per week are given in drawing 
of the head and limbs, from pictures, photographs, or from a bust. 

In the classes in rhetoric and philosophy, there are two lessons per week in 
drawing of torses and casts from pictures, photographs, or busts. One lesson 
each two weeks is given to the third class exclusively, in drawing artificial 
forms, edifices, vases, and ornamental furniture of all kinds. 

Toward the end of the last year of the course, the pupils reproduce certain 
ornamental patterns in color. During the year of special mathematical study, 
the pupils are required to produce with rapidity and accuracy casts shaded with 
the crayon, from a model. These models are all lent to the great art masters. 
They are not used in the drawing classes only upon the approval of the Minister 
of Public Instruction. Pupils are to apply themselves to drawing the human 
figure, as well as that of artificial forms ; and with the same result ; and of 
these, the memory should reproduce the types most deeply engraved in the 
memory. At the close of each year, pupils are required to exhibit a certain 
number of sheets of drawings, the whole of which should constitute a full 
course in drawing. 

2. Linear and Geometrical Drawing. — In the third class, during the second 
half-year's course, two lessons of one hour each are given each week in linear 
drawing, in Indian ink, and in elementary geometry. During the whole year, 
two lessons of one hour each, or one of two hours per week, are given to exer» 
cises in linear drawing in the second class, and the classes in rhetoric and 
science. 

In the second class, these exercises relate, first, to elementary geometry and 
the outlines of polyhedrons ; second, to drawing of plans, from works executed, 
in the earth ; third, plans from descriptive geometry. 

In the class in rhetoric, these exercises embrace, first, a representation ac- 
cording to a plan, cut or elevation of a building, of a machine or some instru- 
ment in accordance with a certain measure of the objects, and reduced by a 
certain scale; second, geographical charts; third, leveling (profiles of curves 
and elevations from surveys taken on the ground.) 

During the year in the class in philosophy, the students in the scientific sec- 
tion are exercised two hours per week in linear drawing. 

Students in the class in special mathematics are exercised in hnear and geo- 
metric drawing, and with India-ink, after various copies. 

The course of instruction in drawing in the primary and secondary schools 
was severely criticised in a late conference of teachers and directors of art-in- 
Btitutions, held under the auspices of the Union Cenirale. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. 



611 



PROaRAMME OP CALLIGRAPHY AND DRAWING IN SPECIAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

The following programme of instruction in calligraphy and drawing is taken 
from the very elaborate directions drawn up and issued by the Minister of 
Public Instruction for the four years' course (including the preparatory year) of 
the special secondary schools recently organized in France. 

Preparatory year or course. During this year four hours weekly are devoted 
each to calligraphy, and drawing, or eight hours to both. 

Calligraphy. — Commerce and industry demand, with right, a good hand- 
writing of the persons they employ. In the schools for special instruction, the 
handwriting of the pupils will be the object of particular care ; there will be 
four writing lessons in the week. As the art of symbolizing words by the use 
of conventional characters is a purely imitative art, in order to hasten the 
progress of the children, those whose writing is defective should be mixed 
with those who write better. Durhig the first years the length of the tasks 
given should be limited, so that the master may exact a very careful execution, 
and so thiit every task should be an exercise in calligraphy. 

Instead of giving as copies, insignificant and disconnected phrases, a series 
of moral maxims should be composed, and expressed in a way easily retained 
in the memory, or very short fragments relating to industry, to history, or to 
the natural sciences. The pupils should collect these copies into books, which 
they will, perhaps, at future periods, consult with pleasure. 

Drawing. — The pupils of the special schools should learn to handle the 
pencil as well as the pen. Only on this condition will they acquire tliat firm- 
ness of hand and correctness of eye which will be of so much importance to 
them in their future careers. 

^ As among the pupils wlio frequent these schools there will be future foremen, 
to whom a knowledge of the use of the rule and compass is indispensable, the 
lessons in free-hand drawing should alternate with exercises in linear drawing. 

These exercises should be made on the board with wooden instruments, foot- 
rule, square, &c. The subjects of study will only admit of two dimensions, and 
should be chosen so as to enable them to be constructed with the help of a few 
simple data. To join two straight lines ; to develop a broken line ; to trace 
perpendiculars and parallels with the compass; the division of straight lines; 
proportional lines; construction of a scale of proportion ; division of arcs and 
angles, &c. ; horizontal and vertical lines ; the diagonal of the square, octagons, 
Starred polygons, &c., &c. 

Free-hand drawing, which should occupy the greater part of the time, should 
compi'ise parallel straight lines, and curved lines parallel to each other, the 
division of fines into equal parts, measured by the eye only ; the first outlines 
of the face, the veins in leaves, very simple architectural roses ( rosaces,) the 
stems of plants, some animals, &c., &c. A series of well graduated ornaments 
lithographed in alto relievo. 

But it is not sufficient to train the eye to see correctly, and the hand to 
execute well ; the taste for the beautiful, which is to direct their future artistic 
creations, must also be instilled into the pupils. Care should therefore be taken 
that the lithographs, engravings, and plaster models, given to them to copy, should 
always be excellent of their kind, and of simple execution, and the forms should 
never be concealed under unnecessary shadings ( crayonnage.) This choice of 
models is of the greatest importance. 

First year. During this year two hours are devoted to calligraphy, and four 
to drawing. 

Calligraphy. — Principles and practice. English handwriting, running-hand. 

Drawing. — Continuation of linear drawing, and of drawing from models. 

In the classes for linear drawing the notions of lines and surfaces, imparted 
in the course of the preceding year, should be recapitulated. Ordinary curves 
and conical curves should be drawn on the blackboard and explained. The 
exercises on paper should consist of mosaics, iron railings, balustrades, &c. 



512 SPECIAL SCHOOLS IN FRANCE. 

Dull grey tints and black tints spread over the drawings should continue to be 
practiced, as a preparation for the coloring of solid bodies. 

The imitative drawing should comprise architectural ornaments, and the 
human face. When the pupils are to copy an ornament or a face, a model in 
relief, of the same size as the drawing they have to execute, should be placed 
in the room, in order that they may constantly, carry their eyes from the board 
to the model, and from the model to the board, so as clearly to understand what 
they are about. The models of graphic exercises on paper are inclosed in 
frames under glass, placed in front of each pupil so as to oblige tlie latter to 
draw them without taking any measurements on the model, and merely in 
accordance with the dimensions indicated in the text relating to each drawing. 

This branch of instruction is one of those in which the greatest latitude is 
left to the teacher, as the lessons ought to be given with reference to the par- 
ticular industry of the province. The programmes of the course of drawing, 
and the choice of models, are therefore left to the decision of the members of 
the Council of Improvement, who alone can have a sound judgment on the 
matter. 

Second year. During this year one hour is devoted to calligraphy, and five to 
drawing. 

Calligraphy. — End of the lessons ; round hand. Italian hand, models of 
capitals, &c., applications of divers kinds of handwriting. 

Drawing. — Continuation of ornamental and linear drawing, according to the 
method adopted the previous year. 

Ornamental drawing. Copying figures and ornaments. Commencement of 
hatching to represent relief. The model from which the drawings are to be 
made should always be placed in the class-room. 

Linear drawing : principles of the methods of projection for the representa- 
tion of lines, surfaces, and solids. Representation of the relief of bodies by 
means of simple lines and washing in colors. Details of the practice of wash- 
ing. Elementary notions of architecture, and distinctive characteristics of the 
principal orders. 

Before commencing each architectural drawing, the pupil should make a sketch 
of the plan to be executed, in a separate copybook, and should carefully note 
down the dimension ( les cotes). These sketches should be done in pencil, or in 
ink, without the help of rule or compass, and should serve for constructing the 
plan. 

Some suitable planks should be selected to exercise the pupils in using the 
ruler, and the use of conventional tints should be explained to them. 

Third year. Drawing this year. Calligraphy as a separate study is'discon- 
tinued, and six hours are given to drawing. 

Drawing. — Figures from the round, and from nature. Animals and flowers 
from the round. Drawing from memory. Plants copied from nature. 

The pupils should also be exercised in making free-hand sketches from 
various objects, such as physical instruments, geometrical models in relief, or 
very simple machines. The sketches, which should be numbered, should serve 
as bases of an exact representation of the objects, according to some fixed 
scale. The pupils are in this way rendered capable of designing tools, &c. 
The diagrams ( epures) of descriptive geometry should likewise be executed, 
first with free-hand, in a memorandum book, and afterwards verified and drawn 
exactly on drawing paper. 

The pupils should also be made to draw some designs in connection with 
elementary mechanics, according to the lessons of the professor of mathematics, 
and in order to render the demonstration of the transformation of movements 
more evident, models of elements of machines, of the same size as the draw- 
ings, should be placed in the class-room. 

We give entire the admirable Report of M. Ravaisson, Inspector General of 
Superior Instruction, on which the programme of instruction in drawing in the 
Lyceums and Communal Schools is based. 



INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING IN SCHOOLS OF ART AND DESIGN. 

REPORT OF A FRENCH COMMISSION. 



The following article was translated for the Dublin Joui'nal of Industrial 
Progress from the Bulletin de la Socitte <i' Encouragement pour V Industrie 
Nationale. (2d See. No. 5.) It is part of a Report, addressed to the Minister of 
Publ,ic Instruction in France, by a Commission consisting of Messrs. Felix Rav- 
AissoN, (Inspector General of Superior Instruction,) Brongniart, Ingres, Picot, 
SiMART, Bklloc, Eugene Delacroix, Hippolyte Flandrin, Meissonier, Joup- 
froy. Dug, and Pillet : The Reporter was M. Ravaisson. 

All the Arts are learned, more or less, by practice. Fahricando fit faber^ it 
has been said, and we may likewise say that Drawing is karncd by Drawing. 

But if it is certain that like all the arts that of Drawing cannot be learned 
without practice, does practice alone suffice, without any order or any kind of 
rule? It has been so pretended in our times, and so also even in the time of Le- 
onardo Vinci : " Some believe," says he, " that without other science, the prac- 
tice of copying natural objects alone suffices." But he adds : " There is nothing 
wiiieh deceives us more than trusting in our own judgment without other reason, 
as experience ever proves, the enemy of alchymists, necromancers, and other sim- 
ple (self-confident) spirits." 

And in fact, how many mistakes of every kind does not practice vvnthout any 
rule, or blind routine, produce, which one must afterwards lose much time to set 
right ? When we walk without guide through an unknown country, on the sim- 
ple faith of a judgment yet unformed, and directed by nothing, how mfwiy chances' 
are there of our losing our way ! and, what is worse, having had for a long time 
no means of perceiving in what we are mistaken, how many chances of our con- 
tracting, from a false manner of seeing and judging, some irremediable habit ! 
If, then, it is true that Art cannot be learned without practice, it is also true that 
some Theory is necessary to Practice to direct it. 

" Those who are captivated by mere practice without any science, are like nav- 
igators who go to sea without rudder or compass, and who never know with cer- 
tainty where they are going. Practice ought ever to be built on sound theory ; 
without this, nothing is well done, no more in painting than in any othei- pro- 
fession." 

It is evident, in the first place, that among all the objects which can be studied, 
there are some the study of which is more profitable ; at least, one of the first 
rules by which practice ought to be governed, is that which will teach it to what 
objects it should by preference address itself 

Of all that Nature produces or Art has ever invented, the human figure is that 
which it is most important to understand well and to know how best to represent, 
because in Art as in Nature it is to man that the first and principal place apper- 
tains. Made, among all bo:lies, to serve for the habitation and instrument of the 
Soul, to obey its will and to express its affections, the Human Body is of all that 
which, in its movements, in its fi>rms, in all their proportions, presents at once 
the greatest variety and the greatest unity ; it is that whose different types are the 
most strongly marked with a . special character, a distinct individuality that, in 
fine, which is susceptible of the greatest Beauty. From this it results that errors 
in the representation of the human figure are more sensible than in that of any 
other figure, and that he that commits them recognizes them himself more easily. 
From hence it follows that to teach how in all things to judge of their proportions 

33 



514 INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 

accurately, that is to say, as we have said, to Draw, there is nothing better than 
to propose, as the first object of study and imitation, the human figure. It is a 
point upon which scarcely any difference of opinion exists. 

But because the human figure is the most complicated both in its movements 
and in its forms, it follows also that it is of all figures the most difficult to see well 
and to represent well. In living nature, where to the variety of forms is added that 
of colors, and the mobility inseparable from life, the complexity is such that it 
is manifestly impossible for a beginner not to lose himself in it. Hence the 
necessity upon which all the world, or all but all, is again unanimous, of a simpli- 
fication at first, of that which consists in giving as a model not nature itself, but 
an image of nature, without motion and without color ; that is what is ordinarily 
called a bosse [a statue, cast, or figure in full relief.] 

But does not such a figure, if it be an entire figure, offer still a whole composed 
of too many different elements, whose relations it is impossible for an inexperi- 
enced eye to seize and reproduce ? Upon this point again, upon the impossi- 
bility of giving to the beginner an entire figure for model, no difference of 
opinion. 

Now, there is one part of the human figure in which more even than in the 
remainder, the proportions are skillful and delicate, which more than all the rest 
possesses individuality of character, which, in fine, is susceptible of a beauty more 
exquisite than all the rest, and which beside forms in itself in some sort a whole, 
already sufficiently comphcated and difficult to understand. This part is the 
Head. 

The least simplification which it would be necessary to make, the least restric 
tion to the hazardous essays of a blind routine, would be to give at first as models 
only round casts (bosses,) and among these only those of simple Heads. 

Must we not go yet farther ? Must we not give beginners for their first models, 
instead of round casts, prints, drawings, or photographs, where the visible appear- 
ances are more easily distinguished from the real proportions which they express, 
where the lights and shades are more simple and more easily understood ; must 
we not also, instead of entire heads, make them imitate at first only the parts of 
which the head is composed ? It is this opinion which in all times has obtained 
greatest credit; it is this which in all times has been generally practiced, as 
witness the writings of Cennino Cennini,* Leonardo da ViNci,t Benvenuto 
Cellini,^ Vasari,§ Loncazzo,|| Armenini,^ De Piles,** &;c., as prove the col- 
lections of the Principles of Drawing which have been published at different 
epochs. +t In fine, it is this which is practiced still in our own limes in the greater 
part of the schools, one may even say in almost all. 

Froin all time then this principle has been generally held as true; that it is 
only after having learned what is easy and simple that what is difficult and com- 
plex should be attempted. On this principle the student imitates drawn or 
engraved figures before those in relief ; the parts of a figure before the entire. 
Moreover, he applies himself to imitate exactly the form of whatever subject he 
studies, and consequently to represent with care the lights and shades which 
render it visible, and which determine the relative inclinations, the melting away 
or the relief of the surfaces. 

It is complained that by this method, proceeding step by step from the imitation 
of the several parts of the head, after prints, too much time is required to come to the 
imitation of heads and entire figures from the round ; it is also complained that too 
much time again is spent in making each drawing in the imitation of the lights, 
of the shadows, of the half-tints ; that amidst the minutiae of this labor a vicious 
habit is contracted of pre-occupying one's-self to excess with details, — a habit 
which no longer allows one to cotiiprehend the effect of the whole. It has been 
said, in short, that the result which we ought to propose to ourselves is that of 

* Trnl/afo ael/a pittur'a, (Roma, 1821,) 8vo. c. 8. 

tD!fl!a Piti7ira,p. 57. 

X Disorso nopra i pricipi e'l modo dHmparare V arte del d' segno (operc, Milano, 1811, Bvo, 
volumd iii ) 

§ Introduzione alle tre arti di disogno, c. 15. Vita di Micholagnolo Buonarotti, p. 129. 

11 Truftiito della Pitfura. 
. 1 Prccalti della Pitlura. c. 3. 

" Etemcnsdcpcint urc pratique. V i.e. 1. 

ft See especially tho?e engraved after the designs of P%ima the younger, of Prosper© Fon- 
tana, of Annibal Carracci, of Guercino. &c. 



INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 515 

leading the student, in the least possible time, to i-e[)roducc the effect of the whole 
and the general aspect of things, and that after several years even employed in 
this patient study, beginning with the elements of the hun)an figure, one can 
sciircely hope to reach such a result. 

Hence the different systems in which drawing is commenced by the imitation 
of heads in full relief. 

In the boldest of these systems such models are given to the student for imita- 
tion from the very first, and without assistance. This is what Jacotot, the 
author of what is called the *' Universal •' system, proposed as an application of 
his general views toward the simplification of instruction. Experience has 
proved, iis it was easy to forsee, that a head in full relief, — that of the Apollo Bel- 
vedere, for example, — proposed as a first model to ail beginners, offers them, by 
its multiplied proportions, complicated by so many mysterious effeats of perspective, 
and light and shade, absolutely insurmountable difficulties ; they either lose cour- 
age entirely, or else passing on to another work, in spite of the gravest errors, 
which tliey are utterly unable to correct, they take up forever the ruinous habit 
of doing bad work and remaining content with it. 

In the system proposed by M. Alexander Dubois, more than twenty years 
ago, a system which has gained considerable support, and which even now has its 
partizans, the first model proposed for imitation is still a head in full relief, but it is 
a head simplified. 

By this means M. Dubuis has hoped to preserve the advantages which Jacotot 
promised himself by his plan, and to get rid of its inconveniences. 

Accordingly, M. Dubois gives beginners for their first model a bust which 
presents only very general masses or features ; after this bust, another, which 
offers some additional indications of the head; then a third in which the details 
are still more numerous and more decided; and lastly, a fourth, which completes 
the series, and which alone is all but according to nature. These four busts (of 
which each is, besides, placed in three different positions: the head set straight in 
the first, raised in the second, .but down in the third,) these four busts thus present 
four successive states of the same figure, from the roughest sketch up to the com- 
pletion of it ; they are the degrees by which the author of the system proposes to 
conduct the student, from the general indication of the whole to complete repre- 
sentation, comprising all the detail of the parts. 

So that, says M. Dubuis, while commencing Drawing by the entire Head, by a 
whole, as in M. Jacotot's method, and in all the methods by which it has been 
sought to abridge the study of Drawing, we commence, however, by a simple and 
easy object, and only pass in succession, as in the ordinary method, though fol- 
lowing indeed an inverse path, from the simple to the complex and from the easy 
to the d fhcult. Besides, thinks he again, to proceed thus is to proceed in con- 
formity with the great principle, that general effect should command the details, 
and that, accordingly, every work of art should commence by the general effect 
of the whole.* 

In truth, if the different parts may be called simple in relation to a quality, and 
it is in this sense that the limbs are simple in relation to the body, we may from 
another point of view consider as simple, in relation to an object completely deter- 
mined, a less determined state or condition of that same object, and one which 
consequently presents less complexity ; and it is in this sense that the rough 
sketch of a figure, in which as yet the individual features find no p'nee, is more 
simple than the finished figure. Now this previous and simpler stalj is oi'ten 
called, elliptieally, the whole ; elliptically, for it is not the whole with all the parts 
composing it once realized, and which themselves in reality form a whole; it is 
the whole without its parts, the general effect abstracted from the details, or, if 
you please, the general effect comprehending the details in a manner purely vir- 
tual and ideal. 

But the character of this whole abstracted from its parts is : to be in relation to 
the real whole of which it is the sketch, still undetermined, indefinite. Hence it 
follows that, for him who does not know the details which the abstract whole in 
its general effect comprehends but virtually, this whole has but an undetermined 
meaning ; and an undetermined meaning is not one at all. To give a beginner 

* Ds rensirgnement du Dessin sous le point dc vue industriel, par Dupuis (Paris, 836, 8vo,; 
p, 29. 



516 INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 

Kueh a whole is then to propose to him a mo.iel which for him is meaningless. 
Such a molel has, consequently, nothing in it proper to teach the imitator of it 
exactness and precision, and — the hab:{; once engendered at starting of doing 
nothing save roughly, and then only almost doing- it — when the student gradually 
arrives at details he will be able but roughly and only almost to comprehend and 
represent them. 

DoubtLss whatever one desires to do it is the general effect, it is the whole, 
the whole without the details of the parts, which must first be established ; for it 
is this whole, in which the parts will successively take their proper places, which 
must first be correct, and the happiest details cannot compensate for errors in 
it ; this is what Leox\ardo da Vinci incessantly advises Artists not to lose 
sight of. 

It is, in fine, a truth with which the Greeks particularly showed themselves 
profoundly penetrated ; for if there is one quality above all by which their works 
most surpass those of the moderns, it is in the understanding of the general elfect. 
But it is not less true that this general effect of the whole without parts, by which 
everything to be done must necessarily be commenced, has no meaning, save by 
relation to the complete whole, of which it is the preparation and first stage. For 
the artist who indicates it and who knows what he must add to it, this first 
general effect [ensemble) has then a definite sense, and from this it follows inevit- 
ably that the sketches of a master, even the most summary, instead of being eon- 
fined to a generality systematically shapeless, always here and there let out the 
determinate, precise, and well defined ideas of which they are the design. But 
those indications themselves, to an inexperienced eye, are but enigmas. Tlie 
sket-h, in fact, has a meaning only for its author, and for those whom experience 
and science have put into a condition to share his thought, and to anticipate with 
him its i-ealization. For a beginner it has no meaning, or only a vague and con- 
fused one. To propose it to him for imitation at starting is then, once more, to 
give him for his first lesson to content himself with an ill-defined meaning : it is to 
make h m contract the habit of doing so ; it is to deprive him, by such a habit, of 
the desire, and soon even of the power, to reach as to any object whatever the 
definite and determined, that is, the reality. From which it is evident, that 
while in everything it is by a sketch that what is desired to be done must be com- 
menced, it by no means follows, as M, Dubuis has thought, that the first models 
should be sketches. Far from this, to habituate one's-self from the start to imi- 
tate objects systematically undecided and shapeless is to render one's-self inca- 
pable of ever undeistanding the real forms, and therefore of ever being able to 
make a simple sketch, such at least as those which come from the hand of a mas- 
ter, and in which, little as there may be, or be seen in them, at least what ought 
to be is already distinguishable. 

However, it must be agreed that the models proposed by M. Dubuis do not pre- 
sent th it appearance of vagueness, which is in general the character of mere 
sketches ; this arises from their being fashioned out by p'anes and by angles. The 
first of these models presents but the great masses thus indicated; the second 
only differs from the first, and the third from the second, by the planes and angles 
being more numerous ; and even the last, which approaches nearest to the form# 
of nature, still retains much of this same character. In this above all, these mod- 
els d ffer essentially from the works of a master's hand, and they resemble more 
closely the successive stages by which the workman or stonecutter mechanically 
nears by little and little the shape of the marble or the model, which the artist 
has charged him to reproduce. 

The obj -ct of the constant reflection of the iMasters, the end to which they 
ever look, being, as we have said, the expression of the charactepor soul of forms, 
their constant practice has been to indicate it from the very first, even in the 
lightest and most fugitive sketch, and accordingly, in sketching the figure of a 
living being, and above all, the human figure, from the very first to make felt the 
nature of those sinuous curves or serpentines^ (as Leonai'do and Michael Angelo 
called them,) which are its peculiar characteristics, and which reveal its spirit. 
This is what we see in the drawings of Titian, and of Correggio, as well as those 
of Kaffaelle, of Leonardo da Vinci, of Fra Bartolommeo, and of Micheel Angelo, 
as well as in the sketches in wax, and in clay, and even in marble, which remain 
to us of this great artist. 



INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 517 

An entirely different manner has begun to reign in certain scliools in the 17th 
and i8lh eentuiies, aeeoidiiiCT as tlie true sentiment of the spirit of forms became 
niore Weak ; it is that which consists in replacing curved hnes and surfaces by 
straight Hnes and planes ; confined at first to the detail of figures, to the smallest 
parts compi)sitig them, this process has been more and more applied to the larger 
paifcj, aiid finally, in our own time, among many draughtsmen and painters, it has 
extended itself to every branch of Drawing. 

The models proposed by M. Dubuis present a systematic application of this 
process, one of wh ch beginners who copy from them nmst necessarily contract the 
habit. 

Now, in the first place, habituated to see everything under one sole aspect, the 
eye must by little and little become incapable of understanding the infinite vari- 
ety which nature offers us ; it must become incapable, above all, of understand- 
ing, and of representing those subtile and winding forms which are the distin- 
guishing characteristics of human nature, those forms which INlichail Angelo com- 
pared to the waving motion of a flame. In the second place, the particular effect 
of this process which consists in expressing every thing, or almost every thing 
by planes, is to disguise under the precision of surfaces so regular, the actual 
indetermiuation of forms, and so to give to the unskillfulness of him who does not 
know how to distinguish, and to reproduce the true character, a false air of 
knowledge. Thus the inconveniences of this method are aggravated. 

If by adopting the habit of copying simple sketches, such as (once more) the 
sketches of the Masters, we can express nothing but in the rough^ and only half 
express it even so, if in consequeiice we do not reach the truth at all, we are in 
th.s properly speaking, engaged in the false, and the very indetermination at which 
we stop short, might warn us that to reach our end, a part of the road remains 
to be traversed. But if we adopt in addition, a manner of work which gives to 
every thing we do a semblance of precision and perfect definiteness, we conceal 
from ourselves our weakness or our ignorance, and we set a bound to our own 
progress almost impossible to pass over. 

M. DubuJe' method was conceived for the purpose of teaching the art of Draw- 
ing to the working classes ; to those classes who have need of an elementary 
knowledge of Drawing, in the exercise of a multitude of professions, more or less 
mechanical, and who can devote but little time to acquire it ; and it seems suffi- 
ciently appropriate for this purpose. If, in fact, it follows from what we have 
said, that this method can not lead very far, on t^he other hand, it is undeniable, 
that in making the student begin by the imitation of simple wholes, it is, perhaps, 
fitted more rapidly than any other, to put him in a condition to seize the general 
effects of proportions, and to put the principal masses almost in their proper pla- 
ces ; and if it is not enough for Art, it is enough for what of knowledge of Draw- 
ing most trades require. 

This method, once more, may then ansvrer sufficiently well for the instruction 
of the artizans for whom it has been designed, but that is no reason why it t-huuld 
be introduced, as some have desired it should, from these popular schools where it 
is said to have done good service, into the schools of a superior class, and above 
all into the Lycees [Colleges, or Collegiate Schools.] 

However, if it be a method by which we can indeed acquire more rapidly than 
by another, a certain knowledge of Drawing, however limited, ])erhaps we should 
be tempted to believe, that it ought to be adopted in preference by all our schools, 
except those especially destined for the formation of •Vrtists. Every where, some 
will perhaps say, it is for the greatest number, and especially for them, that we sliould 
chiefly be concerjaed ; now the greatest number has need of knowledge of Drav,-- 
iug only of a very elementary kind, so far as it is required, not t\)r the practice of 
the Alt, but for the different industrial pursuits with which Drawing has some- 
thing to do. NA'hat is of the greatest importance is this, that those very persons 
who can devote but few years to general study, and to that of Drawing in par- 
ticular, should be able in those few years to learn as much of it as is necessary 
for representing with some accuracy the situations and dimensions of things ; and 
if it be a method by whose employment such a result can be reached, even if it 
cannot serve, nay, even if to a certain point it interposes an obstacle to further 
progress, this imperfect but expeditious method must still be preferred. 

We cannot share in such a view. 



518 INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 

Even admitting what is far from being incontestable, that for the practice of 
the different branches of Industry, there is never any need of drawing with the 
same precision, and the same delicacy, with which artists must know how to work, 
it is still one of the first interests of industry, and consequently of the great 
number who are engaged in it, that art should not decline in the hands of those 
at least who practice Art, It is from Art that all the branches of Industry which 
have any relations with it, receive their inspirations. It is Art which supplies 
them with the types which they multiply, in accommodating them to our different 
wants, or to our different fancies. All are constantly occupied in appropriating 
to every thing that surrounds us, the forms with which the imagination is capti- 
vated, and of which that Art which reigns at each epoch is the source ; all profit 
by the power of seduction which Art exercises, and by the favor which attaches 
itself to every thing that bears its mark. 

When a great master appears, and comes to show all things under an aspect 
till then unknown, for such is the privilege of genius, all that is subject to the 
power of man, must put on those proportions, those new harmonies which he is 
come to reveal. Thus to spread and to apply its thought in every form, the 
ancient arts are transformed and regenerated, and new arts take birth. And to 
this immense work come together, yet from afar off, to furnish its materials, even 
the very branches of industry, which seem the most foreign to the Art of Draw- 
ing. Who can say what even the most mechanical professions owe to the genius 
of a Raffaelle ; not only the art of Marc Antonio, not alone that of the potters 
of Faenza, of Gubbio, of Pesoro, and of Urbino, not alone the fabrics of the 
tapestry works of Flanders, and the enamels of Limoges, which have reproduced 
his creations under so many forms, but all the industries of his age, and of the 
ages which followed his ; how many men have lived on the fruits of his thoughts, 
and "of what riches of every kind it has been the source ? Who can calculate 
what for three thousand years, one half the universe owes to that Greek Art 
from which even still, though modified by so many different influences, not only 
the forms of all our public works, but those even of our vessels and commonest 
utensils are derived ? 

And as for the industry of France in particular, if it be by so many titles in 
the first rank among the industries of Europe, to what is this due, if not to this, 
that the first rank already for a long time belongs to our painters and our sculp- 
tors, and that in Art, no more than in Literature, no nation can dispute it with 
her ? 

What worse service then would it be possible to render to the greater number 
in every country, but above all in ours -of France, than to put every where in 
force methods of instruction calculated to set bounds, even to the measure of me- 
diocrity, to the development of talent, and by an ignorant zeal for the .crowd, to 
arrest the flight of those men of rare genius, (genies d^elite) which it ever con- 
ceals in its bosom, and whom Providence destined to be its benefactors? 

Will it be said, that rare Genius knows how to burst its way, whatever diffi- 
culty it encounters, and that it is useless to take special care of it ? Examples 
abound in history, and in the history of art in particular, of men of genius 
hapiiily endowed, whose career has been falsified, and destiny destroyed by a bad 
education. 

In the second place, and supposing even that one should not occupy one's-self 
with this small number, with this elite which will practice Art with success, and 
spread its benefits over the 'crowd, nor even with those already more numerous, 
to whom it would be useful, in the career which they have to pass through, to 
possess the knowledge of Drawing to a somewhat higher degree, it is certainly 
important that among the greatest possible number taste should be healthy and 
good. And so, if the state of Art, and consequently of all the industries which 
depend on Art, depends upon the genius and education of artists, it depends also, 
in very great part, on the judgment of the public, which, by its approbation or 
disapprobation, may sustain the artists in such and such a course, or turn them 
from it. Now, as Paul Veronese said, " those alone can form a good judgment 
upon matters of Art, who have been well instructed in Art." Accordingly, 
since taste is the just appreciation of the beautiful, since between the beautiful, 
the tiue, and the good, there is a close connection, and so to speak, an intimate 
solidarity, what interest is more general, than that to direct instruction ui Drawing, 



INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 519 

in such a manner as to give as much as possible to all those who take part in 
it, a just and delicate taste, a sure discernment of beauty ? If that is true fur all 
the schools, for how much stronger a reason is it not true for the schools of sec- 
ondary education, and where those are educated, who by their lights, as well as 
by thv; place which they will occupy in our society, are destined to exert the most 
powerful influence upon the spirit of their time ? 

For these difterent reasons, we cannot recommend the establishment in our 
Li/cees of any of those expeditious methods which lead, however ingenious they 
niay be, but to an inexact and erroneous appreciation of forms, and their charac- 
ter. The only methud uhieh we can propose for the approbation of the Minister, 
must be that method which will lead, though at the price of a little more time 
and trouble, to the end of Instruction in Drawing, such as we have been able to 
define it, after the great INIasters of Art ; the possession of that good judgment 
of the eye, by which men appreciate proportions correctly, and understand their 
spirit and beauty. 

We have seen that the human head is an object too complex to serve for a first 
model for the student, that in seeking from the start to imitate its forms, the be- 
ginner can but contract a habit of error 5 we have seen also, that to propose for a 
first model, a whole in an abstract form, and without parts, is again to teach, 
though in another fashion, but error and confusion. 

Hence, we are of necessity brought back to the method which has almost 
always prevailed, and which confirms the authority of all the masters of Art, 
that which only allows the whole to be studied, after a profound study of its 
parts. 

" The sight," says Lf.onardo da Vinci, " has an action of the quickest, and 
embraces in one moment an infinity of forms, nevertheless, it only comprehends 
one thing at a time. Let us suppose, reader, that you bestow one rapid glance 
^on all this written page, you will judge in an instant, that it is full of different 
^letters ; but you will not know in so shoi-t a space of time, v^-hat letters they are, 
nor what they mean ; you will be obliged then to go over them word by word, 
line by line, in order to comprehend those letters. Or again, if you wish to 
reach the top of a building, you must mount up step by step ; without which it 
is impossible for you to reach the top. And so it is, I say to you, that Nature re- 
gards tliis Art of Drawing. If you wish to Jiave the true knowledge of the forms 
of things, you will commence by their parts, and you will not pass on to the sec- 
ond, before you have the first well in your memory and in your practice. And 
if you do otherwise, you will lose your time, or at least, you will prolong your 
study. I repeat to you once again, It^irn accuracy before rapidity." 

But it is said, on the other hand, if we cannot begin with the Whole, why not 
descend to details still smaller than those by which one generally commences, why 
not descend to the fingers, to the nails themselves. 

It is, because, in recommending not to begin with the entire of a visible natural 
object, nor even by a whole, such as the human head, too complicated still, 
although this too is but a fragment of a whole, nevertheless for an inexperienced 
eye, in order to satisfy the two principles equally certain as they are that we 
cannot commence with a very complicated whole, and that onl)^ a wliole can 
make itself understood, reason requires that we should commence with parts, 
which, though parts, yet form whiles in a sense in themselves, and are in eon- 
sequence intelligible objects. We will stop then, as men have always done, at 
those fragments which have to a certain extent a special destination, a special 
character, a distinct individuality, such are the eye, the ear, the mouth, the head, 
&c. Sufficiently simple not to surpass the comprehension of a beginner, every such 
part is alrealy a whole in itself, in right of this quality, and like a whole, each 
such part may be understood by itself alone. As parts of a Whole more com 
plicated, they cannot, it is true, be understood without that whole. It is then by 
arriving at that Whole in which they act one with another, and where they har- 
monize together, that — after having studied each part separately — they can all be 
understood. 

After having taken as a base of operations, as we do in every science, that 
which is less intelligible in itself but more accessible, it is in the last place, accord- 
ing 10 the order which befits our weakness, and which is recommended by 



520 INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 

wisdom, that we raise ourselves to the culminating point of complete science, 
which is like an elevated pinacle, whence we can embrace all, and understand all. 

Lastly, to leave from the very start, only so much obscurity around the mean 
ing of the several parts of the human figure, as the time is not yet come to clear 
away, we should not neglect to make beginners see from the first in a general way, 
the relations they bear to the whole, and the position which belongs to them. 
It is also thus, that in every science a general and preliminary exposition precedes 
instruction in detail, and prepares the way for that last and philosophical exposi- 
tion, in which the details reunited and arranged m the whole, will receive their 
last and full explanation. 

Such is then the order which theory prescribes to the practical study of Draw- 
ing. But the determination of this order, is this the only share which theory 
should have in instruction ? And accordingly, the order of practical study once 
determined, is it enough for the learning of the elements of Drawing, that this 
study should consist in commencing with the imitation of the parts of the head, 
and finishing with that of the entire figure ? 

[After having demonstrated, (continues the Editor of the Bulletin,) by the 
reasoning and by the authority of Leonardo da Vinci, of iMicheel Angelo, of the 
artists of antiquity, &c., the necessity of the study of the anatomy of the bones 
and muscles, and that of the proportions, M. F. Ravaisson proceeds as fol- 
lows : — ] 

In fine we have seen above that Drawing is properly speaking the representa- 
tion of the proportions of things as they appear to the eye. We have also seen, 
that if we can hardly well judge of the reality by the visible appearance, which 
is for us its sign, we can hardly see the appearance either as it is. Hence, constant 
difficulties, as well when we invent, to give to the things we imagine the forms 
they ought to have, as when we imitate, to judge accurately of the appearances of 
things and to I'eproduce them faithfully. Hence an uncertainty from which we 
can scarce!)' escape witlicut many eiTors. 

Now the relation between visible appearances and actual proportions, for any 
point of viev.' and any distance, is regulated by geometrical laws ; by these laws, 
which are those of perspective, we can with certainty anticipate experience, and. 
without error, destroy the appearance of the reality, or the reality of the appear- 
ance. Who then can doubt that the knowledge of it would be most useful to as- 
sure the judgment of the eye, and to protect it from error ? And so, at the era, 
at which the art of Drawing among the moderns has attained the highest point 
of perfection, we see perspective held in honor. 

After Bruneileschi, Paolo, Ueello, Lorenzo Ghiberti, who were the first to un- 
derstand well its rules ; after Pietro della Francesca, who was, it is said, the 
first to give the theory of it, the masters whose works adorn the middle and 
second half of the 1.5th century, Massaccio, Filippino Lippi, Pisanello, Signorelli, 
the pi'ecursor of Michssl Angelo, Melazzo de Forli, whose frescoes probably taught 
Corregio the art of backgrounds, (soito in su) Vincenzo Foppa, the two Bellini, 
Mantegna, Ghirlandajo, Perugino, showed themselves consummate in the hew 
science ; Leonardo da Vinci made it the subject of a book, nov/ lost, which be- 
came the source of the principal works in which it was treated in the 16th cen- 
tury ; Raffaelle, in fine, to whom Perugino had taught it, knew it so well as to 
give lessons to the great Florentine painter, 1^'iX Bartolommeo. And we cannot 
doubt, that the knowledge and habitual practice of perspective, effectually con- 
tributed to give to the art of Drawing, among the painters of the golden age of 
Art, much of that exquisite accuracy, and accordingly, that finished elegance, 
from which men subsequently receded more and more, according as counting 
more for the concealment of mistakes on the play of light and shade, and the effect 
of aerial perspective, men trusted more and more to the unassisted judgment of 
the eye. 

It is not that when we learn to draw, we must frequently put in practice the 
rules of perspective, to find the place and dimensions of outlines and shadows. 
We have already said, that to construct forms by geometrical rule, is no longer to 
draw, but to trace them, and consequently it can not teach us to draw. But at 
the same time that it furnishes us with an exact means of geometrical construc- 
tion and verification, the knowledge of the principles of perspective, united to the 
babit of applying them, must necessarily, in making us attentive to the perspec- 



INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 521 

tive diminutions of proportlous, and tlio laws which they follow, k;;d us to observe 
thetn better, to ai)p -ociate the n, and to represent them nioie justly. 

Now if the knowledge of perspeetive serves to make us judge well of all visi 
ble forms, of those of the bones and muscles, as well as thot-e of tlie exterior sur- 
face, does it not follow, that it is with perspective that instruction in Drawing 
ought to commence ? Piactice should be founded on good theory, of which per- 
spective is the entrance and the guide. 

Will it be objected that it prolongs too much the teaching of Drawing, to join 
with it that of perspective, as well as the structure and proportions of the human 
figure ? Very far from this, these are ideas which at the same time that they 
must throw light on practice, and so render its progress more rapid as well as 
more sure, may be acquired in a time relatively very short. These principles, 
says Leonaudo da Vinci, who continually recommends to begin with the study 
of the scientitic principles of Art, these principles are but a little thing near Art 
itself. 

To learn in the first place, perspective ; in the second place, the structure of 
man and his proportions ; in the third place, only to draw the human figure ; 
first, the several parts, and then the whole ; such then is the order prescribed by 
Leonardo da Vinci for the study of Drawing, and which has not ceased to be the 
order most profitable to follow. * 

This does not, however, prevent the teaching of the scientific principles of Art 
from being usefully preceded by a certain number of lessons, consecrat'-d to 
purely practical exercises, exercises which may consist of the imitation of simple 
figures, such as those of regular solids, of some parts of vegetables, &c. In these 
first essays, we would accustom ourselves to draw the outlines, to indicate the 
shadows ; we would accustom ourselves, above all, to observe proportions ind 
forms, and the very difficulties themselves which we should experience in judging 
of them accurately, and reproducing them well, would dispose us to recognize the 
'necessity, and to comprehend the use of those principles, whose methodical appli- 
cation will serve in the regular course of instruction, to resolve successively the 
various problems of Drawing. These different exercises would thus form a sort 
of preparation for the regular course of studies, which would commence with 
perspective. 

In our schools, (lycees) where for every reason the instruction must be but very 
elementary, the study of perspective will be necessarily confined to general prin- 
ciples, and to the applications most us-ful for the practice of Drawing. Care 
should be taken above all to explain how this science, which is at present scarcely 
applied save to the foreshortening of regular forms, which can be geometrically 
drawn such as those of a building, may be applied alike to every kind of forms, 
and particularly to the human figure. 

The. study of measures (and proportions) should extend only to those which 
it is most important to know, and which are the most constant ; and the master 
should apply himself to explain by examples chiefly borrowed from the chefs- 
d'ceuvre of antique art, how the infinite variety of individual forms reconciles 
itself with the general rule, which is the law of species. The study of the anatom- 
ical structure also should be limited to what is most necessary to know, and what 
may be learned from casts, prints, or photographs, upon the situation and func- 
tions of the muscles and bones. 

But, on the other hand, it would not be enough for the scientific principles of 
Art, that some lessons more or less abstract, should precede the practice. In Art 
practice is the end, theory is one of the means of reaching it. From the start, 
theory ought then to be accomodated to practical use, an<l practice ought to the 
end be enl ghtened by theory, and incessantly take counsel of it. 

Consequently, when the principles of perspective are explained to the Students 
in our schools, care should be fcikeii to make them sensibly understand those 
principles, by exhibiting to them, and causing them to make for themsdves imme- 
diate applications to objects analogous to those which a little later they will have 
to draw. And on the other hand during the course of practical study, and 
throughout its whole continuance, no occasion should be neglected to make them 
see how the problems offered to the eye by the foreshorten ings, impl'ed by relief, 
in every object of nature, all range themselves under the general laws of per- 
spective, and how it leads to resolve them. It is thus that throughout all instruo- 



522 INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING 

tion in Drawing, the maxim is verified, that " Perspective is the bi'idle and helm 
of painting." 

In the same manner, in giving the necessary instructions upon the anatomical 
structure of Man, as applied to the Art of Drawing, and upon his chief propor- 
tions, care sht)uld be taken to make it clear from the very first by examples of its 
practical usefulness. Afterwards, as fast and according as the student is made to 
draw the different parts of the human figure, or even entire figures in d.fferent 
movements and att.tudes, he should be made to study it anew,* more deeply, and 
in greater detail, and as well structure as proportions. For this purpose no mode 
perhaps is better than that proposed by Alessandro Allori, and which was but 
the application to Instruction in Drawing of the ordinary manner of proceeding 
adopted by Michael Angelo ; a mode which consists of either before making the 
student draw each part of the body as it is in outward form, to make him first 
draw the bone which it includes, and then the muscles or cartilages which are 
covered by the skin ; or at least occasionally, to place by the side of the models 
after which the superficial figures of the objects are to be reproduced, the repre- 
sentation of ttieir anatomical structure, a representation, which in part explains 
their appearances, and which thus leads the student, as in other respects the 
knowledge of the laws of perspective leads him, to understand them better, and 
therefore to draw them better. • 

In anticipating experience, according to an expression we have borrowed from 
Leibnitz, science reduces the probabilities of error, which experience always 
allows, and lets none of them exist, as has been said also of wisdom in respect of 
chance, save what cannot be taken away. This is also what the previous study 
of the Parts does in regard to the study of the Whole. The parts once well 
known in their constituent elements, in the chief varieties of form and under the 
different aspects which they can present, when we come to the whole we half 
know it already, and familiarized with elements analogous to those of which it is 
composed we undeistand it better and represent it better. It is, therefore, as we 
have said, that the parts must be studied before the whole ; it is, therefore, also 
that there is no use in studying them unless we study them profoundly, so as to 
know them w^ell, and that, consequently, " we must not pass from a first to a sec- 
ond unless we are in possession of the first.-' 

From this, several practical consequences follow. In the first place the parts of 
the human figure ought to be, in general, as well in models as in the copies which 
the students are caused to make, of equal dimensions with nature, or at least very 
nearly so ; for in objects of small size one is more exposed to miss seeing all, and 
for the same reason, '' in little things one does not see his own faults as he does in 
greater.'' — Once master of the detail of the parts, we may, on the other hand, 
when we come to draw entire figures, give them without any inconvenience, 
smaller dimensions. In drawing such figures, in order that we may keep the 
different parts of the copy we are making in proportion one with another, we 
must embrace the whole of it at a single glance ; and the custnm has very reason- 
ably grown to be not to give the drawing of the entire figure dimensions greater 
than those of an ordinary sheet of drawing paper. There is something more ; 
these dimensions are those ordinarily given to the models themselves : now, since 
we learn to draw only by the judgment which we apply to the relations of 
dimensions or Proportions, and as, consequently, it is important that beginners 
should not be able to contract the habit of taking measures on the model to 
dispense with that judgment, it is a useful thing to practice them, in giving to 
their drawings, representing entire figures, dimensions different from those of the 
models from which they copy. It will then be proper, if the models in general are 
only of the size of an entire sheet of paper, to make copies from them occasion- 
ally of a smaller size. . But for this reason, that in little things one cannot well 
judge of his own faults, and that the student may not become accustomed to con- 
tent himself with inexact imitations ; the dimensions of drawings of entire fig- 
ures ought not, in any case, to sink lower than those of a half sheet of drawing 
paper. 

, In the second place, objects are only well distinguished by their lights and 
shades, which render sensible their relief. If the line which marks the extreme 
limits be sufficient to represent the figure on a smaller scale, and to secure its 
tecognition, it is but by the lights and shades presented by its surface that we can 



INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 523 

understand exactly and completely its proportions, its character, and its special 
beauty. In order to fulfill tlie precept according to which, in all the course of his 
studies, the student must not pass from one object to another until he under- 
stands the first well, it is therefore necessary that in respect of eveiy object ho 
draws, froifT tlie most simple parts to the most complicated whole, he should not 
confine himself to a line, nor even to a rough indication of the model, but he 
must apply himself to reproduce, and to reproduce exactly, the lights and shades. 

" If }uu wish, oh draughtsman," says Leonardo da Vinci, " to make a good 
and useful study, judge well among the lights which are those, and in what 
number, which possess the first degree of brightness, and so among the shades 
which are those which are darker than the others, and in what manner they 
mingle together, and compare these always one with another ; and lastly, let your 
shades and lights be joined without lines or points, and mix with each other like 
smoke. And when you shall have brought your hand and your judgment to this 
amount of exactness, the practice of drawing will come to you so fast that you 
will not even be conscious of it." 

To express the exact character of the shadows with the same pencil which 
serves to mark the outline, to render it with softness, and, according to the 
Ital.an expression sfumato^ by parallel, or crossed shading, great labor is required, 
whieh occupies much time, \A'ith a stump both the shadows, and, the passage 
of the shadows into the lights, can be imitated both more easily and more 
quickly. It would seem then, and it has bten proposed, to prescribe the use of 
the stump rather than that of the pencil for the imitation of the shadows. 

The Commission is neveitheless of opinion that for teaching, and in order to 
form the eye to judge well of forms and their character, the pencil is preferable to 
the stump. The pencil represents shadows by simple lines. These lines accord- 
ing to the direction in which they are traced, may contradict the forms whose 
relief they should serve to express, or, on the contrary, by conforming themselves 
to these, may assist, by their very direction, in making them better understood. 
To put in the shadows with the pencil, the general effect and the details of the 
forms must be then observed every instant, as well as the changes which they 
undergo hy foreshortening. Each line, each shading becomes thus a teacher of 
the character of things, of their anatomical construction, and of their perspective. 
This is what we are shown by the drawings of the best painters, and the prints of 
the best engravers, with whom to put in the shades is never any thing else than to 
draw. Moreover, we have not stumps always by us ; and on the other hand we 
have always at hand a pencil, or a pen, or something which can take its place and 
perform the same office. It is important, on principle, to learn to make use 
above all things of those means which are least likely to fail us, and to know how, 
in short, to paint the shadows with the same point which serves to make the 
outline. 

If then the use of the stump may occasionally be permitted, if it be even useful 
to learn in good time to manage it, were it but to make one independent of every 
process and special mode of working, still the habitual instrument, and especially 
at the start, should be the pencil. 

From all that precedes, it follows that the object we should propose to ourselves 
in indicating the shadows is, not so much to please the ignorant or ill-taught eye, 
by the regularity of the work, as to express in a manner as perfect as possible the 
figure and character of the objects drawn. In this manner by devoting to the 
study of the model and to the light and shade all the necessary time, the greatest 
part of the course will not be taken up, as often happens, in the minute imitation 
of the works of engravers. Besides, once that we have become, by sufficient 
practice, able to express the half tints completely, in the absence of which the 
lights and shadows do not possess their true character, but which form the most 
difficult part of the study of the model, and that which requires the longest 
application, we can, without omitting them, spare ourselves, nevertheless, the time 
necessary to represent them well with the pencil. For this it will be sufficient to 
draw on a ground by whose tint they are supplied. This is what was done in 
the best times of Art, by using for drawing paper, paper slightly colored, upon 
which the shadows were indicated in black, and the brighter lights in white. 
And according to Leonardo da Vinci, who managed the pencil as well as the pen 



524 INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 

with astonishing dexterity, this is in fact, the best method to draw from models 
. in relief. 

We have seen that it is by the separate parts of the human figure, and not by the 
whole, that a beginning should be made, and for this reason, that in all things the 
path which ought to be chosen is that wh ch leads from the simple tp the compli- 
cated. For the same reason, the first models should not be reliefs, (round figures,) 
but imitations of relief in the fliat. "Begin," says Leonardo da Vinci, '' by 
copying the di'awings of good masters, you may afterwards copy from figures in 
relief" Drawings, indeed, or prints, or even photographs, do not offer effects of 
perspective so deceptive or so enigmatical as those given by reliefs, or round fig- 
ures ; the lights and shadows in them have not the same magic, and allow of be- 
ing more easily understood. And in fine, the very labor by which the author of 
the drawing or print has imitated the relief or round, is, for him who seeks to 
imitate it in his turn, a ntcessary imitation in tlie different woiks of Art. Figures 
in relief (in the round) should not "then be drawn until the student is in a condi- 
tion to reproduce drawings and prints with sufficient accuracy. 

Those drawings or prints, whether they represent the parts of the human figure 
or entire figures, ought to be the'faithful reproduction of types borrovi'ed from the 
best masters of all times. Photogiaphy, too, may come to the assistance of the 
pencil or the graver, not only in the multiplication of dravv'ings of good authors, 
or of rare prints, but also even in affording direct reproductions of masterpieces 
of painting or of sculpture, or representations of nature. 

As to models in relief, (figures in the round,) it is among the chefs d'auvre of 
ancient sculpture that they should almost all be chosen. 

Under the influence of systems in error both as to the object and the aim of Art, 
a custom has become established of selectmg almost exclusively, as models for 
instruction in drawing, among the sptcimens which remain to us of the ancient 
statuary, figures of the class called ideal figures, in which it is believed may be 
found the representation of human nature in its most abstract generality, figures 
possessing the least individuality possible ; without perceiving that of these figures, 
those which are more remarkable for the regularity of their forms than for their 
truth are, for their most part, copies or imitations in which the particular character 
presented by the originals has more or less disappeared, and their general pro- 
portions only remain, — it is to such second-hand works that the preference is often 
given. And from this it arises that in learning to draw, one learns to regard 
only a conventional type of forms and movements, and one becomes incapable of 
comprehending the infinitely varied beauties of nature. 

In consequence of the discovery made at the beginning of this century of a great 
number of original works of the finest period of Greek statuary, a discovery which 
vividly affected the imagination of men : in consequence also of the reaction in an 
opposite direction which was naturally produced by the insipidity of so "many 
works .inspired by the worship of a ffdse ideal : the opinions which used to govern 
the domain of art, and that of criticism, have become modified. Individuality, 
Truth, Life, are restored to their rights ; and it may even be doubted whether, 
after, having so long inclined towards one of the two poles between which modern 
art has almost always oscillated, we have not now thrown ourselves too far in the 
direction of the other. 

However this may be, elementary instruction has continued almost everywhere 
to follow the same errors as before. To cut this short it has been proposed in the 
commission, to allow no models in future to be taken, among so many works of 
ancient sculpture which remain to us, but those which carry to the highest pitch 
the character of individuality and truth : that is, the Portraits. 

The Commission has come to the conclusion, that if this proposition should not 
be admitted because it is exclusive in its turn, that if on the contraiy, we can not 
too soon place before the eyes of youth the chrfs d'auvre in which the human 
form, the most perfect of all forms in nature, has* been represented in its highest 
perfection, and thus penetrate their still young imaginations with the principles 
and essence of the most excellent beauty, nevertheless, in order to teach them to 
understand and love nature in her inexhaustible variety, it is well to give them 
also a certain number of masterpieces of another kind to study, so as to reproduce, 
from the very first, those masterpieces in which Art has expressed with the gr( at- 
est naivete the beauties proper to individual types the most special and peculiar, 
without seeking to reduce them to a higher Beauty. 



INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 525 

Moreover, those very figures should be sckctofl which can, in a certain sense, be 
properly calkd ideal : the tigures of gods, of godessrs, of heroes, of heroines, 
among the w oiks of the best agi s, in whieli the masters, penetrated with Nature 
and fill! of her spirit, have always known how to unite individuality and truth 
witli beauty in their works. Such are the works which remain to us of IHiidias 
or his eotemporaries, and of the great sculptors who followed immediately after 
him. 

"The painter," says Leonardo da Vinci, and the same may be sa'd of the 
draughtsman, " should' study by rule, and should let nothing escape being treasured 
in his memory." And it is thci-efore that he recommends the student, after having 
made a copy of a model as exact as he is capable of making one, to practice him- 
self in reproducing it from memory. By th:s exercise, in truth, not only is the 
memory strengthened, without vvliicli there is neither art nor science, but also the 
attention, which is nothing else than the intell ct itself stiained and applied by the 
will 5 and in fine, those types which the student has leained to com|)rehend by 
attentive comparison of their propoitions, preserved and constantly piesent in the 
imagination, become permanent subjects of new refit ctions, comparisons, and in- 
struction. 

To drawing after models should then be united as much as possible this practice 
of drawing from memory, which, long neglected, has been introduced successfully 
as we have already had occasion to s,ay, seAeral years ago, in the teaching of the 
special school of drawing, (ecole speciale de dessin.) But, as we have also re- 
marked, in order that this practice should not have those inconveniences which at- 
tend on the habit of working without a model (travailler de tete^) and that it may 
not keep one away from the observation and simple {naive) imitation of nature, it 
is important, according to the express recommendation of Leonardo da Vinci 
that a faithful ti-acing should constantly serve to verify and correct the inaccura- 
cies of the drawing from memory ; it is upon this condition that such a pract ce 
may be used, without danger, to fix in the mind the results of the imitation of 
models. 

In making the student study and reproduce the different models, the professor 
should teach him to attend to the expi'ession, above all, of their essential character, 
that cliaraeter which is from the very first visible in the whole at one view, and 
which is found to be the same in the smallest details ; he should teach liim there- 
fore, from the first, to express the genei-al character in the whole, he should teach 
him in the next place never to lose this point of vit-w, but to pursue his researches 
even to the details of the very smallest parts. He should apply himself thus to 
make his pupils understand how in the chefs d'' CEuvre of art, just as in the works 
of nature, the diflferent parts are among themselves analogous in their movements, 
their proportions, and their forms ; .how, accoidingly, while they have each their 
own peculiar nature and spiiit, they nevertheless express by their correspondence 
and mutual agreement, the indivisible spirit which is the soul and principle of the 
whole; how, in them, in short, variety is thus made subject to the law of unity, 
which forms out of it an order and harmony. 

He will apply himself to make clear how it is that in those masterpieces in which 
especially reign those proportions to which, with Leonardo da Vinci, we may give 
the name of Divine, with still greater vaiiety is united a more perfect unity : how 
these two opposite elements of harm.ony rising at once, so to speak, to a higher 
power, and the unity of the idea becoming more vivid still by the very contrast of 
the diversity w^hich it subdues under its law, there results that superior harmony 
which constitutes beauty ; how, in short, in all true beauty, even when the char 
acter of the movements and forms is rather grace than strength, or elegance rather 
than majesty, nevertheless, by the predominance of the whole over the parts, of 
the unity over the variety of the subject, order partakes of grandeur, and with the 
beautiful, properly so called, is mingled more or less of what is called the sub- 
lime. 

By these means he will teach his pupils by little and little to recognize in true 
beauty the image of that Spirit which is its divine and mysterious principle, and 
he will render them capable by degrees, of comprehending that thought of a great 
master, painter, and philosopher, that the Beautiful, for all that it manifests itself 
in bodies, is by nature Incorporeal. 

But to teach men to judge accurately of the spirit of forms and of beauty, 



526 INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 

whicli is the highest object of instruction in Drawing, the study which can be 
made of models copied and reproduced from memory is not enough. Their num- 
ber is necessarily too much restricted. "It is not enough to draw" says Leo- 
nardo da Viuci, " we must still see and compare the work^ of difierent 
masters." 

The pupils in our schools (lycees) not being able to go to seek here and there 
the various works of art dispersed in so many places, nor even to visit, except very 
rarely, the Galleries where they are collected in great numbers, shall they then be 
deprived of this necessary complement of education ? This advantage would be 
secured to them to a certain extent if each school were made, as far as possible, a 
Gallery ; and this might be accomplished without much expense, by placing not 
only in the hall of instruction, but also in the parlor, in the refrectory, on the 
staircases, beneath the vestibules, in the several school-rooms, every where in which 
the arrangement of the place would allow of it, and in such a manner as to harmo- 
nize with that arrangement, reproductions, by ca.sts, engravings, or photography, 
of the chefs d'<suvre^ of every species of ancient and modern Art. Their pow- 
erful and favorable influence would thns be every where and always exerted over 
the minds of youth 5 fed by the poetry of Homer and Virgil, of Corneille and Ra- 
cine, it would also feed itself, every moment of the day, and almost unconsciously, 
upon that of Phidias and Raffaelle, of Jean Goujon and Poussia. 

To this programme of studies the Commission thinks it right to propose to the 
Minister to add one branch of instruction which hitherto has not found a place in 
the teaching of Drawing as it has been conducted in our schools, {lye ies,) and 
which has nowhere perhaps been regularly organized : it is that of drawing speci- 
ally applied to those forms which are altogether the creation of Art, and which in 
opposition to those of natural objects, we may call artificial forms. These forms 
are those of the different objects which Art invents for the various wants of life, 
or for the satisfaction of that which Michsel Angelo called the insatiable fancy of 
man : buildings, furniture, vessels, utensils, ornaments of all sorts. 

The beings which Nature creates are in their substance and their forms that 
which is required for the end which they have to fulfill ; and at the same time 
they compose harmonies, either by their figures or by their colors, which satisiy 
one superior and universal end which is Beautj\ The objects which Man creates 
for his use are also determined, both in their substance and their forms, by the very 
nature of the wants they have to serve. But, like nature, man also pursues at 
the same time a higher end. Among all substances, among all forms, he chooses 
as much as possible for his creations those which best satisfy the conditions of 
Beauty. This is not all : to these forms he adds others which may serve, either 
better to express the idea from which the first proceed, or else to raise their 
beauty 5 these accessories, by nieans of which objects tell what they mean, in 
some sort, with more clearness, force, and grace, and in a more elevated style — 
these accessories which form the poetic character of the principal forms, and 
which accompany while adorning them, as a musical harmony accompanies and 
emphasizes the theme of the melody — these are the ornaments of the creations of 
Man. In the first place, the forms which Art creates for the objects necessary to 
the different uses of life ; in the second place, the ornaments of which they are 
susceptible 5 such should be the double object of this new branch of instruction, 
which the commission think it right to propose for institution. 

Since the time which cau be devoted in the schools (lycees) to the study of Art 
would not by any means suffice to complete it in all its parts, nor even in any 
one of them, it is evident that, instead of running over them all, so as to learn 
nothing, or very little, the best thing is, generally speaking, to apply ourselves to 
push as far as possible the study of that which is the most difficult as well as the 
most important, and which one can not know without being capable of learning all 
the rest in a little time, that is to say, the study of the human figxire. For w-ho- 
ever is able to represent the human figure well in its proportions, its character, 
and its beauty, will learn without difficulty, and in but a little time, to represent 
as well the proportions, character and beauty of animals, landscape and flowers, 
&c. ; while the converse of the proposition is by no means true. From hence it 
wonld seem that neither can tliere be found a place in the schools {lycees) for 
teaching the drawing of those forms which we have just called Artificial forms. 
These forms, in truth, composed of the same elements as those of natural objects, 



IN6TRTCTI0N IN DRAWING. 527 

do not surpass — for the most part do iiot even equal them in complications and 
difficulti»'s. So a man may form a good judgment of the proportions of a cande- 
labrum or vase, who could not judge as well of those of a great part of the beings 
Vi'hich Nature has created. A nian, on the other hand, who knows how to see 
animals and plants accurately, and therefore to draw them well, will be able to 
appreciate, and tlierefore to draw as it ought to be drawn, a vase, a candelabrum, 
or a volute. How much better still he who is able to understand and to trace out 
the cunning lines of the human figure! 

But although in the drawing of the human figure the universal principles of 
the drawing of other kinds of forms is included, nevirtheless, eaeh of these kinds 
has again its peculiar principles. Hence it follows, that in order to draw well the 
forms they include, and consequently to form a good judgment of their propor- 
tions, of their character, and of the particular beauty of which they are susceptible, 
we must unite with the study of the drawing of the human figure, certain other 
special studies. If this is true of the forms of natural objects, perhups it is still 
more true of those of which the imagination of man is the source. The fornis of 
nature, in truth, being more or less analogous to our own, answer, by a secret 
harmony, to the intimate constitution of our souls, and hence it comes that even 
those who possess not the slightest trace of art, judge tolerably well of the beauty 
of such forms, whether in nature itself, or in the works of art which lepresent it. 
As to those, on the other hand, which are the creations of art, the cultivation of 
taste alone, by seeing and studying masterpieces, makes us capable of judging of 
them. 

Again, for the very reason that these forms are those of objects which serve the 
ordinary purposes of life, and which our wants, or the variations of fancy, invite 
us perp-'tually to alter and renew, we have to exercise our judgment upon them 
continually ; and this is another reason why it is desirable that studies of a 
special nature should put us in a condition to bring an enlightened judgment to 
the task. 

■^ To this consideration is to be added another, drawn from the interest of these 
arts themselves, with which, in our country of France above all, so many other 
interests are connected. If the destiny of Art, in general, depends in great part on 
the opinion, more or less enlightened, of the public, this is especially true of those 
arts which are closely connected with Industry, and which can not dispense with 
the connection. Separated' from the public by intervening circumstance.*, more or 
less numerous, scarcely known to it, even the artist who, in these arts which are 
reputed as secondary, displays the rarest ability, produces no impression by the 
authority of his name, and exercises but a weak influence on the judgment of the 
majority of men. If, besides, in order to judge of pictures and statues, w^e are 
well content to defer to a certain extent to those skilled in the knowledge and 
practice of painting and sculpture, and who, in consequence, are necessarily the 
best judges of such works, still the same thing is not true in the case of those fo- 
miliar articles by which we are surrounded, and of which we are making some 
use every moment, and every one willingly thinks himself capable of forming a 
judgment as well as any body else. 

Lastly, let us add that if of all the branches of Art,the Drawing of such objects 
as industry appropriates to the various uses of life is not the most elevated, nor 
that consequently, which can most contribute to the education of the soul and the 
mind, it is that which, on the other hand, in addition to the advantage of enabling 
us to exercise a judgment upon those things of which we have the most frequent 
need, unites this advantage too, (which is a necessary consequence of the former,) 
— that of finding immediate employment in the greater number of industrial pro- 
fessions and trades. 

In giving, then, the first and highest place in the study of the elements of art to 
the Drawing of the Human Figure, which is its highest branch, it seems that 
there are sufficient reasons to make room also for that branch of art which in 
some sort occupies the other extremity of the scale, and whose direct applica- 
tions are by much the most numerous as well as, materially at least, the most 
useful. 

Since those forms .which are the creations of the imagination divide themselves 
naturally, as we have said, into great classes : namely, the figures themselves 
of buildings, furniture, utensils, &c., and the ornaments with which these different 



528 INSTRUCTIOxN IN DRAWING. 

objects may be clothed, the teaching of the Drawing rf artificial forms should 
»lso be divided into two portions, corresponding with these two classes of objects. 
During the first portion of this teaching, the student should be made to study 
at first select profiles of some of the principal features of which Architectural 
Buildings are composed, the Vases, Brackets, Vasques, Balustrades, Candelabra, 
(fee, arid ng sometimes the study of the ground plans of architectural woiks to 
that of their profiles. In directing the study of these objects, as in that of Man, 
the master sliouid apply himst-lf to make it clear how the proportions of the dif- 
ferent parts depend on one another, and vary one with another ; how in this 
agi'eemeiit and connection, which give to every work of art its special beauty, .as 
well as its definite character and expression, the thought shims out. the spirit 
which produced such forms 5 how from the harmonious conceit of those propor- 
tions which Leonardo da Vinci called " divine," results at last the perfection of 
Beauty. 

To this teaching should be joined the exhibition, by a suflSeient number of ex- 
amples, of the several modifications which the various forms must undergo, and 
the particular characters or expressious which they must assume, according to the 
ditFerence of substances, following the difierent nature of marble, of stone, of 
granite, of wood, of ivory, of iron, of bronze, of the prtcious metals, &c. 

In directing the special study of ornamentation, the professor should make 
known both the principrd types which art has created, and those \^h■;ch it most 
commonly borrows, whether from the animal or vegetable kingdom ; he should, 
above all, explain how it modifies the elements supplied by nature, and transforms 
th>.ni so as to please the fancy of men. 

For every branch of this course of study, the models should in general be 
borrowed from Greek Art, which, in this department as in all the others, knew 
how to unite witli the most perfect agreement of the forms, with the destination 
of the objects and their material, the greatest originality of character, the highest 
style, and the most surpassing beauty. Other models may, however, be addtd, 
borrowed from Roman and Oriental art, as well as from that of the Middle Ages, 
and of the Renaissance^ which, though they do not reach the same degree of 
supreme perfection, have, nevertheless, produced a crowd of masterpieces in this 
• department. 

The exercise of reproduction from memory, which would fasten in the imagina- 
tion the most finished types, should be applied to the drawing of artificial forms 
and (heir ornaments, as well as to that of the human figure, and will produce the 
same result. 

Perhaps to these studies, should be added some practical lessons on the em- 
ployment of color in ornamentation, lessons which would initiate the student to 
a certain extent in the knowledge of the relations and harmonies of tones in 
color. 

Tc conclude, as in the case of figure drawing, besides the models of artificial 
forms, which may be made during the progress of the course, other chefs d-csuvre 
of art, placed in every direction throughout the schools (lycees) under the eyes of 
youth, would succed in penetrating them with the spirit which produced them, 
with that universal spirit from which equally proceed that heroic contovrs of the 
marbles of the Parthenon, and the profile of the least of the earthen vases hidden 
in the sepulchres of Athens or of Vulci. 

[The Commisson proceeds to point out the proper distribution of all these studies, 
among the classes in the lycees^ the schools of general education in Fi'ance, and 
conclude with recommending that INIasters in Drawing, shall undergo a special 
examination, and rank hereafter as Professors, and that the proficiency of the pupils 
shall be tested by frequent inspection confided to men possessed of special knowl- 
edge on the subject, who shall report periodically to the Minister the results of 
their observation. 

Upon this admirable report the Minister of Public Instruction has promulgated 
a Decree embodying its several suggestions as part of the national system.] 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTIONS IN MUSIC. 529 

CONSERVATOIRE IMPERIAL DE MUSIQUE ET DE DECLAMATION. 

The Imperial Conservatory of MurSic, at Paris, was founded by Louis XVI, in 
1'784, and was then called Ecole de chant. It was reorganized in 1795, at 
which time it received its present appellation. Although originally intended to 
train actors and singers for the imperial theatres and operas, it has become a 
good normal school of professors of music and vocal culture generally. 

Pupils are admitted only after a competitive examination. It is free, and its 
privileges are enjoyed by about six hundred pupils annually. Connected with 
it are a library of music and books on the art, and a gallery of musical instru- 
ments, which are accessible to the public. 

It is governed by a director, an administrator, and two committees, the com- 
mittee of musical instruction numbering fifteen, and that of dramatic studies 
numbering fourteen. 

Besides these there are attached to the school, a secretary, two librarians, 
one curator of the museum, an officer at the head of the pensionnat, and two 
visiting physicians. 

The corps of instructors consists of sixty-two professors, twelve repetiteurs 
and ten other instructors, distributed as follows : — 1 Eepetiteur of clavier for 
men ; 1 Professor adjunct of clavier for women ; 2 Repetiteurs of clavier for 
women ; 1 Professor titular of harp ; 4 Professors titular of violin ; 2 Professors 
titular of violoncello; 1 Professor titular of centre basse; 1 Professor titular of 
fljite ; 1 Professor titular of hautbois ; 1 Professor titular of clarionette ; 1 Pro- 
fessor titular of bassoon ; 1 Professor titular of horn, first and second ; 1 Pro- 
fessor titular of trumpet ; 1 Professor titular of trombone. 

The classes for military music are provided with the following instructors: 
two of harmony and composition, one of cornet a piston, one of saxophane, 
one of saxhorn, two of elementary singing. 

Besides the school at Paris there are five branch establishments, one in each 
of the following towns: Lille, Toulouse, Marseilles, Metz, and Nantes. 

Four Professors of composition, contrepoint and fugue, two Professors of 
Written harmony, three professors of harmony and accompaniment practically 
united, eight Professors titular of singing, three Professors titular of individual 
elementary singing {solfege) for men, four Repetiteurs of individual elementary 
singing {solfege) for men, two Professors of individual elementary singing 
{solfege) for women, five Repetiteurs of individual elementary singing {solfege) 
for women, two Professors titular of choral elementary singing {solfege colledif ) 
one Professor agrege teaching a class of choral music, two Professors titular of 
lyrical declamation in grand opera, three Professors titular of lyrical declama- 
tion in opera comique^ three accompagnateurs of lyrical declamation in opera 
comique, one Professor for studying parts for grand opera and opera comique, one 
Professor for the class of the p^nsionna.t for studying the parts for grand opera 
and opera comique, one Professor for teaching adults to sing popular music in 
the evening classes, four Professors titular of dramatic declamation, one 
Professor honorary of dramatic declamation, one Professor titular of theatrical 
management, one Professor titular of fencing for men, one Professor titular of 
organ and improvisation, one Professor titular of piano for men, one Professor 
titular of piano for women, one Professor adjunct of piano for women, one 
Professor titular of instrumental music in bands, one Professor adjunct of 
clavier for men. 

"We copy the following notice of the annual examination for 1866 from the 
Journal of the Society of Arts. 
The examinations are divided into two aeries, one being held with closed 



530 SPECIAL SCHOOLS AND INSTRUCTIONS IN MUSIC. 

doors, and the other being open to such of the public as can obtain tickets of 
admission, which on some days ars as scarce as tickets for a coronation, in fact, 
are utterly unattainable by ordinary mortals. The private examinations 
include sol-fa, written harmony, thorough bass, the adaptation to the piano 
of a piece from an old opera ; scales, organ, centre basse, centre point, and 
fugue. This portion of the competition is carried on in the small theatre of the 
Conservatoire, while the public trials take place in the concert theatre ; the 
latter include singing, grand opera and comic opera, violin, violoncello, harp, 
piano, and all the wind instruments played by pupils, whether civil or mihtarj^, 
for since the suppression of the gymnasium of military music, the Conservatoire 
has the charge of the education of military musicians. The examination of 
the pupils in the dramatic classes usually terminates the public examinations. 

The president of the juries is M. Auber, the director of the Conservatoire. 
The juries themselves are nine in number; five of these consist of professors of 
the Conservatoire, while the other four are selected from the artistic celebrities 
of the capital. The pupils in sol-fa are required to execute at sight, what is 
called a lesson dcliangements de clefs, and M. Elevart explains this in the fol- 
lowing terms: — "This name is given to a particular system of notation, which 
introduces the seven positions of the three keys in an arbitrary manner, so as 
to test the promptitude of ejQ possessed by the competing pupils." 

The pupils of the class of harmony have to arrange a selected piece with 
bass, and the fugue class to compose a fugue on a given subject; for this 
purpose eighteen hours are allotted, during which time the pupils are shut up 
in the class-rooms of the Conservatoire; the successful pupils rarely take more 
than eight or ten hours to complete their tasks. The other pupils, whether 
vocal or instrumental, have to execute a piece selected by the committee of 
studies; each kind of instrumentalists executes the same piece, and all, 
except the voc;ilist, have to execute a manuscript piece at sight. 

Formerly there were vocal classes in the Conservatoire which competed in 
public. After having sung a morceau chosen by their professors, the pupils 
sang a manuscript piece at sight. M. Elevart regrets that this kind of vocal 
counterpoint has fallen into disuse in the sinking classes, "as the study of 
vocalization and the obligation of executing at sight in public forced the singers 
to be musicians, that is to say, readers." Each pupil of the singing classes 
admitted to the competition sings a piece chosen by the professor. There are 
certain airs which are repeated ten times during one day's exhibition, such as 
the air of the Deux families of Theodore Labarre, and that of Norma. 

The public competitions occupy a whole week. They commence at nine in 
the morning and terminate ordinarily at four in the afteinoon. The most 
popular of the musical classes are those of the violin and piano, and serious 
and comic opera. The scenes of tragedy and comedy performed by the pupils 
of tlie declamation classes attract a special audience. With the exception of 
the pit and gallery, which are nominally open to the public, admission can only 
be obtained by means of tickets signed by the director. These tickets are 
distributed amongst the Ministry of Eine Arts, the directors of the Impei-ial 
thcaMes of Paris, and tlie Professors of the Conservatoire. At the public 
distribution of prizes, each prize pupil receives one or two tickets, according to 
the degree of the prize which he or she may have obtained. At present the 
distribution takes place in August, a few days after the closing of the competi- 
tive examinations, but formerly if took place in November after the reopening 
of the classes, which are closed from the first of August to the end of Septem- 
ber. At that time the meeting was a very interesting one ; the time was 
sufficient to allow of the music to be performed on the occasion, being well 
studied; the accompaniments were given by a full band, and it was usual for 
the pupil who had gained the first prize in fugue in the preceding year to 
write the overture of tlie concert. At present the full band is replaced by a 
simple piano, and the first prize-man of the fugue class has no longer the 
opportunity of testing his powers in presence of a select public. The old 
practice of a symphonj-, composed for all instruments, and executed by the 
laureats of the year, has also necessarily fallen with the abolition of the 
orch stra. These melodies used to be written by eminent composers, and the 
names of Francois Bazin, Jules Cohen, and Coradin Prumier are remembered 
with pleasure by habitues of the Consei-vatoire meetings. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC. 



631 



MUSIC IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

The ability to read and render musical composition was made part of the 
programme of instruction in the primary normal schools, drawn up by M. 
Guizot, in 1833. 

By the decree of 1865, the musical teaching is given during the whole three 
years, five hours a week being allotted to lessons in music and elementary sing- 
ing, including practice on the organ and the piano. 

In the lyceums vocal music was left optional with the director until 1865, 
when by a decree of January 30 of that year, instruction in vocal music was 
made obligatory on all the lower classes to the fourth inclusive, and left 
optional with the pupils of the fourth class and those above. The obligatory 
instruction includes the elementary principles of music and singing, as well as 
musical reading and writing, according to the notation at present in use in all 
civilized nations. The optional instruction may be extended to the elementary 
principles of harmony. 

In organizing the studies of the secondary ' special schools, this subject was 
made obligatory, and the following method indicated in the elaborate circular of 
the Minister, (M. Duruy,) addressed to the rectors, April 6, 1868. 

Singing is a powerful means of education. All the special colleges will, 
therefore, comprise singing classes. Each lesson should commence with sing- 
ing in unison, in order to steady the voice ; the pupils should be grouped 
according to the capacity of their voices, and each group should in its turn go 
through the exercises prepared. The lesson should conclude with the practice 
of easy and melodious choruses. As for the method to be employed, it must 
provisionally be the one that the master knows best how to apply. 

Preparatory year. During this year should be taught a few principles, and 
many tunes of a simple and agreeable character, set to good words, but very 
little musical grammar. 

First year of instruction. Each lesson should open with exercises in 
solfaing. The master should sing short musical phrases, which the pupils 
should endeavor to reproduce. Tliese phrases should never go beyond the 
extent of an octave. Towards the middle of the lesson, the singing should be 
suspended for some minutes, during which the principles should be explained. 
The musical tone, scale of tones, degrees, intervals, gamut, octave, means of 
representing tones by signs, notes, compass, the C clef, intonation, duration, 
time, simple time, f, ^, ^, breve, seraibreve, minim, equivalent -rests. The 
les.^on should conclude with a song sung in unison, and two-part choruses. 

Second year. Continuation of the explanation of the principles ; study of 
the chromatic scales, modified tones, accidents, second study of the diatonic 
scale, on the intervals of tones, study of the tetrachords, major and minor keys, 
typical scale do and la, construction of scales similar to this typical one, on the 
first sound of the superior tetrachord, or on the fourth tone of the inferior 
tetrachord, position of the sharps, position of the fiats. Study of the key /a. 
Binary and ternary groups. With the lessons in theory should always be 
combined practice ; intonation, dictation, and singing in unison should terminate 
each lesson. 

T/iird year. Modulation, what is understood by modulating, origin of the 
accidentals determined by modulations, passing or durable modulations, how to 
distinguish between them, importance of this distinction as regards solfaing, of 
the seven kinds of voices, of the keys assigned to them, of the quality (timhre) 
of the voice, the enharmonic system, numerous examples borrowed from the 
great masters' movement, time, analysis of melody, what is meant by a musical 
phrase, by a period, simple and ornate melody, transposition. 

Fourth yiar. Continuation of the sol-fa exercises, of musical dictations, 
singing in unison, and in two, three and four parts. Elementary notions of 



532 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC. 



harmony, principal consonant and dissonant accords, their fundamental position, 
reversal and connection, short-hand annotation of harmonies, numbered bass. 
Cadences, perfect, imperfect, brol<en, &c., suspension, use of pedals. 

Accompaniment to singing. Studies of sacred music, difference between the 
modes of music and the modes of church music, notions of plain song, musical 
plain song, execution of some pieces of Palestrina, Handel, &c. Abridged 
history of music, aesthetical ideas resulting from the analysis of a few works of 
moderate dimensions selected from the Italian, French and German schools. 

POPULAR MUSICAL INSTRUCTTON TN PARIS. 

The municipal authorities of Paris are making great efforts to popularize 
musical instruction in Paris, as has been done in Germany. Singing classes for 
children and adults exist in all the primary, secondary, normal and commercial 
schools of the capital, and an attempt is being made to give character and tone 
to what is taught there. 

A competition is opened for choral compositions, to be executed by the pupils 
of the primary schools, and the classes of adults in the city. The pieces are to 
be written for three or four voices, without accompaniment, and a jury named 
by the Prefect will award the prizes. The choice of the words is also left to 
the composers, but they must, of course, be in accordance with the object in 
view. The number of pieces is to be unlimited, and a prize of three to four 
hundred francs, according to merit, will be awarded for each composition 
accepted, the copyright of the successful piece to be the property of the 
municipal authorities. 

VOCAL MUSIC IN THE ARMY 

Quite recently, instruction in vocal music, after the method of Gahn-Paris- 
Oheve, has been introduced at a few points in the army and navy with such 
success that the Minister of "War in 1868 directed it to be taught in each regi- 
ment by teachers trained after this method in the normal musical class at Yin- 
cennes. 

MUSICAL ASSOCIATIONS. 

In 186 Y there were 3,223, (societes orpheoniqv^s^) with 90,532 active and 
56,967 honorary members. This number does not include the philharmonic 
societies, nor the choral societies for the cultivation of church mu.sic. These 
nausical associations, by their public concerts, have realized and contributed 
over 1,500,000 francs to charitable objects. 

Many of these musical associations have founded gratuitous schools of music, 
which they maintain at their own expense ; others have constituted themselves 
as mutual aid-societies. Each member receives a small book, stating the time 
of his joining the association, and a sort of certificate of his behavior and char- 
acter. If a member, on entering a strange city, where there is also a musical 
association, he will at once through his book find a hospitable reception, in- 
formation on all subjects of interest to him, and work. 

ENCOURAGEMENT FOR THE HIGHEST MUSICAL COMPOSITION. 

By a recent decree of the Minister of the Fine Arts, a competitive perform- 
ance has been established at each of the three lyrical theatres of Paris — the 
prize at each for the best opera to be 3,000 francs, and for the best poem set to 
tnusic, 1,500 francs. These prizes are in addition to the grand prix de Rome, 
instituted in 1802, and other prizes now awarded by the Comervatoire. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The necessity of a special preparation for a mercantile career 
was not recognized in France until 1820, and even then, it found 
favor and encouragement only among merchants and bankers, who 
could look beyond routine to the general intelligence and knowl- 
edge of principles, which make all routine and formulas intelligible 
and pliable to the changing conditions of a progressive industry and 
an expanding commerce. 

SUPERIOR SCHOOL OF COMMERCE AT PARIS.* 

' The Superior School of Commerce, the first school of its class 
in France, was instituted at Paris as a day-school, by two intelligent 
merchants, M. Brodard and M. Le Gret, in 1820 ; and such was the 
intelligence and versatility of its early pupils, that it obtained the 
patronage of the eminent bankers and commercial men of that day 
— of Chaptal, Casimir Perier, Lafitte, Ternaux and others. It was, 
after a few years, established in the old Hotel Sully, in Rue St. 
Antoine, where, endowed with numerous rooms, spacious courts, 
extensive gardens, a cabinet of instruments for experiniental physics, 
a chemical laboratory, and collections of samples of merchandise, 
and a numerous staff of able teachers, it received boarders as well 
as day-scholars. 

A council of improvement [conseil de perfectionnement^) composed 
of very competent persons, undertook to draw up a programme of 
the studies, to superintend their organization, to make modifica- 
tions if necessary, and to enforce their execution. The gentlemen 
forming this council were members of the Institute, bankers, manu- 
facturers, merchants, who had learned by study and experience what 
various tah-nts and diversified knowledge are indispensable for him 
who buys, sells, or manages. They traced with a firm and sure 
hand the regulations and programmes of the new school. Tlieir 
wise arrangements have been religiously retained in the school, and 

'Abridged from special report of M. Gervais, Director, to the Minister of Commerce, &c. 



534 SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE IN FRANCE. 

are in force to the present moment ; they have served as a model 
and starting-point for all the attempts of the same kind which have 
been made in France or elsewhere. The council has constantly- 
maintained the sound traditions of the school, which have been its 
main support. 

The curriculum of the school requires three years of study ; the 
pupils are divided into three forms {comptoirs) or classes, and no 
pupil passes from one form to the next without undergoing an 
examination. 

The first year, or first form, though in some manner elementary, 
admits only such pupils as have received a good primary education, 
and are pretty well versed in French grammar, arithmetic, and 
geography ; it is devoted to reforming their handwriting, to the study 
of history, geography, arithmetic in all its parts, to an elementary 
coui-se on the usages of trade and the rudiments of accounts, to 
physics and chemistry, (of which the pupils in this form learn 
chiefly the elements, vocabularies, nomenclatures, and classifica- 
tions;) lastly, to the knowledge of raw materials, of which the 
school possesses specimens and samples. In this form the pupils 
begin the study of foreign languages, the foreigners learn French, 
and the French pupils make a more profound study of the rules of 
their native tongue. This division of studies clearly ^hows that the 
school must have a fixed minimum of age for the pupils admitted ; 
in fact, the understanding and memory may suffice for certain- 
studies, but to pursue them with profit there must be attention, 
reflection, and judgment. The minimum age for the admission of 
pupils was therefore fixed at fifteen for the first form, and the school 
is now rather disposed to fix it later than earlier. 

The second year, or second form, does not receive pupils under six- 
teen ; it comprises the continuation of some of the preceding studies, 
book-keeping, the theory of accounts in all its parts, the applica- 
tion of arithmetic to all the operations of trade and banking, 
exercises in mental arithmetic, a course of correspondence, and 
essays intended to accustom pupils to express their thoughts rapidly 
with precision and perspicuity, linear drawing, geometry, the 
elements of algebra, commercial geography, the study of the code 
of commerce, the continuation of foreign languages. We have 
designedly indicated the limit of age for the pupils of the second 
form, although the rule established for entering the first would 
seem to render it unnecessary ; it raises new difficulties for us every 
year, and yet must be maintained. The pupils have very generally 
a most decided tendency to enter the second form, careless whether 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE IN FRANCE. 535 

they will be able to follow its courses with profit ; to leap over the 
elementary year is with them, and too often with their parents, a 
question of ambition and impatience rather than of instruction. 

We have the utmost difficulty in convincing those who have 
obtained the bachelor's diploma (at the Lycee,) by dint of cram- 
ming and coaching, that the science of trade is not a unique whole, 
composed of formulas more or less simple, more or less numerous, 
which have only to be learned and remembered in order to make 
them at once skillful merchants. They are astonished when told 
•that long and serious study is required to learn what they had con- 
sidered so easy; they are desirous, at the very outset, to attack the 
highest parts of the science, to devote their attention to finance, to 
great mercantile enterprises and complicated operations in the 
funds, to attempt as mere play, the diflBcult and dangerous func- 
tions of consular justice. In one word, they want to reverse the 
natural course of things, and to begin with what can only be the 
end of anxious study, the result of positive knowledge and practical 
acquaintance with real business. It was therefore indispensable to 
fix a limit of age for admission to the second form, and to introduce 
an examination for classing according to merit, which all must pass 
who enter the second form without passing through the first ; 
bachelors of sciences are alone exempt from this measure. 

The third year, or third form, is the indispensable complement 
of the instruction given at the school ; it is devoted to the higher 
branches of learning, and to practical exercises; it includes the 
study of the exchanges and of arbitration, which has been too long 
neglected in France, and to which the increasing number and 
extent of our business relations with foreign countries gives fresh 
importance and furnishes daily occasions for their use; multi- 
farious applications of accounts to commerce, manufactures, and 
agriculture ; analytical chemistry and chemical manipulations ap- 
plied to the study of merchandise, and to the discovery of adultera- 
tions (thus completing the course of general chemistry followed in 
the two first years ;) the continuation of the studies of geometry 
and linear drawing, the elements of mechanics applied to the 
requirements of commerce and industry, and to the material of 
trading ports, railways and docks; the technology or description 
of the principal manufactures, mercantile and maritime law, and 
political economy. In this form, all the studies are applied by the 
simulated exercise of trade ; each pupil opens and closes accounts 
and correspondence of all kinds. The pupils, divided into groups, 
or commercial firms, renewed from time to time, buy and sell 



536 SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE IN FRANCE. 

goods, keep banks, charter vessels, assure, commission, correspond, 
and perform, under the guidance of an able and experienced profes- 
sor, all the most varied and most difficult operations. After Easter 
the pupils of the third form, accompanied by a professor of 
technology, visit the principal factories of Paris and its environs, 
the custom-house, bonding warehouses, &c. 

It was to assist the exercises of this form that the use of fictitious 
bank-notes and money was at one time introduced, but these were 
promptly abandoned by the school as puerile expedients, proper 
enough perhaps to be employed for children, like the colored balls 
and pictures of infant schools, but altogether useless with young 
men bent on earnest study, and likely only to distract their atten- 
tion and cause a loss of time. The same means have many times 
since been adopted in other schools as a new invention, but they 
have always been laid aside as useless. 

The course of instruction in the school, as well as the allotment 
of time to the classes and studies, have been regulated as methodi- 
cally as the multiplicity of subjects allowed. The pupils rise at 
half-past five all the year round, and at six commence the business 
of the day. They go to bed at nine o'clock. The hours of every 
day are employed nearly as follows : five hours in lessons, six hours 
in study, and four hours in recreation, including forty minutes for 
breakfast and dinner. 

In the three forms, each course is confided to a special professor, 
with the exception of geometry and linear drawing, which are 
taught by one person, and of mechanics and technology, which are 
in the same case. Each pupil must attend all the courses of the 
form to which he belongs. He must learn at least one foreign 
language, and may learn several if he can find time without neg- 
lecting his other studies. The pupils are expected to take notes, as 
complete as possible, of the lessons given by the professors ; to 
study theuL in private, to consult the authors placed at their 
disposal, on the same subjects, and to make a summary of the 
lesson, a fair copy of which they deliver in the evening to the 
inspector of the form, who hands it to the professor at the next 
lesson. Special examiners every day interrogate the pupils of the 
second and third forms, on the parts of the principal courses 
already studied, and an account is kept of the marks merited by 
their answers. 

Every quarter there is a competition for classing the pupils in all 
the branches of instruction, and immediately after, the director 
announces the places obtained by all in the presence of the pro- 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE IN FRANCE, 53^ 

fessors and pupils. A statement of the marks merited by each 
pupil for conduct and application is addressed to the parents. At 
the end of the school-year, a board, composed of members of 
the council of improvement, and of the professors, awards to the 
two best pupils of the third form, as a first and second prize of 
honor, a gold medal and a silver medal, given to the school by his 
Imperial Highness, Prince Napoleon, as a testimonial of the great 
interest he takes in commercial education. The same judges award 
to the best pupils of the second and third forms, two silver and 
four bronze medals, given by the Minister of Agriculture, Com- 
merce, and Public Works. The pupils of the third form who 
have completed their studies and successfully passed the final 
examinations before the committee delegated by the Council of 
Improvement, receive, when the prizes are distributed, a diploma 
of capacity delivered by the school and signed by the Minister of 
Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works, president of the council 
of improvement. This is the only document the school recognizes 
as ofiicial, and certifying complete studies ; no certificates are given 
for partial studies. 

The organization of the management and discipline of the school 
is as simple as that of the studies ; for the last ten years the school 
has received neither day-scholars nor half-boarders ; all are boarders, 
and their number never exceeds one hundred at the same time, 
distributed into four dormitories and twenty private chambers, which 
the pupils enter only when they go to bed ; all their waking hours 
are passed in the amphitheatres, and the classrooms, under con- 
stant supervision. 

The pupils are all warned on entering that they can remain in 
the school only on condition of steady application to study. They 
are given to understand that they come there for a commercial 
purpose, to purchase the instruction and instruments of their future 
profession. This notion is incessantly presented to them in every 
possible form; thus it is proved to them that they expend at the 
school about five francs per day, and that if each of them is not 
worth five francs more every night, he will have made a bad specu- 
lation, which it will be our duty to put an end to as soon as 
possible if no improvement should take place. The discipline of 
the school is not severe, but it is very strictly enforced ; there are 
scarcely any punishments; a pupil may be kept in the half or whole 
of Sunday, but this must not occur often, the pupils being always 
warned that persistence in misconduct or neglect of study will 
render their dismissal inevitable ; we may therefore say that the 



538 " SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE IN PRANCE. 

only serious penalty is the expulsion of disobedient or idle pupils. 
The time which families allow the school for the development of its 
instruction (barely two years on the average,) is too short for any 
part of it to be lost in struggling against ill-regulated minds and 
rebellious tempers — a very meritorious work undoubtedly, "but 
quite impracticable with the means we possess, and foreign to our 
object. The dismissal of a pupil, unless for very serious reasons, is 
not attended with any publicity; it generally takes place at the end 
of a quarter, when the pupil is sent home with an explanation of 
the circumstances. There are usually several cases of this kind 
every year at the end of the first quarter. 

The pupils of all the divisions attend public worship under 
proper supervision, at the churches or chapels of the religious 
communion in which they have been reared. 

The success of the school is due to Adolphe Blanqui, professor 
of the history of commerce in this school, who in 1830, in a period 
of great depression arising out of the disturbances of that period, 
came to the rescue of the institution. He was young, without 
fortune, had already a family to support, the times were hard, and 
the future gloomy ; he had to accept a heritage of ruins and to 
stem the tide of public opinion, which was then in favor of what 
has long been called protection of the national industry. Nothing 
could deter him ; he was determined to save from destruction an 
institution which could develop the ideas of political economy and 
commercial liberty to which he had already vowed his existence. 
He brought to its aid his indefatigable activity, his inexhaustible 
and charming intellect, his great learning, the numerous and useful 
connections attracted by the engaging amenity of his character; 
he contrived to restrict the school within limits more in harmony 
with the resources at his disposal and the perils of the moment. 
Followed by the pupils who admired and loved him, surrounded by 
a small group of professors faithful to the work, he set all an 
example of industry and devotedness, he labored without ceasing 
and shrunk from no obstacle. Indeed, when we contemplate this 
struggle, which lasted five-and-twenty years, and only ceased with 
his death, we do not know which most to admire, his courage, his 
activity, the variety of his acquirements, the fecundity of his 
resources, or the irresistible influence which he exercised over all 
who came near him. 

From this epoch, the history of the school is the biography of 
Blanqui ; his personality overshadowed and protected it at the same 
time. Deputy for Bordeaux, a member of the Institute, a brilliant 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE IN FRANCE. 539 

Writer and applauded professor, he shed over the school the lustre 
of his rising fame, and gave it a world-wide reputation by his 
books ; he drew down on it the kindly notice of the Government, 
whose cooperation he secured. 
'About 1838, M. Cunin-Gridaine, then Minister of Commerce, 
struck with the great services rendered by the school, and taking a 
deep interest in the proceedings of its classes, (at the final examina- 
tion of which he was specially invited to preside,) conceived the 
design of giving the benefit of its instruction to a certain number 
of young men whose limited means would not allow them to enter. 
He granted several subventions in the form of half-scholarships ; 
subsequently it was found that this measure was inadequate, and 
that the sums remaining to be paid by the pupils' parents were still 
beyond the means of the persons whom it was intended to benefit. 
By a ministerial decision, dated 8th June, 1853, M. Magne trans- 
formed these half-scholarships into a proportional number of whole 
ones, and at the instance of the present director, who had taken 
part in Blanqui's labors, it was decided that these scholarships 
should be the object of competition in the principal commercial 
^towns, one-third of them being conferred every year. This plan 
has now been followed for eleven years, with the most satisfactory 
results. Owing to the careful supervision of these competitions by 
the Government, these pupils enter the school with a good prepara- 
tory education, and the best of them have always come from the 
superior primary schools. They soon attain good rank in their 
classes, where they have become an element of emulation ; and three 
times in the last eleven years, these scholarship pupils have obtained 
the gold medal, the prize of honor at the school. 



COMMERCIAL SCHOOL OF CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. 

In 1863, the Chamber of Commerce of Paris, with the encour- 
agement of the Minister of Public Instruction, established a special 
school where day-scholars, whose parents reside in the city, can be 
prepared for the special requirements of railway, navigation, and 
telegraphic companies, and for commercial service generally. 

The course covers three years, with a preparatory class "for lads 
under twelve years, and a fourth year for such as desire to pursue 
for another year the special studies of a commercial career. 

The studies, besides the general course, suitable for the period 
between thirteen* and sixteen ye'ars, include commercial geography 
and history, technology, book-keeping, exchange, foreign monies. 



540 SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE IN FRANCE. 

weights and measures, commercial correspondence, commercial law, 
English, German, and Spanish languages, and drawing. 

At the end of the third year the pupils are examined, and if 
qualified, receive certificates of their capacity and proficiency ; and 
at the end of the fourth year the Chamber of Commerce awards a 
diploma to those who, during that trial-year, give proof of real busi- 
ness knowledge and aptitude. 

Special prizes are offered by the Minister of Public Instruction, 
and the Chamber of Commerce, the competition for which is widely 
felt, and the award is a sure passport to immediate employment. 

Each scholar pays twenty francs in advance, which cover all ex- 
penses except books. The prizes, and subsidies by the city and 
State, and larger business firms, meet the wants of capable but in- 
digent pupils. 

There are accommodations for four hundred day-pupils. In the 
evening there are lectures for adults. 



COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

In the great municipal secondary schools of Paris, the Chaptal and 
Turgot, special attention is paid to studies which prepare for a 
mercantile career, in which many of the graduates will at once 
enter. Modern languages, English, German, Spanish and Italian 
are taught in place of Greek and Latin, and exercises in penman- 
ship and arithmetic bear upon commercial forms, book-keeping, 
and business transactions. Geography and natural history are 
taught in reference to the manufacturing resources and the industries 
of nations. 

In the organization of secondary special instruction, the Minister 
requires the commercial section to pursue the following : — 

During the first year, (about the thirteenth year,) general notions on the nature 
of commerce, and of credit, definition of the principal terms used in mercantile 
and money transactioDS, business forms with practice in making neat examples 
of them. Second year : commercial geography of France and details in regard 
to articles of commerce, commercial arithmetic, a course preparatory to book- 
keeping, with practice in keeping a day-book. TJiird year: commerce of 
foreign countries, principles of book-keeping, practice with ledger and journal. 
At the close of this year the pupil is to be a good book-keeper. Fourth year: 
financial and commercial history and legislation, classes of men and companies 
employed in commerce and finance, partnerships, bankruptcies, &c., ending 
with rules of competency of maritime tribunals. 

The whole school must be instructed in hgislation usuelle, the constitution of 
the government, functions of each department, the peculiarities of a city or 
other municipality, how the army is recruited, taxes raised, and the law 
administered, the civil relations of marriage and parentage, the inlieritance, 
tenure, partnersliip, and transfer of property, insurance, both of life and 
property, and the laws generally which affect the citizen in his public and 
private transactions. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 



541 



Specimen of the Programme of the Course on " Legislation Usuelle " in i?ie newly' 

organized Secondary Special Instruction {Enseignement 

Secondaire Special) in France. 

LEGISLATION VSUKLLB. 

Preuminaries. — Necessity of a public legislative authority for all classes of 
the populatioa. Without public authority and without legislation, there can be 
neither order nor justice. Essential attributes of the public authority. Dif- 
ferent organizations according to the people and the times. Varied object of 
all legislation. Public and administrative right. Private right (civil and com- 
mercial.) Penal right. 

I. PUBLIC AND ADMINISTRATIYE RIGHTS. 

Public right. — Constitution of January 14th, 1852, and decrees of the Senate 
{Senatus-consultes) of Nov, 7th and Dec. 25th, 1852. 

Fundamental principles of public 'right: — National unity. Rights guaranteed 
to all the citizens. Obligations imposed on all citizens. 

Organization of puUic authority ;* — Its basis : The Emperor hereditary head of 
the State. The Senate. The Legislative Assembly {Le Corps Legislatif.) The 
Council of State. Judiciary authority. Administrative authority. 

The Emperor head of the State : — General view of the nature of his preroga- 
tives in every thing which concerns the relations between France and other na- 
tions (treaties of peace, alliance, and commerce, ) in every thing which concerns 
internal government, his relations with the Senate, the Legislative Assembly, 
and the Council of State, Head of the executive power. His prerogatives. 
Maintenance of the reciprocal independence of the administrative and judiciary 
authority. 
^ The Senate : — Greneral views of its organization and privileges. 

The Legislative Assembly : — General view of its composition, election, and pre- 
rogatives. 

Judiciary Authority : — Its general prerogatives. Principles of its organiza- 
tion. Territorial divisions for the administration of justice. Ordinary jurisdic- 
tion on civil litigations and criminal affairs. Special jurisdiction. Court of 
appeal. Objects of its institution. 

In what forms do the organs of public authority act f — Decrees of the Senate. 
Laws. Decrees and regulations of public administration. Decrees (arretes.) 
Sentences and decrees {jugements et arretes.) 

Administration. — Administrative Division of France : — Constitutional prin- 
ciples. Centralized suborfiinate administration. Administrative division of 
France into Departments, Districts, {Arrondissements,) Cantons, and Communes. 
The administration is active, i. e. acts, deliberates, and judges the litigations 
which arise by occasion of acts, consultative and debateable {contentieuse) Ad- 
ministrative action is generally confided to one agent. The deliberation belongs 
to the assemblies and councils. The exercise of jurisdiction does not belong 
exclusively to the assemblies or councils. 

The central administrative action belongs to the Emperor and the ministers. 
The Council of State deliberates. 

At the centre of the Department, the authority is in the hands of the prefect. 
Deliberating bodies: the council of the prefecture and the general council. 

At the head of the arrondissements, the sub-prefect; the council of the arron- 
disseraeut. 

At the head of the commune, the mayor ; the municipal council. 

Of the Emperor, the supreme head of the administration : — What are his pow- 
ers with regard to the personnel of the administrative agents, as regards pubhc 
services or administrative matters. 

Of the Ministers: — Ten Ministries: State; Justice; Foreign Affairs; Inte- 
rior ; Finances ; War ; Marine and Colonies ; Public Instruction ; Agriculture, 
Commerce, and Public Works ; Imperial Household and the Fine Arts. The 

* This Abstract of the Constitution and Law as they were in 1867 may not answer for the year 
1870. . 



542 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 

ministers are charged with the execution of the laws. Their authority is exer- 
cised by means of decrees (arret^s) or instructions for the organization or exe- 
cution of public services, and by individual decisions concerning particulars. 

Of the Council of State ;— Its organization ; the different nature of its prerog- 
atives. 

Of the Prefects: — Of the prerogatives of the prefect as agent of the govern- 
ment and rept esentative of the Department. 

Some remarks on the decrees of prefectoral decentralization of March 25, 
1852, and April 12, 1861. 

Of the General Secretaries of Prefectures. 

Of the Councils of Prefecture : — Their composition ; their prerogatives. They 
give advice ; they assist the prefect in the exercise of his administrative func- 
tions; they authorize persons of moral character to plead; they are judges of 
administrative litigation {du contentieux administratif.) 

Of the General Councils : — Their composition ; a councilor for each canton ; 
mode of nomination. 

The general council assists, enlightens, and controls the prefects in the man- 
agement of the special interests of the Department. 

Ordinary and extraordinary sessions of the general councils. Four ways of 
deliberating, viz., 1, executive dehberations independently; 2, executive de- 
liberations with the approbation of superior authority ; 3, advice ; 4, wishes. 
General views of the Departmental budget. 

Of the Sab-Prefects : — Chiefs of active administration in the arrondissements- 
They have only exceptionally a direct authority over the citizens. Leading 
characteristic. Agents of transmission between the prefects and mayors or 
citizens. 

Arrondissement-councils : — Their composition ; their relation to the repartition 
of contributions among the communes. For the surplus only the privilege of 
giving advice. 

Mayors and Assistants : — Nominated by the Emperor or the prefect. Privi- 
leges of various kinds with which the mayor is invested. Two kinds of admin- 
istrative prerogatives: 1, agent of the government; 2, representative of the 
special interest of the commune. 

As agent of the government the mayor is charged with the publication and 
execution of the laws or regulations. 

He exercises a direct authority in various matters. He has special charge of 
the municipal and rural police. He can, under the superintendence of higher 
authorities, pass resolutions both as regards regulations (permanent or tempo- 
rary) and individuals. 

The mayor is the highest local authority of the commune His duties. Pre- 
rogatives of the assistants. 

Municipal Councils: — Their composition and nomination. At least ten mem- 
bers, at most thirty-six, according to the population. Municipal elections. Re- 
newing of the municipal councils. Four ordinary sessions; their duration; 
extraordinary sessions. Four kinds of deliberation in the municipal councils, 
viz., 1, executive deliberations ; 2, deliberations submitted to the approbation 
of a higher authority; 3, advice; 4, wishes. 

Of the Communal Budget. 

General views of the administrative auxiliary agents for the different branches 
of the public service. 

Administrative Matters. 

Extent and importance of the public service in France. Inducements to 
enter. 

The Army : — Mode of recruiting; cantonal contingent ; drawing by lot. Of 
the council of inspection {examination ;) causes of exemption ; maintenance of, 
the family. Of exoneration from military service by providing substitutes; by 
substitution of numbers. Composition of the army ; reserve, national guard. 

Advancement of soldiers by choice or by length of service; of the grade 
which is a property. Of the employ which is facultative for the government. 
Inactivity. Of reform; of pensions; recruiting for the navy ; maritime conscrip* 
tion ; iron-clad fleet and sailing vessels. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 543 

Worship: — General views of the ecclesiastical organization of France. Cath- 
olic worsliip ; archbishoprics, bishoprics, parjion;iges, parishes. Reformed 
church; Cliurch of the Confession of Augsburg; Israelite worship; Moliarame- 
dau worship. Organization of these various modes of worship. 

Public I.tstrwJion : — Special administrative organization foi- public instruction. 
Primary instruction ; public and free schools; normal schools; seeotidary in- 
struction," classical and special; communal colleges ; lyceums; superior instruc- 
tion; special establishments; College of France ; Museum of Katural History; 
Imperial Observatory : Bureau of Lougitudes; the Institute; hbraries aud mu- 
seums. 

Special schools of the Ministries of War, Navy, Finances, and Public Works. 

Public Wjr/cs ; Draining of Mar sites ; Mining and Quarrying: — Public works, 
properly speaking. Difterent classes of public works. Civil works (bridges and 
turnpikes, civil buildings.) Military works. Maritime works. Works belong- 
ing to several classes. Various agents charged with the superintendence of 
public works and their execution. Rendering of service imposed on property 
for the carrying out of public works. Expropriation for the public benefit. 
Declaration of public utility by the administration. Register of lauds divided 
into small properties {plan parcellaire.) Judgment of expropriation. Previous 
indemnity. The indemnity fixed either amicably or by a jury of expropriation. 
Occupation of ground for excavations, extracting of materials (for building) and 
for depots, necessary for the execution of public works. 

Special legislation for works of military defense. Review of legislation on 
the rendering of military services. 

Legislation regarding the draining of marshes. 

Legislation regarding mining and quarrying; definition of these two terms; 
concessions for mines. Permission to explore property which holds metals. 
Superintendence of quarries. 

^In the programme of industrial legislation, to mention all that concerns dan- 
gerous, unhealth}', and inconvenient establishments, the patents of invention, 
the trade-marks, &c. 

Department of the public service which has the superintendence of the Roads, 
{Voirit) 

Imperial, departmental routes, railroads, navigable rivers; cross-roads, coun- 
try roads, streets and squares. 

Rendering of services for public use imposed on landed proprietors having 
possessions along high-roads ; laying out by a line ; towing-paths. 

Public Property and Finances. 

Expenses and resources of the State; ordinary and extraordinary expenses; 
budget of the State; its composition ; prerogatives of the Minister of Finance 
as regards the management of the public property; central and local agencies 
for the administration and collection of public revenues; resources; general 
views on the national domain; public domain, state domain, crown* domains. 

Taxes; their importance among the resources of the State ; common prin- 
ciples of taxation; various kinds of taxes; explanation of the terms, direct 
and indirect taxes. 

Direct taxes ; direct taxes, properly so called ; other taxes. 

Four kinds of direct taxes, viz., 1, landholders' tax; 2, personal tax and tax 
on moveables; 3, tax on doors and windows; tax on patents. Distinction be- 
tween the taxes of repartition and the taxes where every one pays his quota 
{quotite.) 

General notions on landholders' taxes; the register of lands. 

General notions on personal taxes and taxes on moveables ; on taxes on 
doors and windows; taxes on patents. 

General notions on the making out of the lists; their publication. 

Authorized ways of making out the lists; various pursuits; protestations; 
demands of discharge or reduction; demands for delivery or reduction ; what 
distinguishes them. 

Indirect taxes comprise principally the taxes on liquors, salt, sugar, on regis- 
tering, on stamps, on customs, the monopoly of the mail service, tobacco, and 
powder. 



544 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 

Taxes on liquors ; license to trade ; rights of entering ; of leaving; of permit 
{passavant ;) passing without paying duty (^asse-cZe&ow^;) of transit; of prac- 
tice {exercice;) individual or collective subscription {ahonnemeni.) Summary 
notions on the taxes on salt and sugar. 

Registration, The rights of registration are fixed or proportioned. In some 
cases the one, in others the other. In the matter of heavy title-acts and gra- 
tuitous title-acts; the rights of change {mutation^) rights of obligation in civil 
or commercial matter, rights of discharge. 

Stamps; stamp of dimension ; proportional stamp; sanction. 

Public expenses; general views; how controlled ; why they are justified ; 
regulation of the budget ; balancing of accounts ; prerogatives of the court of 
accounts. 

Of the programme of industrial legislation all that concerns the customs, the 
monopoly of tobacco, stamped paper, powder and saltpetre, of the mail- service. 

Administraiive Justice. 

Nature of administrative litigation : — It comprises claims raised against ad- 
ministrative acts, for violation of the obligations imposed on the administration 
bylaws or regulations to which it is subjected or of contracts which it has made. 

Administrative jurisdiction : — General notions on the competency of certain 
authorities as regards the most common matters;- prefects; councils of pre- 
fecture ; ministers ; council of state. 

Of the recourse that may be had to the council of state for transcending 
power on the part of subordinate authorities. 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 

m 
FRANCE. 

The great industrial interest of agriculture is wisely recognized and 
cared for by the government of France in the following manner : 

1. There is not simply a bureau with a clerk, but a department with 
a secretary or minister, to collect and disseminate information as to the 
condition and improvement of agriculture, and the agricultural popula- 
tion, and to administer all laws v/hich may be passed on the subject. 
An annual report, statistical and suggestive, is made by the minister. 

2. Agricultural inspectors are employed ; some to visit foreign coun- 
tries, gather information, and import plants and seeds, and improved 
stock, to be disposed of at public sales ; and others to visit particular 
districts of the country, and communicate information and advice, as 
they may see that they are needed. 

3. Encouragement is given to agricultural societies and shows. In 
1850, there were over one million of members enrolled in the various 
central, departmental and local societies, for the promotion of horticul- 
ture and agriculture. Premiums are offered for improvement in every 
branch of agricultural industry. 

4. In the Conservatory of Arts and Trades, provision is made for a 
collection of models and drawings of agricultural buildings and imple- 
ments, and for courses of gratuitous lectures on the principles of chem- 
istry and mechanics as applied to agriculture. 

5. The government has organized an extensive system of agricultural 
and veterinary instruction, and makes liberal appropriation for its sup- 
port. 

The earliest effort in Europe to provide for special instruction in agri- 
culture, was made by Abbe Rosier in France, who submitted to Tur- 
got, minister of Finance, in 1775, a " Plan for a National School of 
Agriculture in the Park of Chambord." and again to the National As- 
sembly in 1789. After his death, the plan was submitted to Bonaparte, 
but without success. In the mean time, Fellenberg opened an institu- 
tion in Switzerland. The first experiment in France was made by M. 
de Domsbasle at Roville, in 1822, which, for want of sufficient capital, 
was abandoned in 1842. Its success was such as to lead to the estab- 
lishment of the Royal Agronomic Institution at Grignon in 1827, the 
Institute of Coetbo in 1830, of the school at Grand Juan in 1833. and 
the model farm of Saulsaie in 1842. In 1847, there were twenty-five 
agricultural schools in operation, to several of which orphan asylums 
and penal colonies were attached. At the close of that year, the gov- 
ernment introduced a measure for the better organization of agricul 

30 



546 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 

tural instruction, which was voted by the National Assembly on the SJ 
of October, 1848. and the sum of 2,500,000 francs was appropriated to 
carry its provisions into execution. 

Agricultural Education. 
The law of 1848 provides for three degrees of professional instruction 
in agriculture at the expense of the State. 1. A farm school in each 
(86) department, and ultimately, for each (363) arrondisement. 2. A 
higher seminary, called a District or Regional School, embracmg two 
or more departments; and 3. A National Agronomic Institute, a sort of 
normal school of agriculture. 

Model Farm School. 

The farm school is a rural enterprise, conducted with ability and 
profit, in which the pupils perform all the labor, and receive a practical 
course of instruction in agriculture. The objects aimed at are : first^ to 
furnish a good example of tillage to the farmers of the district; and 
second, to form agriculturists capable of cultivating intelligently, either 
upon their own property or that of others, as farmers, managers, over- 
seers of cattle, &c. 

The school is open to pupils who are at least sixteen years of age, 
have a good constitution, and have received an education in the primary 
schools. Each school must have at least twenty-four pupils, before it 
can receive aid from the government. The aim is to have pupils enough 
on each farm to carry on all its operations in the field, nurseries, and 
gardens, without any other help, except that of the teachers. 

The officers or teachers selected and paid by the government, are a 
director with a salary of 2,400 francs ; a head workman with a salary 
of 1000 francs; a nursery gardener, with a salary of 1000 francs: a 
veterinary surgeon, with a salary of 500 francs; besides these, in some 
of the schools, there are special assistants, such as shepherds, silk- 
growers, &c., &c. 

The practical course extends through three years. The first is de- 
voted to simple manual labor; the second to the charge of animals ; and 
the third to the oversight of various operations on the farm. The hours 
appropriated to study are devoted, 1st, to copying and writing out the 
notes taken of the instructions of the different leaders: 2d, to reading a 
manual of elementary agriculture ; and 3d, to lessons given by the over- 
seer of accounts, on arithmetic, book-keeping, 'and surveying. Relig- 
ious instruction is given by the clergy in the neighborhood. 

The director works the farm at his ow-n risk, and must so conduct it, 
as not only to give as good examples of tillage, but as profitable return 
of crops, as other farms in its neighborhood, otherwise the patronage of 
the government is withdrawn. 

Pupils are boarded and instructed without charge, and are also 
allowed a small sum toward clothing. Prizes are also awarded for good 
conduct and proficiency. 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 547 

Seventy-one Model Farm Schools were in operation in 1851, with 
over 1.500 students in attendance on a course of practical instruction 
extending tlirough three years. 

District, or Regional. Schools of Agriculture. 
France is divided into a number of agricuhural districts, in each of 
which there is to be a District School of Theoretical and Practical Ag- 
riculture. They have three objects in view : 

1. To form enlightened agriculturists, by teaching them the princi- 
ples of agriculture. 

2. To offer an example, or model, of practical agriculture of a high 
order, and constantly advancing. 

3. To make experiments for improving the cultivation of the soil. 
The instruction in these schools is of a much higher order than in the 

farm schools, and is adapted not to prepare laborers on the farm, so 
much as men to direct agricultural affairs. The farm connected with 
the school is expected to present an enlighted system of culture, and to 
adapt that culture to the wants and pecuharities of the district in which 
it is situated. The director, also, is no longer a farmer, or proprietor, 
laboring at his own risk, but an agent employed by the government, 
and accountable to them, and subject to their direction. 

The instruction is both theoretical and practical, embracing the fol- 
lowing six professorships: 

One professor of rural economy and legislation. 

One of agriculture. 

One of zootechny, or the economy of animals. 

One of sylviculture, (cultivation of forest trees,) and of botany. 

One of chemistry, physics, and geology, applied to agriculture. 

One* of rural engineering, (irrigations, rural constructions, survey- 
ing, &c.) 

The course on rural economy and legislation describes the relation 
between rural productions and the public revenue, as well as the differ- 
ent branches of industry. It shows what circumstances are favorable 
or unfavorable to such or such a system of cultivation, or to such or such 
a speculation in animals, or vegetables, according to the situation of the 
lands, the facility of communication, and demand for the products by the 
people of the surrounding country. The course embraces also rural 
legislation. 

The course on agriculture embraces the study'of the soil, of manures. 
of instruments of tillage, of different cultivated plants, an estiiiiate of 
the different modes of culture, and the theory of the distribution or rota- 
tion of crops. 

Zootechny treats of the production and amelioration of animals. The 
professor gives at first some ideas of anatomy and physiology generally, 
and then treats, in a practical way, of the raising of domestic animals, 
of their support, of their amelioration, of their hygiene, and their pro- 
duction. 



548 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 

The professor of sylviculture and botany gives first, a summary sltetch 
of vegetable physiology and botany applied to agriculture. He teaches 
the subject of sylviculture, (cultivation of woods.) and of forest economy, 
with special reference to the training, working, and preservation of the 
forests of individuals and the communes. 

The professor of chemistry, physics, geology, &c., has a wide field, 
as his titles show. His chief object is to take those views of the sciences 
named which bear directly upon agriculture. 

The professorship of rural engineering embraces geometry, mechan- 
ics, and linear drawing, as applied to rural architecture, to the construc- 
tion of agricultural' instruments, and particularly to irrigations. 

To second the lessons of the professors, an equal number of tutors are 
appointed. Their duties are to explain in private, to the pupils, what- 
ever is obscure or difficult in the oral instruction. They also see that 
notes are taken of the lectures, &c. 

Each school has its library, its philosophical and chemical cabinet, 
adapted especially to agriculture, its agronomic museum of geology, 
zoology, botany, and agricultural technology. 

The pupils have an opportunity of witnessing on the farms connected 
with these schools, all the important agricultural operations, also speci- 
mens of the best breeds of animals, and the mode of taking care of them, 
and using them : and they engage personally in all the important opera- 
tions connected with husbandry, so as to knov/ how to conduct them in 
after-life. 

The number of scholars admitted is fixed by the government, and 
varies at the different schools. The price of board is 750 francs, ($138.) 

The State furnishes several scholarships to each school Half of 
them is given to the most deserving of the pupils from the farm schools, 
placed at the regional schools. The other half is divided among the 
scholars who are the most distinguished, after six months' trial, for their 
labor and conduct. Scholarships from the national agronomic institute, 
are also given to those most successful in study and conduct. 

Towards the close of the third year, examinations are held, and to 
those who sustain them, diplomas are given, and the way is laid open 
for their admittance to the national institute. 

To these schools a farm is always attached, for the purposes already 
indicated ; also, a manufactory of agricultural instruments, an establish- 
ment for silk, a place for preparing liquid manures, distillery, oil mill, 
dairy, sawmill. &c. 

The head men on the farm are essentially the same as those already 
described as connected with the farm schools. 

National Agronomic Institute. 
To give unity and efficiency to the system of agricultural instruction, 
the law provides for the establishment of a National Agronomic Insti- 
tute on a portion of the magnificent garden of Versailles. Suitable 
buildings, and a library, laboratories, and appropriate collections of spe- 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 549 

cimens, models and drawings, of implements, animals, seeds, plants, &c. 
are to be provided by the government. The plan embraces 

1. A complete faculty of agronomic science. 

2. A superior normal school of agriculture. 

3. A higher institute for agriculturists. 

To meet the wants of this latter class especially, a large farm is con- 
nected with the school. Here will be performed, at the expense of the 
State, all the experiments necessary to the progress of agronomic sci- 
ence, and to verify practically all the innovations and improvements 
proposed by others, before they are recommended to the public. 

The theoretical and practical parts of this institute are really distinct, 
but they are placed under the general government of one director. 

The professorships are nine, as follows : 

One chair of rural economy and legislation. 

One of agriculture. 

One of zootechny, or the economy of animals. 

One of sylviculture. 

One of rural engineering, embracing leveling, irrigation, construction 
of roads, rural architecture, and mechanics apphed to agricultural instru- 
ments. 

The above professorships belong to practical agriculture. The others 
belong to the theory of the subject. 

One of terrestrial physics and meteorology. 

One of chemistry applied to agriculture. 

One of botany, and vegetable physiology. 

One of applied zoology. 

Here, as in the lower schools, a number of tutors is appointed equal 
to the number of professors. 

In addition to the director, professors, and tutors, the following officers 
will be appointed : 

A prefect of studies. 

A curator of the collections. 

A librarian. 

An overseer of studies. 

To these will be added a corps of head men to oversee and manage 
the affairs of the farm. These will, in part, be called from the farm 
schools. For example, the institute will need twenty-one herdsmen, 
twenty-one grooms, twenty-one shepherds, and fifteen gardeners. 

The French minister adds. ''The end of the institute at Versailles, is 
not merely to afford agricultural instruction, but to open the way for 
studious men, who wish to direct their labors toward the application of 
science to rural industry. This is the first attempt of the kind that has 
been made. Industry has enriched the learned men who have explored 
the domain of the physical sciences and of chemistry for this object. 
But if agriculture has given reputation to any, it has not procured for 
any one a position which would enable him to make that the center of 
his studies. The institute at Versailles is intended to change this state 



550 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 

of things by offering as a prize of laudable ambition, to those who 
direct their researches to agriculture, a certain number of chairs, before 
which an immense field opens." 

Veterinary Education. 
In addition to the above system of agricultural education, the govern- 
ment of France maintains three institutions (at Lyons, Alfort, and Tou- 
louse.) at an expense of over $75,000 a year, to qualify persons by the 
study of comparative anatomy and physiology, and by opportunities of 
witnessing hospital practice, and investigating the symptoms and phe- 
nomena of disease in domestic animals, to practice veterinary surgery 
and medicine. In countries where a large number of horses are re- 
quired for cavalry service, and in all countries where live stock consti- 
tutes so large a portion of the motive power and capital of every agri- 
culturist, there should be one or more institution of this kind. The first 
in the world was established at Lyons in 1762 ; the second, at Alfort in 
1766; the third, at BerUn in 1792; and the fourth, at London in 1793. 

Veterinary School at Alport. 

The Veterinary school at Alfort was instituted in 1766. It is beauti- 
fully situated on the river Seine, about six miles from Paris, and em- 
braces every facility, of building, anatomical specimens and prepara- 
tions, books, and professors, for a complete course of instruction in 
veterinary medicine and surgery. The following sketch of the school 
is taken from Mr. Colman's Report: 

A student at his entrance must be well versed in the common 
branches of education; and a full course of instruction requires a resi- 
dence of four years. The number of pupils is limited to three hundred. 
Of these, forty are entirely supported by the government. These are 
educated for the army ; and are required not only to become versed in 
the science and practice of veterinary medicine and surgery, but like- 
wise in the common business of a blacksinith-s shop, as far as it. is con- 
nected with farriery. Students can be admitted only by the nomination 
or with the consent of one of the great officers of government, the min- 
ister of commerce and agriculture. The expense of board and lodging 
is about fifteen pounds, or eighty dollars a year; the instruction is 
wholly gratuitous, the professors being supported by the government. 

The establishment presents several hospitals or apartments for sick 
horses, cows, and dogs. There are means for controlling and regula- 
ting, as far as possible, the temperature of the rooms, and for producing 
a complete and healthy ventilation. There are stables where the 
patients may be kept entirely alone, when the case requires it; and 
there are preparations for giving them, as high as their bodies, a warm 
bath, which, in cases of diseased hmbs or joints, may be of great service. 
There is a large college with dormitories and dining-rooms for the 
students; houses for the professors within the inclosure; rooms for 
operations upon animals, and for anatomical dissections; a room with a 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 55I 

complete laboratory for a course of chemical lectures; a public lecture 
room or theater; and an extensive smithery, with several forges fitted 
up in the best possible manner. There are likewise, several stands, 
contrived with some ingenuity, for confining the feet of horses, that 
students may make with security their first attempts at shoeing, or in 
which tlie limb, after it has been separated from its lawful owner, may 
be placed for the purpose of examination and experiment. 

An extensive suite of apartments presents an admirable, and, indeed, 
an extraordinary museum both of natural and artificial anatomical pre- 
paratioris, exhibiting the natural and healthy state of the animal consti- 
tution; and. likewise, remarkable examples of diseased parts. The 
perfect examples of the anatomy of the horse, the cow, the sheep, the 
hog, and the dog; in which the muscular integuments, the nerves, the 
blood-vessels, and, indeed, all the parts, are separated and preserved, 
and exhibited, by the extraordinary skill of an eminent veterinary sur- 
geon and artist now deceased, who occupied the anatomical chair of the 
institution, exhibited wonderful ingenuity in their dissection and pre- 
servation, and present an interesting and useful study, not to the med- 
ical students only, but to the most ordinary as well as the most profound 
philosophical observer. I have seen no exhibition of the kind of so 
remarkable a character. 

The numerous examples o^ diseased affections, preserved, as far as 
possible, in their natural state, strongly attract observation, and make 
a powerful appeal to our humanity in showing how much these poor 
animals, who minister so essentially to our service and pleasures, must 
suffer without being able to acquaint us with their sufferings; and how 
often they are probably compelled to do duty, and driven to the hardest 
services by the whip or the spur, in circumstances in which a human 
being would not be able to stand up. A great number of calcuh or 
stones, taken from the bladders of horses after death, are exhibited, of a 
large size, and, in some instances, of a very rough exterior, which must 
have excessively irritated and pained the sensitive parts with which 
they came in contact. It is scarcely possible to overrate the suffering 
which the poor animal must have endured under such an affliction. 

The department tor sick dogs, containing boxes for those which re- 
quire confinement, and chains for such as require to be kept in the open 
air, and a cooking apparatus and kitchen tor the preparation of their 
food, was spacious, well-arranged, and contained a large number of 
p^itients. Any sick animals may be sent to the establishment, and their 
board is to be paid at a fixed rate of charges; twelve sous or cents, or 
sixpence per day for a dog; and fifty sous or cents, or twenty-five pence, 
for a horse, including medicine, advice, and attendance. In cases of 
epidemics or murrain prevailing in any of I he districts of France, the 
best attendance and advice are sent from these schools to assist in the 
cure, and especially to watch the symptoms and progress of the malady. 
In countries where large standing armies are maintained, and where 
of course there are large bodies of cavalry and artillery to be attended 



552 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 

upon, as well as waggon-horses for carrying the supplies, the importance 
of veterinary surgery is vastly increased; but in countries where no 
standing armies exist, the number of horses kept for use or pleasure, 
and of other domestic animals, bears a much larger proportion to the 
number of human beings than we should be Hkely to infer without in- 
quiry; and renders the profession highly important. 

A large and select library belongs to the establishment, and a garden 
for the cultivation of medicinal plants, and likewise of the grasses em- 
ployed in agriculture. A farm is Hkewise attached to the place, on 
which instruction is given in practical agriculture, and numbers of vari- 
ous kinds of animals are kept for the purpose of breeding the best, and 
illustrating the effects of crossing. Some selected animals of domestic 
and of the best foreign breeds, horses, bulls, cows, and sheep, are kept 
for this special object. 

Agricultural Reform Schools. 

In addition to the special schools of agriculture and the associated 
arts and sciences above described, there is a class of institutions not 
only in France, but in Germany, which are instrumental in diffusing a 
large amount of practical instruction in farm and garden industry, while 
they are accomplishing a still higher purpose in cultivating the long 
neglected or abused souls of their pupils — we refer to the Reform Farm 
Schools, of which a particular account W'!l be given further on. 

Mr. Coleman, in his European Agriculture, after giving a brief de- 
scription of Mettray, as an agricultural institution, remarks: "When 
one looks at the innumerable herds of children, turned, as it were, adrift 
in a great city, not merely tempted, but actually instructed, stimulated, 
and encouraged in crime, and observes them gradually gathering in and 
borne onwards on the swift current with increasing rapidity to the pre- 
cipice of destruction, until escape becomes almost impossible, how can 
we enough admire the combined courage, generosity, and disinterested- 
ness, which plunges in that it may rescue some of these wretched vic- 
tims from that frightful fate which seems all but inevitable? I do not 
know a more beautiful, and scarcely a more touching, passage in the 
Holy Scriptures than that which represents the angels in Heaven as 
rejoicing over a repenting and rescued sinner. It is, indeed, a ministry 
worthy of the highest and holiest spirits, to which the Supreme Source 
of all goodness and benevolence has imparted any portion of his Divine 
nature. 

"If we look at this institution even in a more humble and practical 
view, as affording a good education in the mechanical and agricultural 
arts, its great utility can not be doubted: and much good seed will be 
sown here, which, under the blessing of God, is sure to return excellent 
and enduring fruits. 

"I should have said before, that there is connected with the institu- 
tion a hospital which was a model of cleanliness, good ventilation, and 
careful attendance ; all the services of which were rendered by those 
indefatigable doers of good, the Sisters of Charity." 



LORD LEIGH'S VISIT TO METTRAY. 553 



VISIT OF LOltD LEIGH TO THE REFORMATORY ESTABLISHMENT AT METTRAY. 

The following notice of the establishment at Mettray is from the pen of 
Lord Leigh, who has employed a short visit in France in the useful object 
of gathering personal experience and information of the various institu- 
tions of this class in the country of our neighbors and allies. They were 
addressed in a letter to a member of the committee employed in carrying 
out the plans of such an institution in Warwickshire, in which the noble 
writer has from the first taken an active part. The letter, intended only 
for the use of those acting in his own country, may be equally useful to 
others. 

" According to your request, I propose to send you a short account of one or 
two of the reformatory institutions which I have seen in France, but I shall con- 
fine my observations chiefly to Mettray. The conduct of the Colonic Agricole of 
Mettray has the advanUige of resting entirely with our admirable friend M. De- 
metz, who first set the institution on foot about 17 years ago, in company with a 
friend, the Vicomte de Bretignieres de Courteilles. It has been supported by pri- 
vate subscripti(>n, by his own and his friend's benevolence, and by assistance from 
government at the rate of 70c., or Id.^ per head a day, with a gift of 35/. on the 
admission of the child into the colony, and 35/. at the close of two years mere, 
with an annual subscription of 50,001}/. or (2,000Z. English money,) lately dimin- 
ished to 25,000/ or 1,OOOZ. The present number of children is 681, and of 
employes fed at the expense of the institution, 56. The buildings stand in the 
mriddle of a flat open plain, remote from any town or large village, without wall 
or enclosure of any sort, for the purposes at least of confinement. The church 
st<inds in the middle of the buildings at the further end. It is open at all times, 
but seivice is only performed in it on Sundays. M. Demetz observed on this 
point that he objected to daily .service, on the ground that workmen in every day 
life would be unable to attend it, and that to drop a duty which had been incul- 
cated as one had an injurious effect upon the mind. The colon, when first he 
found himself unable to attend daily service, would feel that he w-as neglecting a 
duty, and when at war with his own conscience would soon give up going to 
church at all. In speaking also of La Grande Trappe, which is in the hands of 
monks, M. Demetz said that, although he had not seen it, he feared upon this 
principle that it was probable, that when once the young detenu restored to the 
world found out how dissimilar real life was from what he had hitherto seen of it, 
and the impossibilty of carrying out the religious practice to which he would have, 
been most likely trained in La Grande Trappe, there would be orreat danger that 
his eyes over-opened, and the constraint once removed, he would become wholly 
reckless and neglectful of the observances which the lawful business of the world 
still gave time for.* At the same time, the children have full liberty, the church 
doors being open, if they wish to spend a few minutes in prayer to do so, but if 
they desire to do this it must be during the hours placed at their disposal for play. 
These hours are the hour after dinner and the two half hours after breakfast and tea. 

The boys are divided into families of, in general, from thirty to fifty each, to 
which families they remain attached during the whole period of their detention ; 
and when they return to, visit Mettray, when out of a situation, they invariably 
seem to turn a2:ain to their old family. We ourselves saw a promisins: younor sol- 
dier who had been wounded in the Crimea, and was now quartered at Tours, 
revisit! ni? his old haunts and the house in which he had been brought up, and 
when the childi-en were being marshaled — as they always are to the sound of 
music in marshal order preparatory to meals or return to labor — assisting in get- 

* As this observation of M. Demetz is founded on a mistake as to fact. I beg leave through 
your wide-spread journal lo inform the public, from personal k now leds^e. that the detenus 
at F.a Grande Trappe hear mass only on Sundays and holidays, as at Mettray. that the sys- 
tem pursued at I. a Grande Trappe is mainly the very .»^ame as at Mettray in every respect, 
with thi<; e.xcept on,— that the brother.^ of the third order who work tlie reformatory at La 
Grande Trappe have no pay, but voluuteer their services out of charity.— Z-eKer to Editor of 
Times by George B. Burder. 



554 LORD LEIGH'S VISIT TO METTRAY. 

ting the little ones of his former family into their proper rank and place. There 
are twelve houses, (exclusive of the fai-mhouses,) for the boys, divided into three 
stories ; the two upper form the sleeping and living rooms, while the ground floor 
is used for a workshop ; the family division, however, is not carried out in the 
workshops, as boys of various families are brought together to learn the same 
trade. M. Demetz observes that it is very desirable to teach boys who come 
from towns, and who belong to families pract cing them, trades, as he says that he 
has found by experience and former failures the impossibility of inducing town 
boys to attach themselves to country life. He started with the idea that he might 
exclude trades altogether, but his long experience has taught him that this, did 
not answer ; nevertheless, he makes a very great point of agricultural occupa- 
tions, and something rather less than half the whole number of cinldren aie em- 
ployed directly upon the farms. To return to the family divisit)n, to which I conceive 
the success of Mettray to be greatly due. I am of opinion that this system alone 
allows of attent.on to every individual child, which is indispensable to the refoi'ma- 
tion of each individual character, while it procures for children, who have perhaps, 
never experienced them before, the happy influences inspired by the love of home. 
A chef de Jamille or employe has the constant superintendence of one of these 
families. He is assisted by one of the eleves, or young men in tiaining to become 
masters hereafter, who does not, however, remain permanently attached to one 
family ; and by two freres aines, who are chosen from among and by the boys 
themselves. 

The freres aines are in the positicm of monitors, and are distinguished by 
a red mark upon the sleeve of their jackets. M. Demetz is at very great 
pains, in introducing new boys, to place them judiciously as regards the fami- 
lies. For example, in France there is a great difference of character observ- 
able in diffei'ent provinces, and he takes care that the volatile nature of one .dis- 
position shall be balanced by the steadiness, not to say stolidity, of another. The 
family division presents great advantages on the introduction of any number of 
boys into the institution ; for when there is an accession of bad boys — who, if 
turned in with ever so great a number of others, would remain a nucleus of evil, 
attracting all the evil round it till it swelled and corrupted the whole mass — by a 
careful subdivision, and by introducing but one or two boys into a family of im- 
proved and improving character, the spirit of evil is probably soon repressed by 
the preponderating good around, and no permanent injury is done. To return 
to the chef de famille. He occupies a little closet at the end of the children's bed- 
room, which is in shape an elongated square; therefore, it is the rnore possible 
for him to overlook the whole through a little window opening into his r-oom, added 
to which the children lie with head and feet alternating. No conveisation what- 
ever is allowed during the hours for work, meals or sleep. The hammocks, (which 
the children at Mettray all sleep in,) were recommended io^us on many "grounds, 
although T am not prepared to g'ive a decided opinion myself upon them. - M. De- 
metz said that in summer the boys lie in them in comfort and decency, with scarcely 
any covering whatever, and in winter very little makes them snug and warm, not 
to mention the great economy of material and of space. The supports for the 
hammocks on the outer side are in the day time hooked to the walls, and at night, 
at a given signal from the chef^ are dropped into grooved supports, piojecting 
from the posts which support the roof and stand out in the room. Though stout 
beams, they were easily lifted by the children together. All retire to rest at the 
same hour, only the little ones get up later in the morning. A light is kept burn- 
ing in the j-ooms all night. Half the children sleep on one floor, half on another. 
The chef de famille sleeps near one half, and the eUve near the other. The 
childi-en have three meals a day — meat twice a week. The cost of their diet 
averages forty-five centimes, or 4:\d. The trades the children karn are various 
— tailoi'ing, shoemaking, sabot making, with blacksmiths', wheelwrights', and car- 
penters' work ; and they also make agricultural implements. They take turns to 
assist in the domestic services of the house and kitchen. Washing is done every 
day in an admirably organized laundry, and the boys wash their own clothes. It 
is the chef d'atelier who adjudges the little rewards in money which are given 
to the best workmen among" the colons at the close of every three months, to the 
amount of about 8|/. foT the best, with a graduated scale down to the 8th, if the 
family consists of from forty to fifty boys, but only down to the 4th, if it consists of 
from twenty to thirty. 



LORD LEIGH'S VISIT TO METTRAY. 555 

The chef de famille, however, puts his veto upon the reward if the conduct of 
the child in the family has not been satisfactory. Whatever the reward may be, 
it is always doubled if the recipient is in the position of afrerc nine. Part of the 
money is put into the savings' bank at Touis, and, I believe, one-fourth is at the 
disposal of the child, at the disci'etion of the chef, but the account books are 
entirely in the hands of the controller of the finances of the tstablishmrnt. A 
boy in receipt of any money has to make payment for any part of his dress which 
requires to be renewed b-fore the stated time arrives at which fiesh clothing is 
given out, which otherwise is all furnished by the institution. On ihe other hand, 
if his clothes are found in good condition at such time, he receives tlie benefit of 
it by having the money which would have been laid out in clothes placed to his 
account. The dress is uniform and extremely simple, and just what would be 
woin by the boys if working at home — viz. : a plain brown blouse or short tunic, 
canvas trousers, sabots^ and straw hat. The money in the bank is paid to the 
boy on his leaving Mettray, unless, by his desiie, it is allowed to remain yet lon- 
ger. The boys wash in open sheds, attached to the various houses, and connect- 
ing them at the back. Tlieie is a large fountain at hand, from which they carry 
the water in large tubs to the sheds. Twice a week they are taken in divisions to a 
reservoir to, bathe and learn to swim in summer. 

The strictest discipline is observed, and nothing is overlooked. Dry bread is 
an occasional punishment, but the cell is a more frequent one. Every fault which 
has called for reproof is registered, and a most careful and detailed conduct book 
is kept, showing the behavior of every child. Here are seen at a glance his 
name, previous residence, habits, health, appearance in detail, the crime for which 
he was convicted, every possible information which can be gleaned with regard to 
himself and his family, with a most careful and complete report of his behavior 
since admission. When a fault calls for punishment, before it is inflicted upon the 
child, he is made to retire into the cell which takes for the time being the name 
of 'Salle de Reflexion; he is kept there for an hour or so, and meanwhile the 
directrur reviews his conduct book, takes into careful consideration the previous 
circumstances and conduct of the boy, his general character, his advantages and 
disadvantages, and, having carefully weighed them, and taken time to collect him- 
self, and give the boy leisure to reflect upon his fault, he is in a position to pronounce, 
as far as human discernment goes, the exact measure of punishment deserved by 
the child. Those confined to cells have an hour's exercise a day in chopping 
wood, or in some similar occupation. The cells are bare rooms, with suflScient 
light and air for health. Punishment is administered for apparently trifling faults. 
We found four boys in four ceils on the occasion of our visit. One was there for 
refusing to sing the day before, two for taking chestnuts, and the other for being 
found near the cellar, where he had no business to be. I think it will be allowed 
that these are not offenses of a very grave nature, and, as the discipline is so strict, 
that it is satisfactory, there were so few boys from a larger number. The cells are 
so placed and arranged that those in them, although unseen, can be admitted to 
take part in the church service, at the back of the altar of the church, on Sun- 
days. Eight Sisters of Charity undertake the housekeeping of the establishment ; 
an account of all that will be required of them on the coming day is handed in to 
them the evening before, by the controller of the finances. 

There are six farms attached to the institution. The land consists altogether of 
260 hectares, or about 520 English acres. The farming is overlooked by a very 
gentlemanlike person in the pay of M. Demetz. The land appears well cultiva- 
ted, and a large stock of horses, cows, and pigs are kept. It must be an excellent 
thin(T, I think, for children to have the care and tending of dumb animals — 
' Emollit mores, nee sinit esse ferosP The farm buildings are as simple as pos- 
sible — ^just such as the colons are likely to find themselves in in after-life. Each 
of these forms has a sepai-ate establishment with a separate kitchen. — there being 
but one kitchen for the principal stock of buildings which I have hitherto spoken 
of. To each farm is attached a chef de famille and a respectable farm laborer 
and his wife, who is housekeeper and cook. The boys employed on the farms 
only associate with the body of boys employed otherwise on Sundays and feast 
daj's, when they go up to enjoy their holidays together. They are employed to 
work hard, and to adhere altogether to. agriculture ; they sleep in hammocks like 
the rest, and sleep, eat, and learn in the same airy barn-like room. The walls in 
all the rooms are hung here and there with improving prints and engravings, the 



556 LORD LEIGH'S VISIT TO METTRAY. 

subjects being for the most part religious or military. There is a large, rough, 
woodfU and thatched open outhouse put up in a field, where the children are niade 
to break stones in wintery, rainy weather. They do all their work by the piece, 
BO as to excite and accustom each child to industry. The boys, moreover, are 
made to practice gymnastic exercises, and every thing they do, they seem to do 
heartily. 

A ship has been put up — on dry ground, of course — for the boys to gain as 
much know ledge as they can of seamanship, and an old sailor is engtiged to 
instruct them. Some of the boys, also, are formed into a fire-brigade, and have 
rendered at times substantial assistance in the neighborhood, and only the other 
day saved the village church of Mettray from destruction by fire. The children 
are taught singing, but only as a means to the grand ends ; and in order not to 
give an opportunity for individuals to distinguish themselves, or for the creation 
of fine solo?, they are very much taught to sing in parts, or at least only in masses ; 
and if a boy shows any tuin for drawing, he receives a little instruction in ii, but 
only in linear drawing. Evasion is looked upon with much severity. If a boy 
has escaped, a flag is hoisted on the top of the church by day. and a lamp by night. 
A reward of from 30/. to 40/. is given to the person bringing the boy back. It 
is scarcely possible, without a personal visit to Mettray, to form a correct idta of 
the amount of study and attention which is devoted to the consideration of every 
particular, and of every child in particular. The family division makes this easy 
by concentrating the attention of the several employes allotted to the same num- 
ber of children •, if assembled in an undivided mass the same amount of good 
could never possibly be eflfeeted, fur the attt^ntion of each one would be divided by 
the whole number; nor could the interest in each other be awakened which now 
exists between the chef de famille and his young people. As for the employes 
themselves, who are gentlemen by nature, if not always by birth, it is quite impos- 
sible to see and converse with these intelligent, well-educated, and benevolent 
men without feeling how great must be their elevating influence upon the char- 
acter and general tone of the boys. The two principal employes are in receipt of 
160Z. per annum each. They are of a standard of intelligence and ability which 
would insure their advancement in any profession, and one feels their devotion to 
be the more admirable. M. Demetz has been very particular in placing his 
em.ployes in a respectable and comfortable position, and has built for the two prin- 
cipal ones excellent houses a little apart from the houses for the boys. The wives 
of these two gentlemen are perfect ladies, and we had the pleasure of meeting 
them at dinner at M. Demetz's house. 

There are many things at Mettiay, suggested by the military spirit of the French, 
which would at first sight appear, perhaps, impossible to carry out in an English 
institution ; but I see no reason why the feeling of ' honor,' which I believe to be 
as strong in an English child as in a French one, should not be appealed to with 
advantage in an English reformatory. Why should not w^e have the table of 
honor hung up where every one can see it, upon which is inscribed the name of 
every child whose conduct during the last three mouths has not called for pun- 
ishment? With regard to the almost military discipline and order with which 
the children go through their movements before and after work or meals, I con- 
sider that by it a great saving of time is made, and five or ten minutes upon every 
change of movement are saved which would be otherwise lost in collecting and 
adjuring stragglers, both young and old. 

Let me mention and recommend, too, the box placed within general reach, 
pour les objets trouves^ which is a delicate way of allowing a boj' whose tempta- 
tions have been stronger than his virtue to listen to the reproaches of his con- 
science, and, without being publicly brought to shame, to restore the theft which 
lies heavy on his soul. ■ 

I will say no more of Mettray at present, except that the instruction ffiven is 
firmly based upon religion, and includes reading, writing, and arithmetic, but very 
little beyond it. 

Lesson hours do not exceed one or two hours a day. I must add that the chil- 
dren are first received as innocent, and as having sinned without discernment, and 
therefore irresponsible for their actions ; but when they have been once admitted 
to the bene fit of the instructions given them in the institution they are cons'dered 
to be capable of discernment, and become subject to the strict rules observed in 
the institution." 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 557 

To tlie foregoing account of the System of Agricultural Instruction 
in France as organized in 1848, and as we found it substantially in 
operation in 1852, we add a more extended notice of its historical 
development at present (1869), abridged from a special report by M. 
Pomp'e hi behalf of the Jury on Agricultural Education at the Paris 
Universal Exposition in 1867, and otlier official documents and pro- 
grammes. 

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. 

In the year 1793 the celebrated Thouin founded in the Jardin des Plantes at 
Paris, a course of vegetable physiology apphcd to culture, which course has been 
continued up to the present day. Even earlier, in 1785, the illustrious Daubcn- 
ton established at the veterinary school at Alfort, a course of agriculture and 
rural economy, which has likewise been continued. 

When the Eirst Consul reorganized public instruction in 1801-3, this branch 
was not forgotten, but Fourcroy, in a speech before the legislative body, April 20, 
1802, gave the reasons for its not being recognized in the organization of special 
schools. He said : "Agriculture, where methods are only perpetuated by tradition, 
which is slowly but surely developed by example and experience, has not been 
introduced into our special schools, because these schools are frequented by those 
who do not till the ground, and because those who Avork in the fields will not follow 
the rules laid down, or will follow them blindiy without a thorough understand- 
ing of the principles on which they are founded. It is the duty of the landed 
proprietors to teach this great art practically on their own estates, and of the ag- 
ricultural societies to make known good practices in their respective departments. 
Besides, the principles of the natural sciences which are applicable to all the 
branches of rui-al economy, will be taught in a sufficiently large number of estab- 
lishments to enable all who desire progress of agriculture to obtain the requisite 
knowledge in the lycea and special schools." 

In the Conservatoire of Arts, established in 1782, a collection of agricultural 
implements was begun at an early day ; and much later, by a royal decree of 
August 25, 1836, three new professorships were created, viz: one of general 
principles of agriculture, one of agricultural mechanics, and one of agricultural 
chemistiy — comprising lectures on the proper preparation of the ground, drain- 
ing, the implements of husbandry, irrigation, construction of embankments, 
rural buildings, the raising of cattle, the different kinds of soil and their adapta- 
tion to different crops, the cultivation of vegetables, and the laying out of arable 
grounds into larger or smaller portions to obtain a certain rotation of crops. 

In addition to these lectures at the capital, the head gardiner of the Luxem- 
bourg every spring delivers a course of lectures on grafting, which are always 
well attended, and M. Isidoi-e Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire has introduced into the zoo- 
logical instruction of the Museum of Natural History a course on the acclimatiza- 
tion and domestication of animals. Other cities have followed the example of 
Paris, and Quimper, Bordeaux, Rodez, Toulouse, and Nantes, have established 
professorships of agriculture. 

The courses of lectures at Rouen, (M. Pouillet on agriculture, Dubreuiel on ar- 
horiculture, Girardin on chemistri/,) have justly become celebrated. At Besen9on 
Dr. Bonnet did not remain satisfied with lecturing, but led his hearei's into 
the fields, there practically to demonstrate his theories, describe the new imple- 



558 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 

mcnts, and show their management. At Compiegne M. Gossin ha.?, by his 
example and his wi*itings, powerfully contributed to the introduction into the 
humblest schools, the study of agriculture, and by an occasional exhibition of the 
products of the pupils of these schools, demonstrated the capability of this new 
instrumentality for diffusing agricultural knowledge. 

But agiiculture cannot be taught in schools and from books alone ; the practice 
must necessarily be joined to the theory, — the eye and the hand must come to 
the aid of the intellect, and new habits must be formed. This was universally 
felt and acknowledged by all those who were called on to combat rural prejudices 
and introduce better methods of culture. 

But to attain this end peace was necessary ; but for a period of tw-enty-five 
years the whole of Europe had been trampled by the march of armies, and its 
best fields had been the theatre of mighty conflicts. The ravages consequent 
thereupon, the excessive expenses necessary to the maintenance and movement 
of the immense armies and the withdrawal of men, did not allow of the introduc- 
tion of improved processes, which required but time and intelligence, men and 
money. Germany, it is true, in spite of the continental war, had already laid 
the foundation of agricultural instruction in some special establishments, when 
in the year 1818 one of the most esteemed and renowned agriculturists ol Lor- 
raine, M. Mathieu de Dombasle projected the establishment of a model farm 
{ferme exemplaire), as it was then called, in order to spread among farmers a 
knowledge of improved practice, and contribute thereby towards the reform of 
our agriculture. For two years M. Dombasle made vain attempts to obtain from 
government the cooperation which he required. Unfortimately the whole atten- 
tion and all the resources of the government were concentrated on the manufac- 
turing industry ; but tlie viscount of Villeneuve, prefect of la IMeurthe, compre- 
hended the great importance of the project- Under his active exertions a sub- 
scription was opened among the rich landed proprietors of the department, and 
the duke of Angouleme was induced to place his name at the head of the list. 

This model farm was opened in 1822, on the domain of Roville. Then com- 
menced for M. Matthieu de Dombasle a combat which lasted for thirteen years. 
With his own resources and the small sum which the associative spirit, then in 
its infancy, placed at his disposal, completely abandoned by the government, 
this pioneer fought in succession against the barrenness of the soil at Roville, the 
insufficiency of his funds, the fall in the price of produce, the failure of the dis- 
tillery which he had established, the murrain [epizootic] which ^-isited the stables 
of his farm, and the revolution of 1830, which withdrew his pupils, suspended 
the sale of his manufactured implements. These conditions would have dis- 
couraged a less persevering character than M. de Dombasle, but he was not to 
be overcome. With calmness aud firmness he pursued his object, until finally 
the government, satisfied of the services rendered to the cause of improved 
agriculture by the establishment at Roville, determined to assist his efforts 
February 14, 1831, a subsidy of 3,000 francs was accorded to him, and soon 
after a large order for agricultural implements given by the government, brought 
new activity into the workshops and new resoui'ces into the treasury of the 
establishment. During the following year the farm obtained special grants 
which finally were converted into a fixed fund of 3,000 francs, destined to fur- 
nish stipends for ten students who were themselves not able to ■pa.j. Later, on 
the application of M. de Dombasle, these 3,000 francs were applied to the 
direct payment of the professors of the institution, whose teaching thus became 
gratuitous. 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 559 

In spite of the insufficiency of tliis assistance, in spite of the difficulties of 
tlvc location ajj:ainst which M. de Donihaslc had to fight incessantly, he succeeded 
m maintaining the institution till the year 1842, the year Avhich hrought to 
an end the onerous lease, the hard conditions of which had created so many 
difficulties. . M. dc Bomhasle then sorrowfully resolved to abandon tliis ungrate- 
ful domain on which dui-ing twenty years of incessant activity he had com- 
pletely exhausted his bodily and mental strength. 

Thus ended this celebrated school at Roville, at which the noble founder spent 
his energy, his health, and his fortune. In spite of its many imperfections and 
its short-lived existence, it will always be honorably mentioned as the first exam- 
ple in France of an institution exclusively devoted to tl>c perfecting and study 
of practical agriculture. By its influence it contributed powerfully to awake in 
France a taste for agricultural studies and to spread among the landed proprietors 
the demonstration that there still remained many reforms and improvements to 
introduce into the cultivation of their property. France, which must be re- 
proached Avith not having aided liim sufficiently, to-day reaps the fruit of his long 
sacrifices. 

The impulse given by ]\I. de Dombasle and the reputation of his school soon 
awakened imitators and led to the establishment of similar institutions. The 
first in time as in importance, was the royal agronomic institution at Grignon. 
It was founded in the year 1827, but in its inception and organization, it was 
made clctir that the work and the example of M. de Dombasle had borne fruit, and 
that people began to understand better the interest which agriculture has a right 
to cljum. Everything that had been wanting Avith M. de Dombasle, soil, capital, 
patronage, was united in favor of Grignon. In the place of a sterile doniain of 
150 hectares (1 hectare = 2.47 acres), in a distant province and leased on oner- 
ous conditions, a royal glebe of nearly 500 hectares, almost at the gates of Paris, 
was virtually given away by the monarch at a merely nominal rent, and even 
that rent itself payable only in improvements, the benefits of which the found- 
ing society should reap during the forty years of its possession. Instead of 
the paltry sum of 45,000 francs, collected with a great deal of -trouble, to consti- 
tute a fund for the carrying on of Roville, the capital of Grignon was b}- an act 
of the society fixed at 600,000 francs, half of which sum could be realized in two 
years and one month. 

After having been in existence ten years, in spite of the organization of a pub- 
lic school of agriculture, in spite of the establishment of a factory of first-class 
agricultural implements, in spite of the publication of the " Annales de Roville," a 
periodical which by its scientific depth and its practical usefulness A'ied with the 
most celebrated publications of this kind in Germany, the institution at Roville 
was left to its own resources, and received no subsidies from the State. 

Grignon, more fortunate, had not yet attained to the second term of its exist- 
ence, when it was aided by an annual subsidy, which amply provided for all the 
expenses and wants of its school, and procured for it at the expense of the public 
treasury, a number of pupils, on Avhich the institution could always count. By 
the terms of the statutes of the society, the founders of Grignon had proposed to 
themselves a two-fold aim : 1, the cultivation of the domain according to the most 
approved methods indicated by the practice of the most advanced cultivators, espe- 
cially of Germany ; 2, the establishment of tw'O schools, one designed for the 
teachmg of mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, veterinary surgery, &c., 
the other intended to educate farmers theoretically and practically. The latter 
was never organized, and the former was only commenced in the year 1832. 



560 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 

If Grignon could create and maintain its school, if in consequence it could 
contribute to the progress and improvement of agriculture by the useful kncwl, 
edge which its director and some of its professors were spreading by periodical 
publications, and by the pupils which it educated, it must be remembered that 
this was due to the help it received from the State; we must also remember, after 
the example of Roville and other institutions of which we shall speak, that it is 
impossible to organize a lasting and complete instruction in agriculture without 
government aid, with only the resources of individual or associated zeal, and 
without finding a man uniting sufficient capital with the most eminent mental 
qualifications. 

On lea\-ing Roville in 1830, M. RiefFel had gone to Bretagne ; the third part of 
this vast peninsula was then covered by moors {landes) and heath, and was un- 
cultivated and unproductive. The remaining two-thirds were far from yielding 
the produce which with a better system of cultivation it was capable, "^'retched 
cattle, miserable pasture, imperfect agricultural implements, irrigation unknown, 
the woods perishing, all these combined seemed to solicit improvements and 
promise a fortune to him who would introduce them. Under these circum- 
stances, M. Rieffel, the scholar of M. de Dombasle, undertook the work of culti- 
vating these millions of hectares, and immediately, with the " confidence and 
courage of youth, went to work on a domain called " les landes de Grandjouan " 
(Department de Loire-Inferiuere), situated between Rennes and Nantes, and 
compi'ising 500 hectares, of which four-fifths were fallow ground. As he had no 
capital to buy and cultivate this land, he in connection with several others, 
formed a society, which furnished him w^ith funds, and whose duration was fixed 
at twenty years. Every year the public gained more confidence as the country- 
passed from a state of sterility to one of productiveness. Already since 1 833 the 
General Council of his Department lent their aid in order to found on the lands 
of the farm a primary school of agriculture, destined for poor young peasants. 
A subsidy of 5,000 francs was at first granted him on the condition that he 
would take charge of twenty poor scholars between the ages of fifteen and eigh- 
teen, give them primary instruction and accustom them to agricultural pursuits. 
The government soon added a still larger donation to that of the departmental 
authorities. . 

These subsidies, continued from year to year, furnished M. Rieffel with the 
means of sustaining and developing his work. He cleared the ground on his 
entire domain, and following the example of M. de Dombasle, added to the pri- 
mary school a school of agriculture and a factory for agricultural implements. 
He published amongst the rest, under the title of Agriculture of the West, one of 
the most interesting agricultural journals that has ever appeared. And although 
there were men who contested the usefulness of his work, the General Council 
of the Department at various times accorded to him the tribitte of their approba- 
tion and encouragement. In spite of these successes, the school developed but 
slowly, the number of pupils was limited, the necessary apparatus was wanting, 
and the insufficient resources did not allow the founder to effect improvements, 
the necessity of which no one felt more keenly than he himself. 

At this juncture M. Reiflfel applied to the government to convert his establish- 
ment into a district or regional institution (institut regional). The minister of 
agriculture, who fully appreciated the influence which the school at Grandjouan 
could exercise on a pi-ovince which stood so much in need of it as Bretagne, 
gave this application a favorable consideration, and by a decree of March 9, 1842, 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 561 

the institution was reorganized. In consequence of this measure the number of 
pupils increased and reached during the following years an average of twenty-six. 
Since then, the charge was in 1844 raised to 700 francs. In 1846 the salary of 
the professors was likewise raised, and a selection from the government stables 
was made for the institution in order to improve the breed of horses. These 
dispositions Avhich so loudly testified to the generous intentions of the goveni- 
ment to favor as much as possible agricultural instruction and to give to the 
institution of Grandjouan the means of developing and making itself useful, 
did not altogether accomplish the desired effect. In consequence of financial 
embarrassments which the director met with, and particularly in consequence of 
the disturbances of 1848, the existence of the institution was seriously menaced. 
Fortunately the new government, in proposing the law of September, 1848, re- 
garding the organization of agricultural instruction, saved the fruits of sacrifices 
previously made by the state. The establishment was changed into a provincial 
school [ecole regionale), an official position which it holds to this day. 

The establishments thus far spoken of have for their object secondary agricul- 
tural instruction, that is to say, instruction which ought to prepare intelligent 
landed proprietors, farmers, and capable administrators, the chiefs and officers 
of this great interest. As regards the subordinate officers and soldiers of this 
toiling and peaceful army, that is to say, the small cultivators and master-farm- 
hands, they could prepare themselves on the domains attached to these institu- 
tions, the cultivation of which required a numerous and able corps of workmen. 
Some of these establishments had even thought of regulating the recruiting of 
thfs force, and to prepare it beforehand by attaching to their farm a school for 
the sons of poor peasants, or orphans, who should be trained for agricultural 
work, and who should propagate the good practices acquired at school, by being 
placed with the landed proprietors and farmers of the land. This plan was fully 
realized at Grandjouan, where it continues to exist. Only it was transformed 
into a farm school {ferme-ecole), since the change of the whole establishment to a 
provincial school {ecole regionale). 

All that had hitherto been done was not sufficient. Other attempts, more or 
less fortunate, to establish farm schools, had been made in various departments 
outside of the large institutions, under the name of "rural asylums," "agricul- 
tural colonies," penitentiaries for receiving and educating abandoned children 
and orphans. Others, tinder the name of " school-farms " or "model-farms,'' 
" schools of agriculture," received adults with the object of training them for 
work in the fields and educating them for agricultural workingmen who might 
be at the disposal of the landed proprietors and farmers. 

The zeal and devotedness of wealthy private individuals, charitable associa- 
tions, and agricultural societies, raised in a few years a certain number of these 
asylums, model-farms, and school-farms. The administration favored this ten- 
dency by encouragements and subsidies. These first attempts, however, as might 
have been expected, met with difficulties and hindrances in administration and 
intelligence, which will be found whenever anything new is started. But the 
government, which by its subsidies maintained the greater part of these establish- 
ments, neglected no opportunity to remedy any imperfections or abuses that 
might creep in. It called to its aid the General Council of Agriculture, and in 
1845 charged it with the question of agricultural instruction. A committee was 
appointed by the council and chose for its president M. Toun-et. This commit- 
tee received from the minister all the documents which could throw light on the 

36 



562 AGRICULJTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. , 

subject, and especially the constitutive acts of all the establishments already 
existing. 

The General Council, after a lengthy discussion, adopted the basis on which 
the administration had commenced to build up agricultural instruction, admitted 
the school-farms as the first degree of instruction, and the institutes as a sort of 
secondary school of agriculture. Besides, in order to complete the system, it 
demanded the creation in fSie environs of Paris of a superior institution destined 
to favor the tendency of science to occupy itself with agriculture, and which, under 
the name of " experimental fea-m/' should be especially devoted to scientific 
experiments. 

In consequence of this cooperation of the great majority of the agricultural 
representation, the administration, though somewhat limited in its enterprises by 
the small funds placed at its disposal, advanced with more firmness on the road 
which it had once entered, and attempted to constitute the institutes and school- 
farms on the basis approved of by the general council, and to increase their 
number. Starting in 1846 it subjected them to certain conditions having for 
their object to bring these establishments under a regular and uniform organiza- 
tion. The government took upon itself the expenses of teaching, leaving to the 
proprietor or farmer the care and responsibility of directing the school. The 
course of instruction was rigorously limited to the wants of that class of culti- 
vators which needed the education, and adapted to the special wants of the dif- 
ferent localities. 

A small number of old school-farms had been able to maintain themselves. In 
1847 there were only nine. In that same year the administration founded ten 
new ones. In January, 1848, two more were opened. Four more were being 
organized when the Februaiy revolution broke out. At that time, therefore, 
there existed in France twenty-five school-farms, and the two institutions at 
Grignon and Grandjouan. 

Such was in brief, at the same period, the organization of agricultural instruc- 
tion in France, and this organization was not the result of a suddenly improvised 
plan, but the expression of public wishes, the fruit of experience and time, the 
natural and necessary results of accomplished facts. 

K we examine this first phase of agricultural instruction in France, we are 
painfully strack by seeing the majority of these institutions succumb to difficul- 
ties which assailed them at their very outset. But in this respect it shares the fate 
of all human institutions, which have to make their debut under novel conditions, 
and have to pass through the transformation of progress. The pioneers will ex- 
haust their strength in clearing the way, whilst those who follow find the way 
open and reap the fruits of the labors of men who worked before them. Very 
rarely will he Avho thus opens the way arrive at the end ; thus the history of dis- 
coveries, improvements, and progress, is but too often nothing else but a recital 
of the tribulations and ruin of men to whom mankind is largely indebted. 

Tourrct, the old chairman of the agricultural committee, after having been 
made minister of agriculture and commerce, proposed to the National Assembly 
in the session of July 17, 1848, a project for organizing agricultural instruction. 
M. Richard (from Cantal), August 21st, in the name of the committee for agri- 
culture, presented, an important report on this subject, and after a remarkable 
and interesting discussion, the decree, only slightly modified, was adopted Octo- 
ber .3, by 579 votes out of 679 voting members. There were thus still 100 
votes against a project of incontestible usefulness. 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 5g3 

This is not the place to analyze this decree, which regulated agricultural in- 
struction in France. "We will limit ourselves to calling to mind, that by endeav- 
oring to impi-ove them it maintained the existence of the school-farms where a 
practical elementary instruction was given, that it completely reorganized the 
institutions, which had been converted into provincial schools {ecoles 7'ec/ionales), 
and that it established over all these institutions a school of a superior kind, 
called the Agronomic Institute, which was to be the superior normal school 
of agriculture. 

This organization completed that which existed in a manner to satisfy the 
wants of all classes of society ; it offered to all and every one the kind of instruc- 
tion which suited his individual tastes and wants. 

. CONDITION OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN 1869. 
Model-Farms. 

In the model-farms the apprentice or scholar is practiced in the use and hand- 
ling of agricultural implements, to execute with his own arms agricultural oper- 
ations, to care for and nurse with his own hands the domestic animals. Some 
short and simple explanations given by the professor or director, teach him 
why one instrument is preferable to another, why certain operations ought to be 
made in such and such a manner and in no other, why the care bestowed on the 
cattle must be of such and such a nature. These explanations always follow 
the very operation which they are to illustrate. 

The business of the farm is carried on entirely at the risk of the proprietor or 
farmer of the domain, who is the director of the establishment. The State de- 
frays the charge for boarding and lodging the apprentices, an amount which, 
together with their work, is given to the director to indemnify him for the ex- 
penses he incurs for them. The expense of instruction is also borne by the 
State, which consist of the salaries of the director and of such teachers as may 
be employed. The term of apprenticeship is three years, and on entering and 
leaving, the pupils are subjected to examinations ; premiums are granted to the 
ablest and most meritorious. There are altogther 48 of these school-farms, with 
about 1,300 apprentices distributed among them. The apprentices on leaving 
the school very soon find profitable situations, which shows that their good re- 
sults are appreciated by the rural population. 

Regional Schools. 

In the practice or apprenticeship of agricultural students, these two kinds of 
instruction are imited in the provincial schools {ecoles regionales), where the pupils 
receive theoretical lessons methodically, with explanations and proofs, all the 
while executing with their hands the various agricultural operations. This is a 
mixed instruction, where the alliance of theoiy with practice prepares the lower 
officers of this grand army of tillers of the soil {grande armee des culticateurs). 

These schools are under the direction of a steward [regisseur), wlio is charged 
with the cultivation and administration of the domain for the account of the 
State. At the side of the director, and under his authority, are placed the teach- 
ers. The pupils, who are all boarded in the institution, are admitted after ii 
competitive examination. The course extends over three years, and on leaving, 
the pupil is examined and receives a certificate of proficiency. The State pays 
for eighteen scholars in each school. 



564 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 

REGIONAL AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON. 

The agricultural school at Grignon was founded in 1827 by M. Bella, as the 
executive officer and director of tlie school, in behalf of a society formed for 
the. purpose of improving the agriculture in that district of France. The domain 
consists of about 1,170 acres, and is situated twenty-five miles^we.st of Paris, 
ten miles from Yersailles and the markets of Passy and St. Germain, and six- 
teen miles north of Rambouillet and Yideville, the great government sheepfolds 
of France. It became the property of the crown, and in 1827, Charles X ^ 
granted it on a lease of forty years to the Agricultural Society of Grignon, on 
the following conditions: — 1, To apply and perfect an instructive system of 
agriculture on the domain ; 2. To organize a scientific and practical course of 
instruction in agriculture ; 3. To make all necessary local and needed repairs 
on the building ; 4. To make permanent improvements on the estate to the 
value of 300,000 francs, such as buildings, roads, plantations, etc.; 5. To raaka 
general Improvements to the lands in addition to the sum named ; 6. To pre- 
serve and renovate the forests on the place. These improvements, to the annual 
cost of about $1,500, were to be made in lieu of rent. The management of the 
domain and of the school was inaugurated with a view of realizing profit on the 
investment made by the subscribers ; but the result soon showed that the de- 
partment of instruction was curtailed in its professorships and equipment in 
order to secure more profitable returns from the farm. It was found necessary 
for the government in 1848 to take the school under its entire charge, giving it 
the title of the Imperial School of Agriculture, leaving the management of the 
estate in the hands of the Society, the director of the wliole being elected by 
the council of the Society and confirmed by the Minister of Agriculture. 

The terra of residence at Grignon is fixed at two years ; but tlie pupil remains 
three months after his studies are completed, in order to digest and draw up the 
entire management of an estate, and describe its details in every department. 

The students ai'e divided into classes denominated internals and externals, or 
resident and non-resident. The former reside entirely in the house, where they 
are lodged and boarded, and pay about 800 francs, or 32 pounds, or 160 dollars, 
per year. The externals, or non-residents, provide for themselves, or lodge at 
the houses of the neighboring farmers, and pay a very small amount for their 
instruction. This arrangement is particularly designed to benefit poor scholars. 
Both classes are equally subject to the general discipline and rules of the institu- 
tion 5 and are alike engaged in the same works and studies. 

There are lectures every day in the week. At the commencement of each 
lecture, the professor examines the pupils on the subject of the preceding lec- 
ture ; and they are required often to take notes, aud present a written report of 
the lecture. Besides the professors, there are two monitors, who have been 
educated at the school, who labor with the pupils in the fields. They are ex- 
pected, and it is their duty, to question the pupils on the subjects which have 
been treated in the lectures ; to show their application ; to illustrate what may 
have been obscure; aud, in short, to leave nothing unexplained which is hable 
to misunderstanding or error. There are two public examinations annually, in 
which the scholars are subjected to a rigorous questioning in what they have 
been taught. If, at the end of two years, their conduct has been approved, and 
their examination is met successfully, they receive a diploma from the 
institution. 

They are not only employed in the general work of the farm, but particular 
portions of land are assigned to individuals, which they manage as they pleasej 
and cultivate with their own hands ; they pay the rent and expenses of manure 
and team, and receive the product or its value from the institution. Certain of 
them are appointed in turn to take care of the different departments of the farm 
for a length of time — such as the hog establishment, the sheep establisliment, the 
cattle, the horses, the implements, &c. (fee. They have likewise adopted a 
practice, which seems much to be commended — that of employing workmen, 



AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 565 

shepherds, cow-herds, &c., from foreign countries ; as, for example, from 
Belgium and Switzerland, that they may in this way become acquainted with the 
best practices in those countries. 

The time is thus divided and 'arranged among them : — they rise at four o'clock 
in summer, and at half-past four in winter. They go immediately into the stables 
to assist in the feeding, cleaning, and harnessing of the teams, and the 
general care of the live stock, according to their respective assignments. At half- 
past five they take a light breakfast ; at six o'clock they go into the halls of study, 
and here they remain until eleven o'clock ; at half-past six they attend a lecture, 
or course of instruction, which occupies them until eight o'clock ; at half-past 
eight they are occupied in reading or in making notes of the lectures which they 
have heard, and the monitors before spoken of are present to render them any 
assistance required ; at half-past nine o'clock there is another lecture or course 
of instruction for both sections, which occupies them until eleven, when they take 
their second or principal breakfast. From noon until five o'clock, the pupils are 
occupied in labor or practical operations. The professors, from time to time, take 
a section, and employ them in land-surveying, in drawing plans, and in levelings ; 
others are occupied in mineralogical or in botanical excursions, or in inspecting 
the management of forest lands ; others are occupied by their teacher in the 
practical management of farming implements, in the management of teams in the 
field, in sowing, and other general operations of husbandry, in a field devoted to 
these purposes ; and a section, to the number of twelve, are every day employed 
in the direct labors of the farm, in ploughing, digging, harrowing, &c. &c. 
They work in company with the best laborers, that they may observe and learn 
their modes of executing their work. They are required to be attentive to every 
operation that is performed ; and to present a full report of each day's work to 
the director-general. 

At half-past five in winter, and at six in summer, they take their dinner. At 
seven o'clock in the evening they go again into the halls of study. From seven 
to half-past eight o'clock there is another course of instruction, or a repetition of 
what they have had before. Until nine o'clock they are occupied in their 
joui'nals, or in making notes of their lectures. At nine o'clock the sleeping 
rooms are lighted, and they retire for the night. 

There are several distinct professorships. The Professor of Practical Agricul- 
ture gives two courses ; the one written, the other oral ; and, like the lecture 
of a clinical professor at the bed-side, it is given in the fields. This professor un- 
derstands not only how a thing* should be done, but how to do it ; and he can 
put his hand to every form of agricultural labor, such as ploughing, harrowing, 
sowing, managing the teams, feeding the animals, handling every instrument 
of agriculture, buying, selling, &c. In the words of his commission, his object is 
at the same time to form the eye and the hand ; to teach his pupil how to learn 5 
to command, to direct, and to execute. To this end it was necessary to form a 
complete agricultural organization for practice, independent of the exercises 
attached to the departments of the other professors. 
The farm is composed of 

Arable land, about 670 acres. 

Land in wood and plantations . . . 365 " 

Irrigated meadows 35 " 

Gardens, including vegetable, botanical, 
fruit garden, orchards, mulberry planta- 
tions, osiers, and nurseries ... 28 " 
Ponds and water-courses . . . 15 " 
Roads and lands in pasture ... 60 " 
Occupied by buildings . . , , 6 " 
The animals on the farm include 

Animals of draught or labor of different 

kinds 18 

Oxen for fatting . . . . . 20 

Cows of different ages and races, and 

different crosses 100 

Sheep, embracing the different kinds . 1100 
Swine establishment . . . . 100 



566 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE, 

There are likewise on the establishment workshops or manufactories, if so they 
may be called, — 

For the making of agricultural instruments ; 

A threshing-house and machine for grain 5 

A dairy room for the manufacture of different kinds of cheese and of butter j 

A magnanerie, or establishment for silk-worms ; 

A stercorary for the manufacture of compost manures. 

To all these various departments the attention of the students is closely called, 
and they are required to take some part in the labors connected with them. 

Besides the farm belonging to the establishment, there is a field of one hundred 
acres devoted exclusively to the pupils, and principally to the culture of plants 
not grown on the farm. Here they make experiments in diflferent preparations 
of the soil, and with different manures. 

Every week two scholars, one of the second and one of the first year, are 
appointed to attend particularly to the genei'al condition of the farm. Their 
business is to examine constantly the whole establishment ; the works that are 
going on in every department ; to look after the woods and the plantations ; the 
gardens 5 the horses ; the fatting cattle ; the dairy 5 the sheep-fold •, the swine ; 
and the hospital ; and to attend to the correspondence, and the visitors. This 
service lasts a fortnight, and there is a change every week, taking care always 
that there shall be one scholar of the first, and one of the second year associated. 
They attend to all the labors on the farm, and to all the communications between 
the principal director and inspectors, and the laborers. In the veterinary or 
hospital department of the establishment, they assist the surgeon in all his visits 
and operations ; take notes of his prescriptions 5 make up and attend to the 
administration of his medicines ; and observe particularly the sanitary condition 
of the stables and buildings, where the live stock, sick or well, are kept. 

On Saturday evening, each scholar, to whom this duty has been assigned, 
makes to his fellow-pupils a full verbal report of what has been done. This 
report is transcribed into a journal designed for that purpose ; and thus a 
continued history of the entire management of the farm is kept up. The whole 
school is divided into sections or classes of twelve each : six of two and six of one 
year's standing ; and these sections are constantly under the direction of the 
Professor of Practical Agriculture. 

As the establishment at Grignon may be considered a model agricultural 
establishment, it may be useful to go more into detail in regard to the com'se of 
instruction pursued here. 

Once a week there is an exercise, which embraces every thing relating to the 
management of the teams and the implements. 

First, for example, in the different modes of executing any work, and using the 
utensils employed. The harness, the collar, the traces, and how attached, the 
shaft-horse or the cattle attached to the load, and the adjustment of the load 
to their bael* ; the yoke, the single yoke, the double yoke ; the pack-saddle 5 the 
harnessing of a saddle-horse ; the team for ploughing ; the team for harrowing ; 
the team for drawing loads ; the team for wagons, and for carriages with all 
their appurtenances ; every one of these matters is to be practically understood, 
as well as the whole management of the team in action. 

In ploughing, the turning the furrow, its inclination, its breadth and depths; 
the laying out of fields ; the management of large and small fields 5 how to make 
the first furrow, and finish the last furrow ; to lay the land flat, to break it up in 
clods ; to plough it at a certain angle, to lay the land in curved furrows : these 
are all considered, and make part of the instruction given. The preparation, 
equipment, and use of every agricultural implement — such as ploughs, harrows, 
rollers, scarifiers, cultivators, sowing machines, trenching machines ; the practice 
of sowing, the different modes of sowing, whether broadcast, by dibble, or in 
drills ; the application of manure both as to time, mode, quantity, and preparation, 
and the composting of manures, are matters of inquiry and practice. 

The cutting of grasses ; the making of hay, and the construction of stacks ; the 
harvesting of grain, b)' the scythe or by the sickle ; appendages to the scythe, 
called commonly the cradle ; and the grinding of scythes ; the making of sheaves, 
and of shocks, or stacks ; and the loading and the stowing away of grain, are 
matters to be imderstood. 



AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 567 

A practical attention is required to every form of service on the farm ; in the 
cow-house 5 the horse-stables; the fatting-stalls ; the sheep-fold; the styes ; the 
poulti-y-yard ; the threshing-floor ; the stereorary ; and the store-houses for 
the produce of the farm of every description. The duties in this case embrace 
not mereh- the observation of how these things are done, but the actual doing 
of them until an e.xpertness is acquired. 

Leaving the practical department we come now to the course of studies to be 
pursued. 

For admission into the institution some previous education is demanded, and the 
candidate is subjected to an examination before the principal and one of the 
professors. 

First, he is required to present an essay upon some subject assigned to him, 
that his knoft'ledge of the French language and grammar may be ascertained. 

It is necessary, next, that he should be well grounded in the four great rules 
of arithmetic ; in fractions, vulgar and decimal ; in the extraction of the roots ; in 
the rules of proportion and progression 5 and in the system of measures adopted in 
France. 

In geometry, he must be well acquainted with the general principles of straight 
hues and circles, and their various combinations ; and with the general measure- 
ment of plane surfaces. 

In natural philosophy, he must understand the general properties of bodies ; and 
be acquainted with the uses of the barometer and thermometer. 

Candidates for admission must bring with them certificates of good character 
and manners, and must be at least eighteen yea'rs old. They are rigidly held to 
an attendance upon all the courses of instruction at the institution ; and have leave 
of absence only on the application of their parents or guardians. 

The studies of the first year are begun with a course of mathematics. Geome- 
try and trigonometry are made a particular, subject of attention ; embracing the 
study of straight lines, and circular or curved lines on the same plan ; the ad- 
measurement of surfaces ; the use of the compass ; the recording of measure- 
ments ; the delineation of measurements ; the surveying of open fields, of woods, 
of marshes, of ponds or lakes ; comparison of ancient land measures with those iu 
present use ; the use of the square, the chain, and the compass ; the elevation 
of plans ; the construction of scales, and the ordinary divisions of landed 
properties. 

The study of various plans iu any form ; solid measure : conic sections, their 
principal properties, and their practical application ; the theory and practice of 
leveling; the method of projections and their application-, cubic measure of 
ditFerent solids, of hewu stones, of rough stones ; the measurement of loose or 
broken stones, of sand, of lands excavated, of ground filled in, of stacks, and 
of heaps of manure ; the cubic measure of trees standing, and of felled trees, 
of beams, and every kind of carpenter's work, of firewood, of walls, arches, and 
ditches or dikes ; the ascertaining of the capacity of carriages, wagons, carts, 
wheel-barrows, pails, troughs, barrels and casks, basins or ponds, and different 
vessels in use, and of granaries and barns, and the determination of the weights 
of bodies. To all this is added a full course of trigonometry. They are accustomed 
likewise to the familiar use of the scale, of the square, of the compass, and of the 
compasses for delineation, and are often occupied, in superficial, and in profile 
drawing. 

The next course of instruction embraces embankments, the force of earths and 
liquids, or their pressure, at rest or in motion. 

The materials employed in masonry : their uses and application in building — 
embracing stones, bricks, lime, sand, mortars, cements, plaster; and all the 
vari<>us modes of building. 

The laying of walls for foundations ; the erection of walls ; the supports 
requisite ; and the construction of passages, inclosures, and arches ; the different 
kinds of woods, their absolute and relative strength : their duration, and the modes 
of preserving them ; every kind of carpenter's work ; the construction of floors, 
staircases, scaffoldings, and exterior supports ; the constructions of roofs, in 
timber, with thatch, rushes, shingles, tiles, slates, zinc, or bitumen ; the paving 
of roads, the formation of barn-floors, with clay or composition of bituminous sub- 
stances which form a hard and enduring surface, are subjects of inquiry. 



568 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 

Next comes instruction in the blacksmith's shop, in the use of the forge, and 
the other implements of the trade ; and in the various applications of iron and 
steel, of copper, lead, and zinc. 

They are instructed, likewise, in the manufacture and use of leather and cord- 
age : and in the various details of painting and glazing. The prices or cost like- 
wise of all these different processes, are, as tar as practicable, ascertained 5 and the 
modes of estimating such work are explained. 

The next course embraces the elements of natm'al philosophy ; and this includes 
chemistry, geology, and mineralogy. 

First, the general properties of bodies, their divisibility, elasticity, and porosity 
or absorbent powers ; and the special influence of this last circumstance upon the 
character of an arable soil. 

The fullowing are all subjects of study; bodies in the mass; the weight of 
bodies ; means of determining the density of bodies and their specific gravity ; the 
physical properties of the air ; of atmospheric pressure ; and of the construction 
and use of the barometer. 

The stud}' of hydrostatics ; the pressure of liquids in their reservoirs, and against 
dikes and embankments ; hydraulics ; capillary attraction ; the use of siphons and 
pumps. 

The study of heat in all its various phenomena. Its effects upon solid and liquid 
bodies, and the changes which it makes in their condition ; the phenomena of 
fusion, ebulition, and evaporation ; of vapors ; of the hygrometer or measurer 
of moisture, and the utility of the instrument.; the conducting powers of bodies ; 
of metals in particular ; of free or radiating heat ; application of heat to furnaces 
or kilns ; laws of cold applied to bodies ; power of emitting and of absorbing cold ; 
measure of heat ; means of determining the mean temperature of any place ; in- 
fluence of heat and cold upon vegetation ; means of preserving certain vegetables 
from frost ; construction and use of the thermometer. 

Meteorology. Explication of the phenomena of dew ; of white frosts ; of clouds; 
of rain ; of snow ; their various influences upon harvest, and the whole subject of 
climate. 

Study of light. Progress of light in space ; laws of its reflection ; laws of its 
refraction; action of light upon vegetation. The subject of vision. The polariza- 
tion of light ; the explication of the rainbow, and other phenomena of hght ; the 
prism. 

Study of electricity. Conductors of electricity ; distribution of the electric fluid 
in nature ; power of the electric rods or points ; electricity developed by the con- 
tact of bodies ; of galvanic piles ; their construction and uses. Atmospheric 
electricity ; its origin ; the formation of thunder clouds ; action of electricity upon 
vegetation ; of lightning ; of thunder ; of hail. 

Chemistry. Simple bodies ; compound bodies ; difference between combination 
and mixture ; atomical attraction ; cohesion ; affinity ; what is intended by 
chemical agents. Explanation of the chemical nomenclature, and of chemical 
terms. 

The study of simple bodies. Of oxygen ; its properties ; its action upon vegeta- 
tion, and upon animal life. !N"itrogen, sulphur, chlorine, carbon, hydrogen ; their 
action upon vegetable and animal substances ; their uses in veterinary medicine, 
and their influence upon vegetation. 

The study of compound substances. Chemistry as applied to air and water ; 
their imjjortance in agriculture ; their influence upon the action and life of plants 
and animals ; the acids, — the sulphuric, the nitric, the carbonic, the chloric ; the 
alkalies, — lime, soda, potassium, ammonia ; their application in various forms. The 
salts in chemistry, and their various applications and uses ; their importance as 
constituent parts of the soil, or as improvements. 

The subject of marls and of earths, and of various substances deemed favorable 
to vegetation. Under the direction of the Professor of Chemistry, the students 
are taught to make analyses of different soils and marls. 

To this is added a course of Mineralogy and Geolog}'. This embraces the 
general properties of minerals ; the physical, chemical, and mechanical character 
of mineral substances the most common. 

The study of the distinctive properties and situation of those mineral substances 
which are most extended over the globe, and which are the most in use ; such, 



AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 5^9 

especially, as the carbonate of lime ; comprehending stones for building, for the 
making of roads and walls, lime-stones, marbles, sulphate of lime, or plaster of 
Paris ; and all the variety of mineral substances ordinarily found, and of use in 
agriculture or the arts. 

A course of Geology follows this, embracing all the leading features of the 
science, with a special reference to all substances or conditions of the soil con- 
nected with agricultural improvement. 

In this case, the professor makes frequent excursions with the pupils, that they 
may become familiarly acquainted with the subjects treated of in the lectures, and 
see them in their proper localities ; so that the great truths of geological science 
may be illustrated by direct and personal observation, 

^ext follows a course of instruction in horticulture, or gardening. 

Of the soil ; the surface and the subsoil, and practical considerations relative 
to their culture and products. 

Of the climate ; the temperature, the aspect and local condition of the land 
in reference to the products cultivated ; the amelioration of the soil, and the 
substances to be used for that object, with the modes of their application. 

The various horticultural operations, and implements employed ; and manner in 
which they are to be executed. The employment of water in irrigation ; modes 
of inclosing by ditches or walls ; walls for the training of trees ; trellises and palings ; 
and of protections against the wind. 

The different modes of multiplication ; sowing, engrafting by cuttings and by 
layers, and practical illustrations of these different processes. The culture of seed- 
bearing or grain-producing plants ; the choice of them 5 their planting and 
management ; the harvesting and preservation of the crops. 

Under this head comes the kitchen-garden, and the choice of the best esculent 
vegetables for consumption ; the nursery, and the complete management of trees 
from their first planting 5 the fruit-garden, considered in all its details*, and the 
flower-garden. 

The general results of gardening ; the employment of hand, or spade-labor ; 
the care, preservation, and consumption of the products, and their sale. The 
gardens at Grignon are upon a scale sufficient to supply all practical demonstra- 
tions. 

The next division embraces the botanical garden. Here the whole science of 
botany is treated in its principles, and their practical application. The study of 
vegetable organization, with a full account of the prevailing systems and nomen- 
clature of botany, and the classific^ion of plants. Vegetable physiology, in all its 
branches, and vegetable anatomy ; comparison of plants in their native and culti- 
vated states ; influence of cultivation in developing and improving plants ; the 
propogation of plants in their natural condition, or by artificial means ; the subject 
of rotation, or change of crops. 

The practical application of these botanical instructions ; and especially in the 
examination of plants or vegetables which may be useful in an economical view. 

The garden of the establishment embraces what is called a school of trees ; 
a school of plants for economical and commercial purposes ; and a school of plants 
for common use. These are all carefully classed and distinguished by their proper 
names. The pupils are accustomed to be led into the gardens by the professor, 
that his instructions may be fully exemplified and confirmed. 

The next branch of science taught at the school is veterinary surgery and 
medicine. This embraces a course of anatomy and animal phisiology. It com- 
prehends a full description of all the animal organs ; and demonstrations are given 
from subjects, destroyed or obtained for that purpose. The functions of the 
different organs ai'c likewise described : the organs of digestion, respiration, cir- 
culation, and the organs connected with the continuance of the species. 

Every part of the animal, external and internal, is shown, its name given, its 
uses explained ; its situation in relation to the other organs ; the good points, the 
faults or defects in an animal ; the peculiarities of different races of animals, with 
the modes of discriminating among them. 

The choice of animals intended for different services, — as in horses for example, 
whether for the saddle, the race, the chase, the carriage, the road, the wagon, or 
the plough. Next, the treatment of the diseases of animals ; the medicines in 
use ; their preparation, and the mode of applying or employing them. 



570 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 

The next subject of instruction embraces a complete system of keeping farm 
accounts and journals, with the various books and forms necessary to every 
department. 

From this the pupil proceeds to what is called rural legislation, embracing an 
account of all the laws which affect agricultural property or concerns. 

The civil rights and duties of a French citizen, and the constitution of France. 

Property, movable or immovable, or, as denominated with iis, personal and 
real ; of the divisions of property ; of its use and its obligations. 

Of commons ; of laws relating to forests ; of the rights of fishing in rivers ; and 
of hunting. 

The laws relating to rural police 5 to public health ; to public security 5 to eon- 
tageous or epidemic diseases. 

The rights of passage of men or animals over the land of another ; if any, and 
what. 

Of crimes. Theft in the fields ; breaking or destruction of the instruments of 
agriculture ; throwing open inclosures •, destruction or removal of bounds. Lay- 
ing waste the crops by walking over them ; inundation of fields by the stoppage 
of streams, or the erection of mills. Injury or breaking of public roads and 
bridges. Poisoning, killing, or wounding animals. 

TTie duties of country magistrates ; guards or justices of the peace. Of courts 
of law. 

Of contracts, general and specific. Contracts of sale and prohibitory conditions. 
Of leases of different sorts. Of hiring labor ; of the obligations of masters and 
servants. Of corporations, and the laws applicable to agricultural associations. 

Of deeds, mortgages, bills of exchange, commissions, and powers of agency and 
attorney ; insurance against fire, hail, and other hazards. Of the proof of obliga- 
tions ; written proof ; oral testimony ; presumptive evidence ; of oaths. Of legal 
proceedings ; of the seizure of property real or personal, and of bail. 

The instruction proceeds under various courses, and I have so far given but a 
limited account of its comprehensiveness, and the variety of subjects which it 
embraces. 

The study of the different kinds of soil, and of manures, with all their applica- 
tions, and the improvements aimed at, take in a wide field. Under the head of 
soils there are the argillaceous, the calcareous, the siliceous, turf-lands, heath-lands, 
volcanic soils, the various sub-soils, loam, and humus. 

Under the head of manures, come the excrements of animals, all foecal matter, 
poudrette, urine ; the excrements of fowls ; guano ; noir animalisee ; the refuse 
of sugar refineries ; the relics of animals ; oil-cakes ; the refuse of maltings ; 
tanners'-bark ; bones, hair, and horn ; aquatic plants ; green-dressings. 

The application likewise of sand, clay, marl, hme, plaster, wood-ashes, turf- 
ashes, soot, salt; the waste of various manufactures ; mud and street dirt. 

The plants cultivated for bread ; wheat, rye, barley, oats, buck-wheat, millet, 
rice, and the modes of cultivating them. 

For forage, — potatoes, beets, turnips, ruta-bagas, carrots, artichokes, parsnips, 
beans, cabbage. 

Lucerne, lupins, sainfoin, common clover, trifolium incarnatum, vetches, peas, 
lentils, and plants for natui-al meadows and for pasturage. 

To these are added, cobra, rape, poppy, mustard white and black, hemp, flax, 
cotton, madder, saffron, woad, hops, tobacco, chicory, teazles. 

The weeds prejudicial to agriculture, and the insects which attack the plant 
while growing, or in the granary or barn. 

The production of milk ; and, as already said, the making of butter and cheese. 

The production of wool ; tests of its fineness ; classing of wools ; shearing of 
sheep ; weight of the fleece ; washing of wool before or after shearing 5 and every 
particular in reference to the subject. 

The fatting of beef, mutton, and pork. Choice of animals for this purpose , 
nutritive properties of different kinds of food ; in what form to be given ; grains 
entire or ground ; roots cooked or raw, green or dry ; the value of the pulp of 
beet-root after the sugar is expressed ; refuse of the starch factories ; of the dis- 
tillery ; of the brewery ; fatting by pasture or in stalls ; comparison of the live 
weight with that of the animal when slaughtered. 

Care and management of the various kinds of domestic poultry. 



AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRIGNON IN FRANCE. 57^ 

Cave and management of bees, with the construction of hives. 

Care of silk-worms, and their entire management. 

All these studies are pursued in the first year of the course ; and the time is so 
arranged as to afford the diligent pupil an opportunity of meeting his duties, though 
the period is obviously too limited for the course prescribed. 

The second year enjoins the continuance and enlargement of these important 
studies ; the higher branches of mathematics and natural philosophy ; an extended 
knowledge of chemistry ; and a thorough acquaintance with mechanics, when the 
scholars with their professor visit some of the principal machine-shops and factories 
in Paris, or its environs, in order to become practically acquainted with them. 

The students are further instructed in the construction of farm-buildings of 
every description ; in irrigation, in all its forms ; in the drainage of lands ; in the 
construction of roads ; in every thing relating to farm implements 5 and in the 
construction of mills and presses. 

As I have said, organic chemistry is largely pursued with the various manufac- 
tures to which it is applicable ; and animal physiology and comparative anatomy 
are very fully taught. 

These studies are followed by a course of what is called agricultural technology. 
This embraces the manufacture, if so it may be called, of lime, of cement, of 
bricks ; the preparations of plaster ; the making of coal by various processes ; the 
making of starch ; the making and purification of vegetable oils ; the making 
of wines, of vinegar, of beer, of alcohol, of sugar from the beet-i'oot, including all 
the improvements which have been introduced into this branch of manufacture ; 
and the pupils, under the direction of the professor, are taken to see the various 
manufactories of these articles, so far as they are accessible in the vicinity. 

The whole subject of forests, of nurseries, of fruit trees, oi'namental trees, trees 
for fuel, trees for mechanical purposes, are brought under the student's notice. 
This is a great subject in France, where wood has an extraordinai'y value ; where 
immense, extents of ground are devoted solely to the cultivation of trees; and 
where consequently it is most desirable to understand the proper kinds of 
wood to be selected for the purpose in view ; the proper mode of forwarding the 
growth of the trees ; and of removing them without prejudice to their restoration. 
Under this head comes the culture of 

Trees for fuel. 

Trees for timber. 

Trees for house and ship building. 

Trees for fruit, including all the varieties adapted to a particular climate. 

Trees for their oily matter •, such as olives. 

Trees for their bark ; to be used in tanning, and other purposes. 

Trees for their resinous ])roperties ; such as pines. 

Osiers and willows for making baskets. 

Mulberry-trees for the support of silk- worms, 

Next to this comes the culture of vines, and the establishment and care of a 
vineyard — a subject of great importance in France. 

I have already spoken of the veterinary course of instruction. This embraces 
the whole subject of the breeding and rearing of animals ; their training, shoeing, 
and harnessing, and entire management. . 

Under the head of farm accounts, the establishment itself at Grignon is made 
an example ; the accounts of which are kept most accurately by some of the 
students, and open to the inspection of all. 

A journal of every thing which is done upon the farm is made up every night j 
and these accounts are fairly transferred into a large-book. 

To this is added, a particular account of the labors performed, and the occupa- 
tion of each workman on the farm. 

Next, a cash-book, embracing payment and sales, which are adjusted every 
fortnight. 

Next, an account with the house ; charging every article supplied or con- 
sumed. 

Next, a specific account of each principal department of the farm ; such as the 
dairy, with all its expenses and returns ; the pork-establishment ; the granary, 
&c. ; which are all balanced every month, so that the exact condition of the de- 
partment may be known. 



672 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT GRAND JOUAN. 

Agricultural School at Grand Jouan. 

The Agricultural school at Grand Jouan, in Brittany, was established 
in 1833, by M. Neviere, who had been trained in this department of edu- 
cation in the Roville Agricultural school. In 1848 it was remodeled by 
the government and placed under the administration of* the minister of 
agriculture. 

Subjects of Study and Lectures. 

Mathematical Sciences : — Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Mechanics, Sur- 
veying, Leveling, Stereometry, (measuring solid bodies,) Linear Drawing. 

Physical and Natural Sciences : — Physics, Meteorology, Mineral Chemistry, 
Mineralogy, Geology, Botany. 

Technological Sciences : — Organic Chemistry, or Agricultural Technology, 
Agriculture, Arboriculture, Sylviculture, Veterinary Art, Agricultural Zoology, 
Equitation. 

Noological Sciences : — ^Rural Architecture, Forest Economy, Rural or Farm 
Accounts, Rural Economy, Rural Law. 

Abstract of the course of Lectures on General Agriculture. 

Agricultural Formation, (Terrain,) — 1. Soil: — Constituent Elements, Classi- 
fication of the Formation : Argillaceous, Siliceous, and peaty soils : Physical pro- 
perties : Causes which modify these properties : Influence of soil on vegetation. 

2. Sub Soil : — Sub soil active: Sub soil inert : Influence of sub soil on the soil 
and on the life of plants. 

Agricultural Geography: — Astronomic situation of France: Mountains: 
Valleys. Plains. Rivers. 

Agricultural Physics : — Atmospheric Air : Caloric: Light: Darkness. 

Agricultural Meteorology : — Winds : Fogs : Dew : Rain : White Frost : 
Frost with Ice : Snow : Hail. 

Climatology : — Influence of Climate : Climate of France : Regions. 

Fertilization : — Considerations preliminary : Fecundity and Fertility. 

1. Improvement: — Clay: Rocks: Sand: Slates: Lava: Plombage : Irriga- 
tions : Ditching : Ploughing : Movement of the sub soil : Colmatage. 

2. Stimulants : — Stimulants of Mineral Origin : Lime : Marl : Calcareous 
earth : Broken shells : Sea sand : the Whiting : Shell fish : Plaster: Fire Ashes : 
Sulphate of Iron : Salts of Potash : of Soda : of Ammonia. 

Stimulants of Vegetable Origin : — Soot : Ashes : Leached Ashes. 

3. Manures : — Animal Manures : Excrements : Urine : Pigeons' Dung : 
Guano : Excrement of Animals : Muscular Flesh : Blood : Fish : Fat : Oil : 
Woolen cloth : Horn : Horse hair : Human hair : Feathers. 

Vegeto- Animal Manures : — Litter : Horse dung : of Sheep : of horned Cattle : 
of Swine: of Rabbits. 

Animal Manures Mineralized : — Animal charcoal : Bone. 

Vegetable Manures : — Green crops ploughed in. Manure and Aquatic plants : 
Turf: poor Vegetables : Oil Cake : Tan : Mesh : pulpy matters : Leaves : 
Stubble. 

Liquid Manures : — Urine of the Domestic Animals : Flemish Manures : Urine 
Water from Fecularies. 

Compound Manures: — Manure of Jauffi'et and Lane: Compost: Slime of 
Ponds : River Mud : Marine Mud. 

Breaking up the Soil : — L Work Animals : Cattle : Horses : Cows : Mules : 
Asses : Race : Age : Mode of tackling : Length of working : Treatment : Neces- 
sary proportion. 

2. Instruments : — Plough with or without fore wheels : Harrow : Scarifica- 
tors : Rollers : Instruments for second dressing : Weeders : Extirpators : Nec- 
essary proportion. 

3. Tillage : — Theory and Practice : Soil : Temperature : Flat Tillage : Flat 
Tillage in rows : Flat Tillage in ridges : Tillage by digging and by grubbing. 



AUKICULTURAL SCflOOL AT GRAND JOUAN. 5^3 

4, Methods of moving the earth: — Harrowing: Rolling: Second Ploughing: 
Buttages. 

5. Clearing Land : — Heaths : Woods : Peaty lands : Clearing by the hand : 
by the Plough : Hoeing : Destination of the ground. 

Draining : — Arable Land : Morasses : Ponds : Nature and destination of the 
soil. 

Irrigation : — Theory and Practice : by Infiltration : Renewal of the Water : 
Planches Bombees. 

Quantity of water by the acre, and according to the nature of the soil. Value 
of the bottoms irrigated and not irrigated. Mode of working these almost irri- 
gated. Fertility and value of the products. 

Fences : — Walls : Ditches : Hedges, living or dead. 

Sowing : — Theory and practice : Sowing in lines : at random : selection, re- 
newal, cleansing, and preparation of the seeds : Burying them by the harrow : 
by the plough. 

Method of Treatment : — Weeding : Cleaning of thistles : stripping oflf the 
leaves : {Effuillage .•) Bringing into the light. 

Harvesting. General Considerations. 

1. Harvesting of Fodder : — Instruments and Machines : Mowing: Haymak- 
ing : Grindstones. 

2. Harvesting of Grain : — Instruments and Machines : Mowing : Reaping : 
Threshing : Llage. 

3. Harvesting of Roots : — Pulling up by the hand : by the plough : Uncover- 
ing : Cleaning. 

Selection of the methods of preparing the Soils : — According to atmospheric 
circumstances : Nature of the Soil : its condition : its destination. 

Distribution of Labor by Rotation : — Nornoal conditions : Exceptional con- 
ditions. 

Rural Architecture. 

Materials: — Siliceous, calcareous and argillaceous rocks: Fat, meagre, and 
hydraulic Lime: Sands: Mortar: Cements: Puzzolana : Plaster: Wood: Iron: 
Paving Brick : Roofing Slate : Tiles : Lead : Zinc : Leather : Ropes. 

Works : — Foundations : Terracing : Properties of Earths. 

Masonry: — Foundation Walls : High Walls : for support: for inelosure: Plas- 
tering : Pise. 

Carpentry : — Assemblages : Combles : Pans de bois : Partitions : Staircases. 

Joiners'' Work : — Floors : Gates : Windows : Shutters. 

Iron Work : — Lai'ge Iron : Ironing the Buildings. 

Roofing : — Tiles : Slate : Thatch : Zinc : Bitumen. 

Painting and Glazing : — Oil Painting : Distemper Paintings : Badidgeon, 
(coloring) Window glass. 

Paving and Bricking. 

Estimate of the Works : — Masonry : Carpentry. 

Specification : — Form of the works. 

Edifices: — Stable: Cow house: Sheep fold t Hogpen: Hen house: Pigeon 
house : Silk worm nursery. 

Animal products : — Dairy : Cheese house. 

Vegetable products : — Barns : Granaries : Wine cellars : Cellars : Corn pits ; 
Ovens. 

Agricultural Manufactures : — Feculary : Distillery : Sugar manufactory. 

Reservoirs : — Watering places : Wash house : W^ells : Cisterns : Ditches for 
urine : Ponds. 

Dwelling house : — Form and Proportion. 

Irrigations : — Dams : Taking out the Water : Sluices : Canals : Weirs : 
Slopes. 

Drainage : — Damming up : Trenching : Cespool : Machines for drainage. 

Routs : — Soil : Slope : Outline : Leveling : Materials : Support : Bridges : 
Estimate of Excavation and Embankment. 

Group of Edifices composing a Farming Establishment : — Relation to the 
fertility of the soil and the culture and extent of the farm. 



574 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE/ 

Imperial Forestry School. 

The Imperial Forestry School is situated at Nancy, on the Meurthe, and is 
intended to instruct and train young people destined for the ser^-ice of the forests. 
It appertains to the Department of the Minister of Finance, who fixes annually 
the number of students. The school has a director, also consavateiir dcs forets, 
a subdirector who is also professor, four other professors, and a repetiteur of forest 
economy. It is a boarding school, and the pupils wear a uniform. 

In order to be admitted to the school the candidate must be a French citizen, 
between the ages of 18 and 22, of good constitution, and must possess the diplo- 
ma of bachelor in sciences, or a certificate of classical studies as far as rhetoric, 
with a diploma or an official document certifying that his attainments entitle 
him to a diploma, Khe has the degree of bachelor of letters he will be credited 
with fifty points in the examination record. He must also bring a bond engag- 
ing to pay to the school an annual sum of 1,500 francs during the school term, 
and of resources amounting annually to 600, from the time of his leaving the 
school until receiving the grade of garde geneial, and a written declaration of the 
place of examination chosen by the candidate in the arrondisement of examina- 
tion, and of the place of residence of his family, or of that place where he fin- 
ishes his studies, provided that he studied fi-om the beginning of the academical 
year. Upon complying with these requisitions the candidate is authorized by 
the General Director of Forests to present himself at the competitive examina- 
tion for admission, which takes place annually in July. This examination in- 
cludes arithmetic, algebra, geometry and its applications, trigonometry, physics, 
chemistry, cosmography, mechanics, natural history, French history and geog- 
raphy, and the German language, after a plan published by the Minister, 
and covering the course of the lyceums. There are also written exercises on 
mathematics, surveying, French narration, and German composition; also a 
sketch in free-hand drawing and in water colors. He must present also specimens 
of arithmetical calculations, and several of drawing, performed at the school last 
attended, and if these are not satisfactoiy the candidate is immediately rejected. 
He is also subjected to a physical examination. 

The course lasts two years, and includes natural history, forest economy, legis- 
lation, drawing and construction connected \sith the forest service, and applied 
mathematics. 

There is an examination at the close of the year, and after the final examina- 
tion graduates are sent into the most important forest districts, with salaries of 
1,200 francs, to learn under the direction of the forest inspectors, the practical 
part of the profession, and when capable they receive appointments as gardes 
generaux, as vacancies occur. 

There are m the school four bursarships for the children of forest agents. 

School of Shepherds. 

In pursuance of the recommendation of a commission on agriculture, a school 
for the instruction and practical training of shepherds has been established in llie 
department of the Pas-de-Calais, on the Imperial sheep farm, Hautingay. The 
farm comprises about 500 acres, and is well stocked with a flock of merinos and 
half-breeds. We have not seen the regulations or programme of instruction. 
Farm School for \^ne Culture. 

Six new Farm Schools were established in 1868, — two of them devoted to the 
tniltivation of the vine, one for the department of the Gironde, and the other, of 
the Doubs. 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 5*75 

Departmental Professorships of Agriculture. 
In addition to these formal means of agricultural instruction the minister of 
this department has established professorships in nine departments, the occupants 
of winch travel about for the purpose of making the farmers acquainted with new 
methods of culture, and with new discoveries in agricultural science. 

Agricultural practice in Oiphans' and other beneficent institutions. 
The gOA'ernment grants certain subsidies to institutions which receive orphans, 
or children dependent upon their parents, or belonging to the hospitals, or of 
poor families, as well as several reformatory and rescue institutions, in which the 
inmates perform simple agricultural work. 

Normal Schools. 
Attached to many of the public normal schools are grounds sufficient for or- 
chard and garden purposes, which are improved by the pupils under the direction 
of a special teacher of agriculture and rural economy. This department of study 
is placed by an ordinance of December 22, 1864, under the general inspectors of 
agriculture, and a systematic course of study and practice, extending over three 
years, has been made obligatory. Out of 778 of these establishments, 44 are 
furnished with all the land and requirements necessary for an extended course. 

Public Primari/ Schools. 

In advance of positive legislation, teachers had introduced occasional instruc- 
tion in the principles and details of agricultural operation. In many districts 
the teachers are furnished with residences having gi-ounds attached, and on these 
the pupils were allowed and encouraged to apply the instruction of the school- 
room to practice, until 1865, it was found that in 5,572 schools, valuable agricul- 
tural teaching was pursued, and in 20,220 schools, teachers and pupils found 
recreation and profit by attention to garden and fruit culture. By a decree of 
February 11, 1867, a joint commission was instituted by the minister of public 
instruction and of agriculture, to investigate and propose the measures necessary 
to develop agricultural studies in the communal and adult schools of the agricul- 
tural districts. 

In 1866, M. Malgras, academical agricultural inspector, issued a circular to 
school-masters of the Vosges, urging upon those who gave instruction in farming 
and gardening in the public schools, . to accompany their pupils from time to 
time to the best kept farms of the district, to make a special study of the stables, 
fields, cattle-houses, and vineyards, of those who received medals for their good 
farming or management. They are especially enjoined to make their own gar- 
dens practical schools of instruction, and to cause their pupils to make a plan of 
the gardens and the lands placed at their disposal, indicating the boundaries, 
walks, beds, trees, and other objects. Several of these plans, with the name of the 
commune, teacher, and pupil, were exhibited at the Industrial Exhibition of 1867, 
and some of them received prizes for the accuracy with which the drawings were 
made, and excellence of the designs on which they were plotted. The following 
plan of an agricultural garden of the master attached to the public school at 
Bourback-le-Bas, in the Canton of Taun, was noticed with approbation in the 
Reports of the Delegations Ouvriers: 



576 



AGHIOULTUHAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 



STREAM. 



Vine 


Layers. 


Cuttings. 


C3 
O 

1 


Horticulture. 

r 


THlage. 


O 


m 


'A 

O 

P' 


Nursery. 


Kitchen 
Garden. 




Ornamental Plants. 





The Report observe on this plan : 

We are of opinion that the construction of such a garden in all parishes 
where agriculture is the chief occupation of the inhabitants, would tend to pro- 
duce a great reform in cultivation and rural economy. It would be the means 
of compeiling some of the farmers to throw aside certain old customs of their 
forefathers, which many are unwilling to abandon. We in no way blame them 
for respecting old traditions, nevertheless, if it were explained to them that a 
change for the better were possible, we should be at a loss to comprehend their 
hesitation to replace an old system by a new one, the result of careful study 
under thair own eyes and with their assistance. 

Those who have lived in the country will have noticed that the lanes of the 
petty farmers are generally the worst cultivated. The cause of this may be at- 
tributed to ignorance, which we have before condemned, and to the execrable 
principles of individualism. The idea of asssociation or partnership which is 
beginning to develope itself among the industi'ial classes as being the only means 
of saving labor from the oppressive power of capital, does not strike the agri- 
culturist favorably, and the words association and communism are often con- 
founded. There is, however, this difference ; whereas citizens, in entering into 
partnership for the purpose of improving and increasing their productions, are 
free to live and dispose of their share of the profits as they choose, in commun- 
ism their powers ai'e restricted, and the principle is an absolute one. This error 
of the country people is, however, easy to be understood ; darkness still reigns 
over them ail-powerfully. 

Government has undertaken the mission of sending men, especially qualified, 
to iniriate agriculturists in any new methods of ciiltivation, or in any great dis- 
coveries relating to the theory of agriculture. We Avould wish to see the exten- 
sion of these missions to all the rural districts, in the form of conferences. This 
system would be of greater benefit to the farmers. 

Should not the large rural estates be, as it were, so many model-farms, the 
management of which would offer to those who possess them Vs many attractive 
pleasures as the more or less repeated visits to the cafes on the boulevards of the 
capital, or the nights spent in gambling. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS, AND INSTRUCTION 

FOR THE MERCANTILE AND MILITARY MARINE. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The necessities of the maritime service in France, public and pri- 
vate, military and commercial, have created a system, or at least a 
series of special schools for children whose parents are occupied on 
the sea, or youths preparing for the exigencies of naval affairs, 
several of which we will proceed to describe, with the aid of official 
documents,* without reference to the chronological order in which 
they have been instituted. The system includes 

1. Nautical School for the Orphans of Sailors. 

2. The Inflexible and other School-ships. 

3. Naval Apprentice Schools at the government naval stations. 

4. School for Boatswains and Shipmasters. 

5. School for Naval Engineers and Stokers. 

6. Naval Drawing School. 

7. Schools of Navigation and Hydrography. 

8. Naval School at Brest. 

9. School of Naval ArchHecture at Paris. 

10. School of Marine Artillery. 

11. School of Hydrography. 

12. Naval School of Medicine and Pharmacy. 

In addition to the schools above enumerated, several of which 
will be described in detail, the French government has now under 
consideration the establishment at Paris of a Central School of 
Commerce and Navigation. The instruction, while it will be spe- 
cial, will not be technical, and will be designed for young persons 
who propose to enter either the military or mercantile marine, leav- 
ing the practical details of the particular branch of the service to 
be acquired elsewhere. 

A system ot maritime conscription for recruiting the navy, and 
stdct regulations requiring special instruction in masters and mates 
of all mercantile vessels, are in force in France. 

* Official Report on Paris Industrial Exhibition of ]866, group X. Official programmes of the 
several schools noticed. nn 



578 NAVIGATIO?^ AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 

NAUTICAL SCHOOL FOR ORPHANS OF SAILORS. 

Formerly, when the children of sailors were obliged at the age 
of seven to leave the asylums [salles d'asile,) which are open to 
them with such liberality, they had to stay for six years in the pri- 
mary schools before they were admitted to the " school for young 
sailors " {ecole des mousses,) where their professional education com- 
menced. This state of things, entirely satisfactory when the child 
belongs to a family, is different when it is an orphan. Then there is 
a void to be filled. 

An imperial decree, published Nov. 15th, 1862, at the suggestion 
of the Marquis of Chasseloup Laubat, provides for this want by 
furnishing at Brest an institution for the orphans of the navy, and 
placing it under the especial, protection of Her Majesty, the Em- 
press. Vice-Admiral, Count de Gueydon, gave all his care to the 
organization of this especial school, which was intended to gather 
the orphans of seamen, to place them under the protection of the 
navy, to educate and instruct them that they might follow in the 
steps of their fathers. They were placed under the supervision of 
lieutenant Picard of the navy. Their general instruction was 
confided to the Brothers of the Christian Schools, and the " Daugh- 
ters of Wisdom " {filles de la sagesse) were intrusted with all the 
cares which such young children require. 

We have nothing to say in this place of the excellent primary in- 
struction given in this school, and will only notice briefly the special 
or professional instruction, which is imparted in a military style, by 
divisions, subdivisions, companies, sections, squads commanded by 
masters, second masters, quarter-masters, and naval instructors. 
There are three sizes (the low, middle, and high,) each of which 
is commanded by a pupil. 

The lessons which they receive consist of instruction in the man- 
agement of sails, sailor's practice, {ecole de matelotage,) the whistle, 
fife and drum, rowing, swimming, military practice, gun-practice, 
bayonet-practice, bats, eillon-diYiW, principles of music, gymnastics, 
and boxing. There is likewise given to them a physical and mili- 
tary education, which developes their strength and gives them the 
ability to study more closely. 

On the 1st of January, 1867, there were in the school 415 pupils. 
Most of them are sent to the Seamen's School [ecole des mousses,) 
when they have attained the thirteenth year of their age ; those 
who are not considered fit to serve in the navy are struck off the 
lists and returned to their families. 



NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 



5!79 



. Name of School. 



School of maneu- 
vering on the naval 
gymnasium. 



School of whistling 

School of rowing. 
Infantry school. 



School of the fife 
and drum. 

School of gymnas- 
tics. 



School of music. 



Degree. 



40 learn to mount 
to the mast-head 
and to hold them- 
selves on the sail- 
yards. 

20 learn to whis- 
tle. 



30 learn to row. 



255 are drilled 
without arms. 



commence. 



50 commence the 
elementary move- 
ments. 

125 commence. 



Degree. 



185 are just learn- 
ing to take in the 
sails and the reefs, 
and to make knots 
and splices. 

10 give almost all 
the blasts of the 
whistle. 

90 are just learn- 
ing to row. 

20 are not fit yet 
to join the battal- 
ion. 



10 do pretty well. 
10 do pretty well. 

140 do pretty well. 



1st Degree. 



190 take in the 
reefs and make 
knots and splices. 



20 give all the 
blasts of the whis- 
tle. 



90 row. 



140 are drilled in 
the gun-practice, 
bayonet-practice, 
and form a battal- 
ion. 

1 do well. 



30 do well 



150 do well. 



The following table shows tlie number of pupils that had entered 
and left the school, up to Dec. 31, 1866 : 



Number of pupils on the 1st January, 

Entered during the year, 

Total, 

Left C Sent to the school ship, . . 

during the < Sent back to their tamilies, 

year. ( Died in the hospital, 

Present on the 31st of December, 



1863. 


1864. 


1865. 


— 


224 


256 


247 


102 


235 


247 


326 


491 


15) 
6^3 
2i 


53 ) 

15 V70 
2) 


42) 
25 f 71 
4) 


224 


256 


420 



420 
157 

577 

93 ) 

67 \ 162 
2) 

415 



THE INFLEXIBLE AND OTHER SCHOOL-SHIPS, AT BREST. 

For a long time the children of sailors were placed on board the 
vessels of the fleet, where they lived in a state of servitude, and 
frequently arrived at a mature age without being able to read or 
write, while the gasket of the sailor formed characters which would 
not yield to any moral suasion. It is only since 1822 that they 
received, before being placed on board the vessels, an elementary 
and professional instruction, and since that time the school-ship has 



580 NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 

become the principal seminary for naval officers. The children 
must be at least twelve years old and their parents pledge themselves 
not to take them away from the school till they have reached the 
age of eighteen. 

The school-ship, first established at Brest in 1823, was transferred 
to a corvette in 1836, to a frigate in 1851, and finally, in 1861, to 
the man-of-war, " V In flexible^'' where it numbers at present 900 
pupils from the age of 13 to 15. They remain here at least one and 
not more than two years, and receive a primary and professional in- 
struction. After leaving the school they are placed on vessels of 
the fleet, where they continue to be under the special superintend- 
ence of the naval department. Even here they go through a regu- 
lar course of instruction, given by one of the officers, and have 
thus an opportunity to continue the studies commenced on board 
the school-ship. 

It would lead us too far here to enumerate in detail all the ex- 
ercises performed on board the Inflexible. It will suffice to say 
that besides school instruction, the pupils are progressively accus- 
tomed to the practice of their profession, and learn everything which 
a sailor can be taught on board a vessel ; the washing and cleaning 
of the vessel and of their linen, the rigging of the mast, the ma- 
neuvering of sail-boats and row-boats, which occupations fill the 
morning hours. After dinner, which takes place at 11 o'clock, 
they go on board two brigs, w^here they study and execute alone all 
that constitutes the practical art of the sailor. 

It is not to be wondered at that these young sailors onboard the 
Inflexible get a liking for their occupation. Always in the open air, 
with good clothes, varied bodily exercises and abundant food, they 
acquire robust health and a thorough knowledge of their profession. 
Whilst two companies tack, two others go through military exer- 
cises with rifles or guns, taking them to pieces, lashing the pieces, 
and in various ways maneuvering with the mountain howitzer, .bayo- 
net-fencing, &c. Some go to the sail-maker's room and make ham- 
mocks. In 1857 there were selected 16 sail-makers and 20 steers- 
men from those in each company who showed most aptitude and 
taste for these specialties. This classification of the young sailors 
according to their professional ability, has produced very excellent 
results. 

More recently still (by an imperial edict of Aug. 11, 1868,) a 
special section of sailor apprentices has been formed on board the 
'•^Inflexible " for children, who have not the required size and strength, 
\taille ;) they are received into the school as apprentice sail-makers, 



NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 



581 
of 



carpenters and calkers. Pupils, after having reached the age 
sixteen, are transferred to the school-ship La Bretagne. 

The following table will give the statistics of this school to 1866. 







Left. 


Date of Admission. 


If 


6 b 


11 


Flying Top- 

(gahitrs vo- 
^ lants.) 


a 
2 . 

Is 
a, 
tn 


m 
^-s 


Total. 


Present April 1, 1861.. 


493 














Admitted in 1861 


275 


10 


.32 


32 


12 


10 


96 


" " 1862 


712 


30 


202 


66 


157 


54 


509 


« " 1863.... 


579 


30 


183 


115 


205 


38 


571 


" " 1864 


580 


31 


173 


152 


212 


'28 


596 


" " 1865.... 


545 


33 


191 


115 


186 


64 


589 


" 1866.... 


540 


39 


190 


110 


158 


72 


569 


Total .... 


3,724 


173 


971 


590 


930 


266 


2,930 



The chambers of maritime commerce at Bordeaux, Cette, Mar- 
seilles, Ajaccio, Havre, &c., have established similar nautical schools 
and placed them under the supervision of the government. 

NAVAL APPRENTICE SCHOOLS. 

There have been since 1824, in every one of the five naval sta- 
tions of France, elementary schools, intended to give to the appren- 
tices in the various workshops a degree of elementary knowledge, 
on the system of monitorial or mutual instruction. After some 
years of prosperity they were abandoned, in consequence of the great 
aversion then generally manifested against this method. The only 
one that remained 'was the school at Rochefort, which was under 
the superintendence of the Brothers of the Christian Schools. But 
in 1828 and 1829, under the ministry of Martignac, the Baronet 
Hyde de Neuville ordered their reestablishment. Every one of 
these schools organized itself in its own way, and it was only in 
1851 that a decree of April 7th prescribes uniform regulations. 

We have nothing to say here on these apprentice-schools, which 
are simply primary schools for adults, to which are added special 
schools for rowing. Their professional instruction is given in the 
various workshops of the port, to which they have been assigned; 
the apprentice school has had during the year 1866, 954 pupils. 



SCHOOLS OF BOATSW^AINS. 

The navy maintains schools called " ecole de maistrance " {mai- 
strance corps of under-ofiicers of a ship,) where a certain number 



582 NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 

of workmen from the arsenals, chosen by open competition., re- 
ceive the special theoretical instruction required for the boatswain 
and foremen of the various workshops. 

The origin of these establishments goes back as far as 1819. A 
circular from the Secretary of the Navy, the Baronet Portal, of 
Aug. iVth, decreed the establishment, at the ports of Brest, Roche- 
fort and Toulon, of special schools, in which a certain number of 
young workmen, destined for the "board of shipmasters" {mai- 
strance) and chosen from among the most intelligent ones, should 
go through a theoretical and practical course of ship-building. 
The same circular contained a provisional regulation, giving the 
rules to be observed in these schools. The number of pupils in 
each was limited to 12, of which 8 should be carpenters, 1 pulley- 
maker, 1 blacksmith, 1 locksmith, 1 cooper, &c. These pupils 
should be chosen from among the most intelligent and best-behaved 
apprentices and young workingmen. They must know reading and 
writing, have served two years in one of the ports, and be at least 
eighteen and not more than twenty years old. The supervision of 
these schools was confided to a naval engineer. 

We have just given an outline of the programme of admission 
required in 1819, because it is an official indication of the state of 
primary instruction at this period ; but the same regulation proves 
that it was too high yet, for the minister allowed, for the first two 
years, the hmit of age to be extended to 25 years. 

The course of instruction which was to be given, comprised the 
first elements of mathematics, elementary geometry, the first ele- 
ments of rectilinear trigonometry and the first elements of statics, 
&c. This course of studies was to last two years, and a system of 
examination and prizes was organized. 

It was generally supposed that such an organization would obtain 
great success, and that the advantages which it presented would 
attract many pupils. But such was not the esse. The working 
classes at that time were very much neglected, and there were very 
few who could read or write. Moreover the working men did not 
receive any pay whilst attending the school, and thirdly, there was 
no opportunity for these young men to perfect themselves in the 
practical exercises of their profession during the two years they 
studied the theory. The necessity of making some modification 
became clearer every day, and this was done by a royal decree of 
Feb. 9th, 1833. 

Instead of choosing the pupils, competition was substituted, and 
as the primary instruction had advanced, candidates were required 



NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 



683 



to be able to read fluently, to write neatly and correctly, and to be 
acquainted with the rudiments of arithmetic ; they must be work- 
ingraen of the first or second class, must be 21 years old and have 
served for three years in some port ; finally, they must furnish a 
certificate of their professional capacity, given by the foreman of 
theii" workshop, and countersigned by the director. 

The course of instruction was to last two years, but the theoreti- 
cal studies were confined to the first year ; the second year was 
exclusively devoted to the practical application of the various pro- 
fessions of the pupils, the number of whom was increased, the 
recruits coming to a great extent from the naval ports. Brest was 
to receive 24, Rochefort 14, and Toulon 14 ; 52 in all, instead of 36. 

In spite of the abolition of the limit of higher age, which gave a 
larger number of pupils access to the school, the recruiting of pu- 
pils still presented great diflaculties. These were partly obviated by 
admitting assistant boatswains, and even boatswains, who were paid 
by the day. This measure was productive of very happy results ; 
the number of pupils was soon increased and the studies were per- 
sued with greater vigor. 

The republican government, likewise, devoted its attention to 
these schools. A decree ordering a reorganization, was published 
April 23, 1856, and is to the present day in force. The conditions 
of admission were retained and extended to workingmen of the 
third class; the number of pupils assigned to each' post was some- 
what changed ; the course of instruction was to last two years ; 
during the first, the pupils spent the whole morning at the school, 
and during the second, only three mornings per week. Finally, it 
was agreed that the pupils were to be paid for the time which they 
devoted to the school, just as if they had worked in the dockyard. 



PROGRAMME OF INSTRUCTION. 



In order to make the scientific instruction of more practical use, 
the following programme was fixed for each year. 

First year. — Arithmetic, logarithms, square cube roots ; 2, geom- 
etry ; 3, elements of descriptive geometry ; 4, elements of algebra up 
to equations of the second degree ; 5, linear drawing ; the course of 
arithmetic and algebra lasted a month and a half, from 10 o'clock 
till noon, instruction in drawing from 8 till 10. The two last 
months of the year were employed in reviewing all that had been 
taught during the year, and in preparing for the examination. 

Second year. — 1, Common mechanics; 2, workshop accounts; 3, 
drawing. The course of mechanics and workshop accounts lasts 



584 NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 

two months. The half- day spent at the school is divided into three 
parts ; the first is occupied in drawing, and lasts two hours ; the 
second (either mechanics or workshop accounts) also two hours ; 
the remainder of the time is devoted to optional studies. When 
the course of mechanics and workshop accounts is finished, the 
pupils are divided into two sections ; the first comprises the carpen- 
ters, and workmen of similar rank ; the second the mechanicians and 
workers in metal. During two months and a half the professor of 
mathematics teaches the section that works in wood the applica- 
tion of geometry to the drawing of Avorking plans, explains to them 
all the details of the drawing of the frame, the stern, the bow and 
pieces, &c. He teaches them to calculate the deplacements from 
the centre of the keel, or metre-centre. Finally, the pupils are taken 
to the molding-loft, in order to trace there a vessel in its true 
dimensions under the directions of a drawing-master. The metal- 
workers receive instructions from the professors of mathematics, on 
the property and application of steam ; the functions of the various 
parts of a steam-engine ; the applications of descriptive geometry to 
the drawing of the different parts of the steam-engine, &c. 

The instruction in drawing receives in these schools all the 
attention which the development of naval construction demands. 
During the first year the pupils learn successively shading strokes 
of diff"erent thickness, simple and dotted ; the construction and use 
of ladders. After this preparation, which applies to all, they exe- 
cute professional drawings ; the carpenters, plans of vessels after a 
copy ; the mechanicians, plans of steam-engines and steam-boilers, 
&c. The time devoted to drawing during the second year is 
employed by the carpenters in drawing a fair copy of the complete 
furnishing material of a vessel, the details of the masting, the cap- 
stan, the helm, <fec. ; by the metal-workers in drawing a fair copy of 
the various machines. All these courses of instruction have been 
attended with satisfactory results ; most of the pupils who have not 
been able to draw a straight line before entering the school, on 
leaving can draw in a creditable manner the working-plan of a vessel 
as well as of the most complicated machines. 

From its foundation in 1819 till the end of 1862, the Ur.ho de 

maistrance at Brest has been attended by 429 pupils, viz. : 

2*75 pupils actually in the service, viz.: 34 pupils; 60 workingmen; 5t 
assistant boatswains; 100 boatswains; 24 paid boatswains. 
59 pupils died in the service, viz. : 5 pupils, 15 workingmen, 7 assistant boat- 
swains, 22 boatswains; T paid boatswains; 1 naval storehouse-keeper. 
95 pupils left or were discharged. 



Navigation and naval schools. 



585 



To get an idea of the manner in which the pupils pass the exam- 
ination on leaving, it will be seen from the following table, which 
shows the results in the school at Brest during the last five years, 
that the instruction given has not been lost. The same is the case 
at Rochefoit and Toulon. 



Years. 


Number of pupils who have attended the school. 


Total number 
of 




With great success. 


Successfully. 


With good results. 


Without result. 


pupils. 


1862 


6 


5 


13 


3 


27 


1863 


3 


4 


20 





27 


1864 


5 


5 


15 


4 


29 


1865 


3 


6 


14 


1 


24 


1866 


6 


9 


14 


— 


29 


Total, 


23 


29 


76 


8 . 


136 



SCHOOL FOR NAVAL ENGINEERS, STOKERS, etc. 

Since the introduction of steam into navigation, it is indispensable 
to have well-trained stokers and mechanicians, men who enjoy 
robust health, great presence of mind, prudence and an inventive 
genius when facing difiiculties, skill in working metals, a knowledge 
of elementary mathematics and its application to their labor. In 
order to prepare such men, two special schools have been established 
by an imperial edict of Sept. 24, 1860, one at Brest, on board the' 
Urania, and another at Toulon, on board the Jena. To be admitted 
to these. schools, the conditions must be fulfilled which are" required 
for the various grades in th.Q personnel of a steam vessel. 

In order to recruit these schools, all the blacksmiths, braziers 
and weighers, {ajusteurs) who belong to the annual contingent of 
the army, may be sent officially, or at their own request, to the 
ports of Toulon and Brest, to be incorporated in the companies of 
mechanics of the navy. Civilians are admitted by contracting a 
voluntary engagement as stokers. All, however, must undergo an 
examination in manual labor, to show their physical capacity. 

The course of instruction for stokers w^ho are candidates for the 
grade of quartermaster, comprises, 1, arithmetic up to and including 
the rule of three, and square roots ; 2, common geometry up to and 
including spherical bodies; 3, a concise knowledge of mechanics, 
and physics; 4, description and classification of steam-engines for 
vessels ; the adjusting of their various parts, a concise knowledge of 
the property of metals and their use ; 5, the practical management 
of machines, and steam-boilers; 6, the repairing of machines. 



686 



NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 



It is evident that this instruction attracts to the service of the 
navy many intelligent and industrious young mechanics who would 
not enter it, because, not possessing the special knowledge required, 
they would not run the chance of remaining for a long time in the 
lowest grade, viz. : that of working stoker, the only one to which 
their attainments would allow them to aspire. In following this in- 
struction, however, attentively and passing their examination success- 
fully, they obtain the rank of pupil mechanicians, and even of quarter- 
masters. In continuing their studies, they can rise still higher; 
their schools furnish them with the means, if they wish to become 
second boatswains. To the knowledge already acquired are added : 
1, arithmetical progression; 2, the whole of planimetry; 3, theoret- 
ical mechanics and physics ; 4, theory, description, regulation, and 
construction of steam-engines and steam-boilers ; 5, the working 
and repairing of machines. By further pursuing their studies and 
working diligently, they can rise from second to first boatswain, 
and may ultimately obtain the position of principal mechanician, 
with the rank of lieutenant on men-of-war, and even of captain on. 
corvettes, if they became chief mechanicians. The following table, 
giving the statistics of the school at Toulon, will show the success 
with which these schools have been attended. 





Number of pupils who have 


Number of pupils prepared at 


Number of pupils who were 
successful at the ex- 




attended the school dur- 


the school, who underwent 




ing the half-year. 




au examination. 


aminations. 


Designation of 
1 the different 


















graaes. 


COMPETITlOrr OP 




COMPETITION OF 


COMPETITIO!V OF . 




' 




■> 


' 




^ 


„ 


■* 


' 


, 


^ 




■• 




B 


|i 


11 


Nov. 
1865 

May 
18CB 


i 


11 


i! 


Is 


|i 


li 


|i 


11 


§.- 


S ' 


11 


m 


11 


For 










1st Boatswain, 


38 


.34 


35 


23 


19 


13 


29 


24 


26 


10 


14 


13 


15 


J 


i: 


H 


8 


1(> 


2d Boatswain, 






































(theoretical,) . 


49 


41 


44 


31 


13 


22 


31 


37 


31 


22 


11 


22 


18 


2--. 


IC 


9 


7 


19 


2d Boatswain, 






































(practical.).. 


.25 


29 


12 


4 


3 


3 


23 


15 


7 


4 


3 


3 


J6 


1( 




4 


3 


3 


Pupil Mechan- 








































6 


5 


23 


3 


— 


1 


4 


5 


J4 


2 


— 


' 


' 


- 




2 


~ 


I 


Quartermaster. 




(theoretical,). 


129 


124 


67 


36 


32 


19 


115 


108 


35 


34 


— 


12 


99 


9' 


27 


26 





11 


Quartermaster. 






































(practical,) . . 


4 


• 2 


— 


—I — 


— 


3 


2 


— 


— 


— 


~~ 


2 


£ 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Total 


251 


225 


181 


97 67 


5H 


205 


191 


113 


72 


28 


51 


151 


141. 


6-1 


49 


18 


44 



JsTote. — Since the 1st January, 1865, the number of candidates being too great, the number of 
pupils has been reduced, but may again be increased, when occasion demands it. 



NAVAL DRAV7ING SCHOOL. 

An edict issued by Napoleon I, Sept. 27th, 1810, established at 
Brest and Toulon, on board the Buqueme and the Tourville, draw- 
ing-schools for those who wished to enter the naval service, where 
theoretical and practical instruction was given. At the foundation 



NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. gQfj 

of the naval school at Augouleme in 1816, these drawing-schools 
were transferred to the shore, became less exclusive, and admitted 
to their gratuitous course all young men from these two great naval 
stations who wished to adopt the naval profession. They have 
always been very largely attended. 

SCHOOLS OF NAVIGATION AND HYDROGRAPHY. 

Long before the navy had acquired any importance, maritime 
commerce had been immensely developed. The coasting and ocean 
trade required experienced and well-informed sailors. There were 
therefore in the principal seaports, gratuitous schools of navi- 
gation, whose aim was to disseminate theoretical knowledge. These 
schools were well conducted from the year 1584, when Henry III 
issued the first ordinance on the subject, by which boatswains and 
captains of merchant vessels had to undergo an examination of 
qualifications ; but opportunities of instruction were wanting at that 
time, and it was reserved for Louis XIII to fill this void. 

During the memorable siege of La Rochelle, Cardinal Richelieu 
became convinced that the knowledge of a captain, to whom the 
State intrusts a merchant-vessel, ought not to be confined to the 
most simple rules of the art of navigation. He consequently, in 
January, 1629, published a decree, ordering the establishment of 
schools of hydrography, open to all who intended to study naviga- 
tion theoretically. The king himself engaged to maintain, at his 
own expense, a certain number of such schools, and encourage- 
ments were held out to all cities which would found such schools. 
The professors of hydrography were detained to assist at the 
examinations of captains, boatswains and coxswains. 

Such was the origin of the first professional instruction in navi- 
gation. Here, as in all institutions of learning, the instruction of 
manhood succeeded that of youth. If the orders of Louis XIII 
were not as generally executed as they deserved, they were instru- 
mental in producing a certain number of learned hydrographers, 
some of whom became the authors of the first treatises on naviga- 
tion ever published in the French language. 

A decree of Louis XI Y, (August, 1681,) another by Louis XV, 
(September 14, 1764,) and third by Louis XYI, (January 1, 1786,) 
show that the ancient monarchy did not lose sight of this branch 
of instruction. In the last mentioned decree, the Marquis of Castries, 
Secretary of the Navy, united under one common law all these 
establishments, whose organization was far from uniform. The 
professors were in future chosen by competition. Two chairs of 



588 NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 

" liydrographic examiners " were created, charged with the sujier- 
intendance of the instruction, to assist at the examinations. 

A decree of the National Assembly, which became a law, 
August 16th, 1791, decided that gratuitous schools of hydrography 
should be established at the expense of the State, in thirty-four 
different places. This decree was supplanted by others published 
a few years later, further regulating the course of instruction. 

During the wars of the first Empire, Napoleon I never forgot to 
extend the benefits of French institutions wherever his armies 
were victorious. To this circumstance several foreign seaports owe 
their excellent schools of navigation. 

The hydrographic instruction was completely reorganized by 
a royal edict of August 7, 1825, under the ministry of Count de 
Cbabrol. This is still in force with but few modifications. One 
professor is charged with giving instruction in each of the 42 schools 
of the Empire ; two examiners have charge of the general supervision 
of these schools, and hold the annual examinations. 

Instruction is gratuitous, and sailors can enter from the age of 
13 upwards, but they rarely attend them before they are 22 or 23 
years old. The professors, on five days of the week, impart instruc- 
tion for four hours a day. There are two difiPerent courses ; one 
superior and the other elementary; the first theoretical and practical, 
the other essentially practical. Wherever there is an observatory, 
the pupils are practiced in observations. 

The programme of the theoretical instruction comprises : for ocean 
voyages, elements of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, 
elements of astronomy, navigation, use of instruments and nautical 
tables, elementary knowledge of steam-engines, as applied to navi- 
gation, French composition ; for the coasting-trade, elements of 
practical arithmetic, geometry, practical navigation, elementary 
knowledge of steam-engines, nautical calculations. The examina- 
tions are annual, and no one is admitted to the practical examination, 
unless he has reached the age of 24, and has served five years on a 
French vessel. It comprises rigging, management of £ails, a 
knowledge of coasts, currents, tides, and gunnery. After the prac- 
tical examination has been successfully passed, the pupil must un- 
dergo the theoretical one. 

For the results produced by these establishments, the average 
attendance of the schools of navigation, and the number of 
sailors, who have become captains or boatswains, we refer to the 
following tables. 



NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 



589 



Number of sailors who have attended the schools of hydrography from 1849 to 
1866 ; of candidates who have obtained the rank of ^^ captain" for sea voyages, 
or " boatswain " for the coasting trade. 







NUMBER OF 


SAILORS. 




Scholastic Year. 


Pupils of the Schools. 


ADMITTED AS 








' 






(of the sea voyage.) 


(of the coasting- trade.) 


Total. 






Captains. 


Boatswains. 


1849-50 


1,307 


163 


331 


494 


1850-51 


1,347 


187 


369 


556 


1851-52 


1,344 


156 


325 


481 


1852-53 


1,324 


168 


317 


485 


1853-54 


1,255 


208 


292 


500 


1854-55 


999 


151 


178 


329 


1855-56 


1,116 


148 


182 


330 


1856-57 


1,804 


253 


493 


746 


1857-58 


1,907 


252 


426 


678 


1858-59 


1,568 


258 


354 


612 


1859-60 


1,525 


234 


278 


512 


1860-61 


1,424 


253 


263 


516 


1861-62 


1,422 


213 


244 


457 


1862-63 


1,424 


229 


252 


481 


1863-64 


1,571 


279 


276 


555 


1864-65 


1,410 


309 


260 


569 


1865-66 


1,205 


270 


278 


548 


Total, 


23,952 


3,731 


5,118 


8,849 


Ann. average, 


1,409 


219 


301 


520 



Ports where schools of hydrography are established, with the average number of 
pupils who annually attend every school^ collected from official documents since 
the year 1849. 



Dunkerque, 

Calais, 

Boulogne, 

Saint-Yalerie-sur-Somme, 

Dieppe, 

Fecamp, 

Le Havre, 

Rouen, 

Honfleur, 

Caen, 

Cherbourg, 

Granville, 

Saint-Malo, 

Saint-Brieue, 

Paimpol, 

Morlaix, 

Brest, 

Douarnenez, 

L'Orient, 

Yannes, 

Le Croisic, 



Number of 
pupils. 



58 
8 

7 
21 
11 
24 
39 

5 
11 
19 
70 
37 
116 
30 
28 
19 
74 

9 
94 
34 
27 




Saint-Nazaire, 

Nantes, 

Les Sables-d'Olonne 

La Rochelle, 

Rochefort, 

Blage, 

Bordeaux, 

Bayonne, 

Saint-Jean-deTLuz, . , 

Narbonne, 

Ogde, 

Cette, 

Aries, 

Marti gues, , 

Marseilles, , 

La Ciotat, 

Toulon, 

Saint-Tropez, 

Antibes, 

Nice 



Number of 
pupils. 



24 

77 
37 
11 
86 
27 
50 
17 
16 
29 
42 
24 
16 
13 
50 

8 
72 
20 
16 

9 
30 



590 



NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 



THE NAVAL SCHOOL AT BREST. 

Napoleon, in 1810-11, established the first naval school-ships in 
France, the Tourville being chosen for that purpose at Brest, and 
the Duguesne at Toulon. These schools were placed under the 
orders of the maritime prefects of the two ports. In 1816, these 
two schools were abolished by decree, and a royal marine college 
was established at Angouleme. Several other changes took place, 
and in 1830 the college was replaced by a naval school on board 
the Orion, an old 74 ; this vessel was succeeded by several others,, 
all of which have received the name of the second school-ship, the 
Borda, named after Captain Borda, a naval officer of great scientific 
and practical ability. The present ship is a noble three-decker, 
pierced for 120 guns, was launched in 1847, and took part in the 
Crimean war. 

The Borda is stationed at Brest, and its rigging has been reduced 
to that of a frigate. The forepart of the. second gun-deck of the 
vessel still retains something of its old character, and is provided 
with six guns on each side for practice. The other parts of the 
vessel have been completely altered ; the decks have been cut away, 
so as to form two large lecture-rooms and two school-rooms. Not 
only the pupils but also their, professors and most of the officers 
are lodged on board the vessel. On deck are specimens of various 
kinds of guns in use in the French navy, and a gymnasium. The 
quarter-deck, which is continued to the mainmast, is divided, the 
forepart being appropriated to the pupils, and the aft to officers. 

Candidates are admitted to this school after a public examina- 
tion, which occurs annually. For admission to the examination the 
applicant must prove his French birth — his being at least fourteen 
years of age and not over seventeen years, and his having no in- 
firmity that disables him for marine duty. 

The requirements for admission are a knowlege of arithmetic, 
algebra, geometry, plane trigonometry, applied mathematics, nat- 
ural philosophy, chemistry, geography, the English language, draw- 
ing. The candidates must prepare a composition in French, a trans- 
lation from Latin, an exercise in English, a numeral calculation in 
trigonometry, a geometrical drawing, and an off-hand sketch of a 
head. There are two oral examinations on the above studies, the 
second of which is not attempted if the first, which is elementary, 
is unsatisfactory. 

The commander of the Borda is a full captain, and the instruc- 
tion, which is practical as well as theoretical, is confided to eleven 



NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 59I 

professors, of whom five belong to the hydrographic department, 
eight are full lieutenants, and one a principal engineer. The duties 
of the five hydrographic professors are thus divided : — Two teach 
astronomy and navigation, two analytical and mechanical science, 
and the last natural philosophy and chemistiy. The duties of the 
other professors are thus arranged : — Two for literature, history and 
geography ; two for the English language ; and two for drawing. 
The lieutenants direct four courses of instruction, namely, naval 
architecture, the theory and practice of managing a ship, gunnery 
and small arms, with practice, and nautical calculations. The en- 
gineer professor teaches the theory and management of steam- 
engines and mechanics. The other officers are a captain of a frig- 
ate, (second in command,) a chaplain, a financial and an adminis- 
trative officer, and two medical men. Besides these, there is a 
captain of gunnery and several under-officers of the marine and 
artillery. 

The school sessions commence on the first of October, and on 
that day promotions of the pupils are made in the various classes. 
Those who have passed two years of study in the ship are called 
grand ancients, rank with naval aspirants of the second class, and 
are eligible to make a voyage of circumnavigation in another vessel 
* appropriated to that purpose ; pupils who have been one full year 
in the Borda are called ancients, and the rest new boys, or in French 
naval language, fistots. The boys have each a number, and in all 
the ordinary routine of the scbool-ship, this takes the place of a name. 

The elder pupils are employed as monitors over the younger, and 
each of the former has one or more allotted to him, not as a fag, 
but as a scholar, whom it is his duty to teach all he himself knows. 
It is said that the system succeeds admirably, and that for the first 
few months the instruction of the new comer is left almost entirely 
to his ancient ; the new pupil thus escapes without difficulty many 
errors of discipline into which he would otherwise inevitably fall. 

.The discipline of the school is severe; the boys rise every naorn- 
ing, all the year round, at five o'clock, stow away the hammocks in 
which they sleep, attend prayers, and then commence their morn- 
ing's work. 

They are well fed, having coffee or chocolate in the morning, 
dinner (old style) at 12 o'clock, a lunch of bread (gouter) at 4.30, 
and supper at 7.45, with bread a discretion, and about four-tenths 
of a pint of wine at each of the two principal meals. 

The morning studies are devoted to science ; those of noon to 
practice with guns, or practical study, marine machinery, or draw- 



592 NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 

ing ; and the evening to literature, the English language, or naval 
architecture. All the studies are pursued on board, with the excep- 
tion of natural philosophy and chemistry, the professor of which has 
at his command in the town the collection of instruments and 
chemicals, as well as the lecture-room and laboratory of the central 
pharmaceutical establishment. At times, also, the pupils are taken 
to visit the vessels in process of construction, and the workshops in 
the arsenal, and to practice with small arms on shore. 

There are eight boats attached to the Borda, and the pupils are 
practiced almost every day, and in all weathers, in rowing and sail- 
ing, under the eye of an oflBcer, who watches the exercises from on 
board a small steam-gunboat attached to the school. The ordinary 
studies of the school end between six and seven in the evening, and 
the pupils turn in at nine o'clock for their eight hours' rest. 

Thursday and Sunday, as u'sual in France, are exceptional days, 
when, after nautical calculations, (which are never omitted,) the 
elder pupils or ancients practice with small arms on shore, and the 
juniors are drilled in the use of the sword, musket, and bayonet. 
After this they have six hours' hard work in maneuvering two small 
corvettes, provided for the purpose, that belonging to the ancients 
being a screw-steamer. 

The boys, as a rule, are at liberty on alternate Sundays, and the 
most advanced every Sunday afternoon. This is a recent innova- 
tion ; the pupils used to be free scarcely more than once a month ; 
but this gave rise to much discontent and some disturbance, and the 
rule has, therefore, been made less severe. In addition to this lib- 
erty, however, all the lads are allowed to see their friends for a short 
period during the exercises on shore on Sunday and Thursday morn- 
ings, and those who are not free on Sunday are taken on shore for 
a change in the afternoon. During the summer months the boys 
bathe in the sea. 

A peculiar custom exists in the school — the boys are allowed to 
smoke during the hour of recreation after dinner, and at certain 
other times ; and for this reason, that as it was found utterly im- 
possible to stop the practice entirely, it was deemed better to recog- 
nize it in moderation, and thus stop its secret indulgence and the 
attendant danger of fire. 

The punishments inflicted in the school are extra drill and con- 
finement, either in a small cell or in a dark hole, with a regimen of 
bread and water ; for very grave offences, boys are dismissed or ex- 
pelled. On the other hand, the marks for good conduct are nu- 
merous ; there are several examinations in the various classes during 



NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 593 

the nine months of the school year, and those pupils who gain the 
greatest number of marks are called eleves d^elite, and wear a gold 
anchor on their collars, or, in the case of the first twelve, two an- 
chors ; the pupil who has gained the largest number of marks bears 
the high but merely nominal rank of first brigadier, and he who 
enters the school with the greatest success at the examination is 
called major. A general examination takes place at the end of the 
year, when the ancients who pass become aspirants in the navy, and 
the juniors are raised to the upper class in the school; those who 
fail in the examination are either sent back to their class, or rejected 
as unfit for the naval career. The first and second prizemen, on 
quitting the school, receive each a quadrant in the name of the Em- 
peror, and the third a telescope. * 

The elder pupils have nearly three months' holiday, but the junior 
pass a month on board another vessel, the Bougainville, for what is 
called the summer campaign. This vessel, which was constructed 
specially for the school, is a screw dispatch-boat with engines of 
120 horse power; the summer voyage is settled by the Minister of 
Marine, and includes a visit and examination of the ports of L'Orient 
and Cherbourg, touching at some remarkable points of the French 
coast, sometimes casting anchor off the English coast, and some- 
times running as far as Ferrol in Galicia. 

The grand ancients, when their holidays are over, that is to say 
on the first of October, join the Jean Bart, which makes an annual 
voyage of several months' duration. This boat was built in 1852 
and made its first voyage of this kind in 1864-5. She is an 80-gun 
ship, of the mixed class, having engines of 450 nominal horse- 
power. In August of the present year she will have completed her 
fourth and last voyage of circumnavigation, another vessel, the 
Donawert, now being prepared to succeed her. The upper gun- 
deck of the Jean Bart is disarmed, and converted for the use of a 
part of the officers and the pupils, who number about a hundred, 
and occupy eight cabins, each with two portholes; here the young 
men eat, and drink, and sleep, as well as pursue their studies. 

The officers of the Jean Bart consist of a full captain in com- 
mand, a second captain, a chaplain, ten lieutenants, one having 
charge of each pupil's cabin, or poste, as it is called, and two giving 
instruction in sailing and gunnery ; a surgeon-major, who gives in- 
structions respecting the means of keeping a crew in health ; two 
assistant- surgeons, an engineer, a drawing-master, and some others. 

The Minister, as in the case of the summer cruise of junior 

pupils, settles the course to be taken by the Jean Bart. Generally 

38 



594 NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 

the West India islands are visited in the months of March and 
April, when the pupils are principally exercised in hydrographical 
works off St. Pierre and Fort de France ; in gunnery on board, and 
small-arms on shore ; in the daily management of boats for em- 
barkation and disembarkation ; and in the management of sails in 
the intricate channels of the archipelago. They are shown, more- 
over, how to perform difficult operations, such as the unshipping of 
the rudder and bringing it on deck for examination, lifting a mast, 
&c. The pupils are required to keep written records of all such 
operations, and to illustrate the narrative when necessary with 
drawings. When they visit foreign yards and arsenals, they are 
expected to give minute accounts of what they have seen there, and 
besides a daily journal, to write*critical notices of all the different 
machines, methods of rigging, and maneuvers, which they have 
witnessed. 

The difficult channel of the Isle St. Sebastian, off the coast of 
Brazil, that of the Bermudas, the river Hudson, and the coast of 
Newfoundland, are among the places selected to initiate the pupils 
in the difficulties of navigation. At Annapolis, in the Chesapeake, 
a visit is paid to the National Naval School of the United States at 
the season when the general examinations take place in that estab- 
lishment. The voyage usually terminates with a visit to Cape 
Breton and some points of Newfoundland ; the fisheries and drying- 
houses of St. Pierre and Miquelon are generally visited, and the 
Jean Bart returns to Brest between the 1st and 5th of August, 
having been absent ten months. A sailing brig named the Ohligado 
has lately been attached to the Jean Bart as a supplementary vessel. 



SCHOOL OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AT PARIS. 

The construction of ships and engines in the French naval service 
is intrusted to the Corps of Marine Engineering, [Ccrrps du Genie 
Maritime^ consisting of 121 officers, viz., 1 inspector-general, 10 
directors of naval construction, 40 marine engineers, and 70 assist- 
ant engineers. 

This corps is recruited from the graduates of the Polytechnic, 
and having passed satisfactorily the required examination for the 
public service, are sent to the School of AppUcation of Naval Engi- 
neering at Paris, and to the dockyards, to learn their special busi- 
ness. The usual number in attendance is 30, and the annual cost 
of the school is about 100,000 francs. 

The course occupies two years and a-half— three winters in Paris 



NAVIGATION AND NAVAL SCHOOLS. 595 

and two summers in the dockyards. The pupils having a good gen- 
eral education and a complete special knowledge of mathematics and 
geometrical drawing, the courses are from the start eminently prac- 
tical. 

The instruction in Paris during the first session consists of: 1, a 
course on construction ; 2, on displacement and stability ; 3, on 
strength of materials ; 4, English ; 5, free-hand drawing ; 6, plan- 
drawing of vessels. During the second session it consists of : 1, a 
practical course on steam-engines ; 2, a theoretical course on steam ; 
3, applied mechanics, machines in general ; 4, English; 5, accounts; 
6, plan-drawing, ships and engines ; 7, pictorial drawing. During 
the third session: 1, course on stability, (2d part;) 2, on naval 
architecture ; 3, naval artillery ; 4, technology of workshops special 
to the navy ; 5, accounts ; 6, English ; 7, plan-drawing, projects for 
ships ; 8, free-hand drawing. 

In the first year ship -building is taken up ; in the second, the 
steam-engine, and in the third the two are combined and completed. 
When in the dockyards, the pupils are placed under the order of the 
engineer in charge of works in execution, who sees that they are 
attentive to their duty, and have proper instruction. He also ex- 
amines and certifies the journals which the pupils have to keep. 
The director of the school gives each pupil detailed instruction to 
guide him in the choice of the practical work he shall attend to. 
The first summer is devoted to the construction of ships, the second 
to that of engines. The pupils select the ports to which they will 
go, according to their standing in their class. 

At the end of two years and a half, the pupils are examined by 
a board, and if found qualified, they are appointed assistant engi- 
neers of the third class; If they fail to pass, they may be allowed 
another year — but failing in that, they are definitely rejected. 

The private pupils, natives or foreigners, who to the number of 
eight are allowed to attend the course in Paris, may obtain permis- 
sion to go through the whole practical course in one of the imperial 
dockyards, but are not subjected to the same discipline as the reg- 
ular pupils. On leaving, they receive from the director a certificate 
of the course gone through, their talent and diligence. 

The school is under the immediate orders of a Director of Naval 
Construction, who is also one of the professors, and is assisted in 
the several branches taught by other professors, who are marine 
engineers, and a special teacher of drawing, and another of the 
English language. 



596 SPECIAL IXSTRTTCTION IN FRAITCE. 

MARITIME COXSCRIPTION. 

The French naval service is supplied by a system of conscription 
analogous to that for the army. All persons, who reside on the coast, 
whose labor is on the sea, or on navigable rivers reached by the tide, 
are enrolled on arriving at the age of eighteen, and are liable to be 
summoned to the naval service until they are fifty, for an aggregate 
period of seven years. 

SCHOOLS OF MARINE ARTILLERY. 

There is at Brest, Toulon, and L'Orient, schools of marine artil- 
lery, besides floating schools at Brest and Toulon, for practice at firing 
at a mark at sea. 

BOARD OF HTDROGRAPHERS. 

The Board of Hydrographers is located at Paris. Pupils who 
have completed the polytechnic course enter the corps with the I'ank 
of eleve hydroyrophe, with the same rank and advantages as naval 
architects. They are sent to the coast to make surveys, and after 
two years service in the field, and in oflBce work under special instruc- 
tion, become assistant hydrogi'aphers without fiirther examination. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 597 

NEW LABORATORIES AND FACILITIES OP PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 
The example of Prussia in enlarging and equipping with every new appli- 
ance of original investigation, the chemical laboratories at Berlin and Bonn, has 
already been followed with similar improvements and enlargements in France. 
The Minister of Publiclnstruction, in his report for 1868, states, "that while the 
laboratories of instruction in the Museum of Natural history, the Sorbonne, 
and the School of Medicine, are receiving improvements and enlargements, 
means have been obtained from the Corps Ltgislmif to establish new labora- 
tories of research — those arsenals of science, which will assure the perpetuity 
of scientific progress, around which professors of renown will gather a limited 
number of pupils, well grounded in theoretical knowledge, and accustomed to 
the use of instruments and elementary manipulation, who will practice under 
direction and example, the art of observation and the method of experimen- 
tation." The essential and novel condition of these laboratories, will be that 
the professors in charge will have entire liberty to carry on their own labors, as 
well as the studies of their pupils, without reference to any official programme 
as they may believe most advantageous to science and the arts. 

NEW PRACTICAL SCHOOL OF HIGHER STUDIES. 

The crowning feature of this new movement is the establishment of a new 
practical school {VEcole pratique des Haides Etudes^) of science. The instruc- 
tion is not limited to chemistry, as its connection with the new laboratories 
might imply, while the new and enlarged laboratories are to be open for 
instruction, manipulation, and practical experiment to pupils of the new school. 
The school itself is divided into four sections : 1. Mathematics ; 2. Natural 
Philosophy and History; 3. Natural History and Physiology; 4. Historical 
study and Philological Science. 

No condition, with respect to age, grade or nationality is prescribed, but all 
candidates must go through a probationary stage of three months or more, when 
they will be classified by the du-ector assisted by a permanent commission. 

The pupils are not to be gathered into a separate establishment either for 
residence or instruction, but will be grouped into the special schools, which are 
to be developed in connection with existing educational establishments. 

The pupils of the mathematical section will be admitted to courses at the 
observatory where they will be initiated into tlie theoretical knowledge that 
astronomical mathematics demand, as well as in the use of all the instruments 
emploj^ed, thus forming a veritable school of astronomy. 

The pupils in the section of historical and philological science will not only 
study the literature and general history of antiquity, the middle ages, and 
modern times, but their course will embrace archeology, the science of language, 
paleography, comparative and general grammar, criticism of history, &c. 

The students of natural history will find in the enlarged and re-equipped 
laboratories of the Museum of Natural History, every facility of direction, 
instruction and experimentation for the study of animal and vegetable produc- 
tion, which the most advanced school of agriculture could give, and which the 
most curious and zealous agriculturalist could desire. 

A grand director is to be appointed by the Emperor, on the nomination of 
the Minister of Public Instruction, and m the same way a special du'ector for 
each section and for each laboratory. 



598 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 

The report submitted to the Emperor, July 31, 1868, briefly enumerates the 
reasons which have led to the establishment of this new practical school of 
higher studies {icole pratique des liautes etudes,) and enumerates the places 
where and under whose auspices the instruction is given. 

The main object has been to unite the pupils of our great schools who pre- 
pare themselves for the licentiate degree, or who show a decided vocation and 
special scientific aptitude, in order to give them not only the benefit of the gen- 
eral teacliing of the faculty they have chosen, but also the special counsels of 
the best authorized professors of the country and the means of testing the theory 
by practice at any time or to make personal researches on any scientific ques- 
tion. Professors of tried knowledge are constantly ready to supplement the 
regular teacher and to render, to a certain degree, his instruction constant. 

TI)e superior council held its first session, Nov. 3, 1868, and special com- 
mittees appointed by the Minister of Pubhc Instruction examined the can- 
didates. Of these there were 342. The total number of those who registered 
their names for examination was 422, divided among the following four sec- 
tions: mathematics, physics and chemistry, natural sciences, history and phi- 
lology. The examination has reduced the original fist somewhat, but new 
names are registered every day. For the two sections of chemistry and nat- 
ural sciences, 27 laboratories have been prepared for instruction and researches, 
and 265 students work there regularly from day to day. The following is the 
distribution of work iu the different sections.* 

I. THE SECTIONS OF PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY AND OF NATURAL SCIENCES. 
LABORATORIES FOR INSTRUCTION. 

Physics. 
The laboratory instituted in the faculty of sciences, opened Dec. 15 — Prof. 
Desains. The students are instructed in the handling of physical instruments, 
and go through a series of classical experiments relating to heat, fight, electric- 
ity, magnetism, and acoustics. Hours of study : Monday, Wednesday, Thurs- 
day, and Friday, from 9 to 11. 

Chemistry. 

The laboratory of the College de France, opened Dec. 10 — Prof. Balard. The 
students make general chemical experiments and practice analytical chemistry. 
Hov.rs of study : Every week-day from 11 to 5, 

The laboratory of the Museum of Natural History, opened Dec. 1 — Prof. 
Fremy. General chemical experiments and qualitative and quantitative analy- 
sis. Hours of study: Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, from 11 to 5. 

The laboratory of the Faculty of Sciences, opened January 11 — Prof. St. 
Claire Deville. Experiments in organic chemistry applied to physiology; 4= 
hours each per week. 

Mineralogy. 
The laboratory of the Faculty of Sciences, opened Dec. 12 — Prof. Delafosse. 
The students practice determining mineral specimens and crystalfine forms by 
means of the soldering-pipe, recipiangle, and polarization apparatus. Hours of 
study: from 2.30 to 4.30 (Thursday.) 

Geology. 
The laboratory of the Faculty of Sciences, opened Nov. 30 — Prof. Hebert. 
The students practice determining specimens of rock and characteristic fossils 
from the different geological strata. Hours of study : Thursday, from 1.30 to 3.30. 

Botany. 
The laboratory of the Museum of Natural History, opened in April — Pro- 
fessors Brogniart and Decaisne. The studies consist chiefly in dissecting plants, 
in microscopic observations, and various other processes employed in the study 

* Expose de la situation de I'Empire, 1869. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 



599 



of the anatomy and physiology of plants, analysis of original essays, &c. ; in 
collecting plants, and scientific conferences devoted to the arranging and classi- 
tyiiig of the plants collected by each student. 

The laboratory of the Faculty of Sciences, opened in March — Pi-of Duchartre. 
The students practice microscopic exercises and analytical anatomy of plants. 

The laboratory of the Faculty of Medicine, opened Dec. 14 — Prof Baillon. 
The pupils practice anatomical manipulations and observations ; during summer, 
weekly botanical excursions, followed by conferences. Hours of study: Every 
day, from 12 to 4. 

Anatomical and Physiological Zoology. 
The laboratory of the Museum of Natural History, opened Dec. 2 — Prof 
Milne Edwards. The studies consist in : — 1, Microscopic observations, dissect- 
ing experiments, &c., arranged in such a manner as to make the students thor- 
oughly acquainted with a series of animals representing the principal geological 
types, and the mode of action of their various organs; 2, in exercises relating 
to the determining of the zoological character and the way of employing the 
methods of classification ; 3, in graphic exercises, description of anatomical 
specimens, analysis of original essays, &c. Hours of study : Every day, from 
11 to 2, Every Thursday, at 7.30 P. M., scientific conference. 

Histology. 
Exercises relating to the employment of the microscope for the study of the 
internal structure of the constitutive tissue of animals, are held at the labora- 
tory of Prof Milne Edwards at the museum, under the direction of Prof. Robin, 
every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, at S P. M. 

Physiologij. 
The laboratory of the Faculty of Sciences, opened Dec. 25 — Prof Bert. Rep- 
etition and classical experiments in physiology. 

LABORATORIES FOR RESEARCH. 

Students who are qualifi.ed for scientific investigations are admitted to the 
following laboratories : 

The laboratory of physics at the Faculty of Sciences — Prof Jamin. 

The laboratory of mineralogical chemistry at the College de France — Prof 
Balard. 

The laboratory of organic chemistry at the College de France — Prof Ber- 
thelot. 

The laboratory of general chemistry at the Museum of Natural History — 
Prof Fremy. 

The laboratory of mineralogical chemistry at the Superior Normal School — 
Prof St. Claire Deville. 

The chemical laboratory at the Faculty of Medicine — Prof Wurtz. 

The geological laboratory at the Faculty of Sciences — Prof Hebert. 

The laboratory of the natural history of inorganic bodies at the College de 
France — Professors Ehe de Beaumont and St. Clair Deville. 

The botanical laboratory at the Museum of Natural History — Profs. Brogniart 
and Decaisne. 

The laboratory of general physiology at the Museum — Prof Claude Bernard. 

The zoological laboratory at the Museum of Natural History — Prof Milne 
Edwards. 

The laboratory of comparative anatomy at the Museum of Natural History — 
Prof Gervais. 

The laboratory of histology at the Faculty of Medicine — Prof Robin. 

The laboi-atory of experimental medicine at the College de France — Prof 
Claude Bernard. 

The special laboratory of experimental physiology of Dr. Marey. 

A lecture-hall for the use of the students of the physico-chemical section at 
the Faculty of Sciences, open every day from 10 to 4. 



600 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 



n. THE SECTION OF MATHEMATICS. 



Directors. — Messrs. J. Bertrand, Briot, Delaunay, Serret, Puiseux, professors 
of the Paris Faculty ofSciences. Repeiiteur. — Dr. Didon, 

The pupils of this section who have been licensed, can be, admitted to the 
mathematical course of the Superior Normal School. A hall for studies and 
conferences is reserved for their use at this school, and the scientific hbrary is 
open for them. 

m. THE SECTION OP HISTORY AND PHILOLOGY. 
History. 
Director of Studies. — Alfred Maury, professor of history and morals at the 
College de France. 
Repetitturs. — Monod and Rambeau, of the Normal Superior School. 

Egyptian Philology and Archceology. 
Director. — De Rouget, professor at the College de France. 

Greek Philology, Go~eelc and Q-riental Archaeology. 
Z^zVecfor.— Waddington, member of the Institute. 

Repetlteur. — Tournier, who gives a supplementary course of lectures on Greek 
literature. 

Roman Antiquities. 
Director. — Leon Renier, professor at the College de France. 
Repetiteur. — Dr. MoreL 

Latin Philology. 
Director. — Boissier, professor at the College de France and the Superior Nor- 
mal School. 

Repetiteur. — Dr. MoreL 

Comparative Philology. 
Director. — Breal, professor at the College de France. 

Repetiteur for Sanscrit. — Hanvette-Besnault ; assistant repetiteur, Berguigne. 
Repetiteur for the Semitic languages. — Guyard, assistant librarian of the 
Asiatic Society. 

Repetiteur for the Romanic langvjiges. — Dr. Gaston Paris. 

A hall for lectures and conferences is at the disposal of the students, in the 
library of the Sorbonne. 

Students of the historical section who have been licensed, can be admitted 
to the course of history at the Superior Normal School. 

The establishment of a fifth section (of economical sciences) is contemplated. 
It is not intended to confine the practical school of higher studies to Paris, but 
steps have been taken to establish laboratories at an early date in the larger 
provincial towns. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. gQl 



INDUSTRIAL ART MUSEUMS. 

There is in France no specific Museum of Ornamental Manufactures, although 
one is now projected by the Union Centrale dts Beaux Arts appliques a i' Indus- 
trie^ but there are a number of collections which are made useful in teaching 
and studying the various manufactures involving artistic ornamentation, and 
in increasing a feeling and appreciation of art- workmanship. Of these, we 
notice briefly the principal ones. 

1. Collection, of Marbles and Plasters at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. — This col- 
lection originated in the purchase by the government, in 1828, of the orna- 
mental specimens collected in Rome by M. Dufourny, an architect of the latter 
part of the last century. It now includes many casts of architectural objects, 
illustrating nearly all the renowned temples of Greece and Rome, arranged in 
accordance with exact measurements obtained at great expense. Among these 
may be mentioned large portions of the Parthenon, the Erechtheium, the facade 
of the Pandrosium complete, the choragic monument of Lysicrates complete, 
and great capitals and entablatures complete from many of the Roman temples. 
There is a large portion of the Arch of Titus. The facade of the Chateau de 
Gaillon has been transported hither from Normandy. Besides, in M. Dufour- 
ny's collection were many fragments of ancient marbles. The cost was origi- 
nally about £2,000, but it is now considered worth £20,000. 

2. Collection at the Conservatoire des Af-ts et Metiers. — This institution is 
intended to encourage the growth of the mechanical arts and trades, and lec- 
tures are given there upon geometry, mechanics, physics, chemistry, agriculture 
and political economy, and lessons in mechanical drawing, to a large and grow- 
ing class. It has a library of 15,000 books on the industrial arts, a vast collec- 
tion of machinery, and a Salle de PortefeuiUe, with about 12,000 drawings of 
machinery and 20,000 brevets of inventions, all freely accessible to the public 
at all times, for the purpose of making drawings or tracing. There are two 
lecture-rooms, one of which will accommodate 1,200 visitors, the other 250. 

3. Collections in the Louvre. — In the Louvre, besides the famous gallery of 
paintings, too well known to need description, there are distinct museums of 
marbles, plasters, paintings, drawings, prints, enamels, pottery, glass, bronzes, 
naval and other curiosities and antiquities. 

The collection of casts is not large, nor is that of marbles and antiques. 
There are in this very few specimens of ornamental art. 

The museum of enamels is a mixed collection of objects of all kinds, deco- 
rated with painters' and jewelers' work of this sort, with an excellent cata- 
logue, constituting a valuable history of the whole subject. Among the articles 
are many illustrating other arts besides that of enameling. 

The Musee de la Renaissance was begun as early as the beginning of the 1 6th 
century, and contains, in five apartments, specimens of French sculpture, more 
particularly of figures and ornaments, plate and jewelry being considered of minor 
importance. The five apartments are named after five sculptors — Francheville, 
Anguiers, Jean Goujon, Jean de Douaj*, and Michel Colombo, and contain the 
works of these and other distinguished Frenchmen.' 

The Musee de la Marine is a valuable collection of various objects connected 
with ship-building, navigation, &c., such as models of various vessels and ma- 



602 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 

chines, relief-plans and drawings of harbors, ports and piers, fire-arms, scientific 
instruments, sextants, and relics connected with French naval history. One 
room is filled with curiosities from the East, captured in various expeditions, 
forming the foundation of an ethnographical museum. 

We will merely mention the following collections : Antiquities from Assyria, 
Asia Minor. Egypt, Algeria, and America; engravings; antique terracottas con- 
taining 12,000 specimens, mostly from Etruscan tombs, many cinerary urns 
among them ; a very extensive and valuable collection of drawings. 
• 4. Museum of the Hotel de Clugny. — " This is the nearest collection to a mu- 
seum of ornamental manufactures in France." It was first formed by M. de 
Somraerard, and opened to the public in 1843. It is essentially, however, a 
historical museum, and the arrangement was planned with a view to this. It 
contains nearly 3,000 objects or groups of objects of sculpture in all materials, 
painting, glass painting, enamels, pottery, glass, jewelry, clock-work, locks, 
arms and armor, weapons used in the chase, engraved and chased iron-work, 
tapestry, embroidery, church ornaments, mosaics, bronze, &c., the greater part 
belonging to the sixteenth century. In the garden are many fragments of me- 
diaeval architecture. 

In the old hall of the Roman baths, in the back court of the building, are the 
scanty remains of the Roman period found in Paris. 

5. The Musee Ceramique is connected with the porcelain manufactory at 
Sevres, not far from Paris. It contains some thousands of objects illustrating 
the history and art of ceramic manufacture, the various classes comprehending 
articles in pottery and porcelain, glass, painted glass and enamel. There is a 
nearly complete set of plaster casts of the best productions of the manufactory, 
copies of these casts being for sale. "The arrangement is purely scientific, 
illustrating the physical development of the art, the nature and order of discov- 
er}^ of pastes and glazes." The orders and sub-orders are classified geographi- 
cally and chronologically. 

The collection was commenced by M. Brogniart in 1800, and is now valued 
at 500,000 'francs, although having been acquired by exchange it has not cost 
more than one-tenth of that sum. 

6. Musee dArtillerie. — This museum, connected with the Depot Centrale 
cf Artillerie^ contains about 4,000 objects illustrating the science of artillery, 
mostly weapons, many of them of historical interest. 

7. The Museum of Natural History at the Jardin des Plantes is very valuable 
and extensive, and needs no special notice in this place. 

8. The Gobelins contains, in the exhibition-rooms connected with it, a small 
number of tapestries of its own manufacture, designed chiefly after celebrated 
pictures. 

9. Collections at Lyons and Eouen. — In the Museum of Antiquities at Lyons 
are casts, bronzes, and a good collection of ancient glass. At Eouen, in several 
collections, are casts, architectural models, pictures, and an archseological mu- 
seum, called the Norman Museum. 

Since the above sketch of existing Museums of Art was in type, we have 
received additional information of the progress of the Union Centrale in estab- 
lishing a Museum on the plan of the South Kensington Museum, Loudon. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE 603 

UNION CENTRALE. 

The Union Cenirale of the Fine Arts applied to Industry, instituted in 1862, 
is vigorously prosecuting the following objects : 1. The establishment of a per- 
manent Museum of Industrial Art, with a hall and class-rooms for evening lec- 
tures and courses for artisans and designers; 2. An annual exhibition of the 
products of the workshops and art-schools of France, with prizes for artistic 
excellence in form, color, and adaptation ; 3. A library of publications on art 
and art manufocture. The annual exhibition in 1866 was attended by 215,000 
visitors, and the profits of $20,000 were applied to the museum and library. At 
the distribution of prizes in 1867, the Minister of Public Instruction presided, 
and addressed the members and visitors on "the necessity of illuminating and 
enriching the thoughts and aspirations of the w^orkingman, be he called artist 
or artizan, as well as training his hand to greater skill." In another address, 
the same minister (M. Duruy) cites the example of Switzerland in giving a good 
general education to all classes, and .special scientific training to all workingraen, 
as worthy of the imitation of France. 

DfTERXATIONAL CONFEREXCE OX ART EDUCATION. 

Under the auspices and in the councQ-room of the Union Centrals, a confer 
ence was held at the close of the annual exhibition of art applied to industries, 
in 1869, in which eminent professors and artists from Brussels, London, ^Tienna, 
Stuttgard, Munich, Nuremberg, Berlin, and other cities, participated. The fol- 
lowing conclusions were reached : 

First. — Of the character and conditions of modem productions in industrial 
art, the congress is of opinion : — (1.) That the dominant artistic character of con- 
temporary production is essentially unsettled, on account of ill-advised over- 
production. (2.) That the necessity for the production of large quantities of 
articles, in great variety, and at low prices, from the introduction of machinery 
and division of labor, is, in general, in contradiction to the true sentiment of art 
in the objects produced. Also,'l. That an exaggerated value is attributed to 
organization, to the detriment of individual action. 2. That apparent material 
perfection, and the admiration for details, are sought for, to the detriment of 
general harmony. 3. That the discoveries of science are often apphed without 
sufficient comprehension. 

Second. — Of public taste and its influence on production, and the means of 
developing and improving it, the congress considers that public taste is the 
reflection of the intellectual and moral condition of society, and that the prin- 
cipal causes of its insufficiency and fickleness are: — 1. The tendency to make 
the sentiment of art subordinate to the material perfection of w^orkmanship ; 
and 2. The general tendency towards apparent rather than real quahties. These 
causes united necessarily exercise a deplorable influence on production, and the 
congress is of opinion that the only mode of remedying such a state of things 
is the introduction of a new, general, and complete system of education in mat- 
ters of art, which shall propagate the soundest notions in all classes of society. 

T/iird. — Of the actual organization, and of the development to be given to 
the study of the arts of design; of the direction of such study; of professors, 
of methods, and of examples or copies ; the congress is of opinion that the 
actual organization of such instruction is not on a level with the wants of the 
age, because: — 1. The examples which tradition furnishes are not sufficiently 
known, and generally badly interpreted — their spirit is misunderstood for want 
of education. 2. The study of nature is generally insufficient and ill-directed. 

The congress declares : — 1. That preparatory instruction in drawing should 
be introduced in primary education. 2. That the development of the sentiment 
of art should be commenced in early youth, by the beautiful in all its forms 
being daily presented to the child's eye. 3. That greater and entirely new im- 



g04 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 

portance should be given to museums of instruction in villages as well as in 
towns. The congress is of opinion that instruction in drawing should form a 
part of the obligatory programme of primary instruction. It desires to express 
its profound conviction that in art-education there should be no division ; that 
the unity of art should be the only law and principle of instruction. 

Primary Instruction. 
The congress can not recognize the present principle of primary instruction, 
which is limited to the servile and textual imitation of copies. It' is of opinion 
that the pupils in the common schools should, from the very outset, have placed 
before them those elementarj'- geometric models which constitute the alphabet 
of form, as well as the simplest common objects, with the indispensable aid of 
the teachers' oral explanations. 

Seconaary Instruction. 
The congress finds the present system of secondary instruction objectionable, 
on account of the abuse which is made of drawing copies ; and it declares it to 
be its opinion that intellectual interpretation (the reduction or amplification of 
the model or copy,) reproduction from memory, and choice of the models of 
execution, should take the place of literal and servile copying. 

Professional Instruction. 
With respect to professional instruction, the congress expresses a desire that 
in the schools general instruction in art should take the place of anj' industrial 
iapplication to meet a special demand. It can not but regard all premature 
workmanship as dangerous to art, and injurious to the pupil's future career. 

Professors for Normal Schools. 
The congress recommends the extension of instruction in drawing in the 
Normal schools for primary teachers, under special professors: and for this pur- 
pose that a superior normal school for training such professors be established. 

Methods, Models, and Copies. 

The congress does not recommend nor prescribe any particular method, ex- 
cept to guard against and discourage all those in which the employment of 
mechanical and abbreviated processes dispenses with the direct, personal, and 
attentive observation of the pupil. 

The employment of printed copies, which possess the serious fault of substi- 
tuting the stud}'- of picturesque effect, which is but an accidental character, for 
that of form, which is a permanent one, is condemned. 

Fourth. — On a comparative examination of the experiments tried in various 
countries to further the progress of industrial art, the development of public 
taste, and the improvement of instruction in the arts of design, the congress 
recognizes with satisfaction : — 1. That during the last few years there has been 
an awakening of public opinion which directed civilized nations towards the 
extension and progress of art industries, the improvement and generalization 
of instruction in the arts of design, and the development of a taste inseparable 
from an action favorable to morality. 2. That under the influence of this ex- 
cellent spirit, efforts have been constantly made by governments, societies, and 
individuals, which have already given rise to the creation of important institu- 
tions — schools, societies, museums, &c. 

The congress is of opinion : — 1. That it is important to give effect to the prop- 
osition made at the time of the Universal Exhibition of 1867, that each country 
should cause copies of the artistic objects in its possession, and endeavor, by all 
possible means, to make them known and used in other countries. 2. That 
serious endeavors be made to improve the condition of professors devoted to 
instruction in the arts of design, because upon that condition depends essen- 
tially the quality of such instruction. 

A committee of the U7iion is charged with the mission of calling the atten- 
tion of the proper authorities to the suggestions and recommendations of this 
conference. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. gQg 

Mr. E. A. Davidson, in a paper on Industrial and Scientific Education as ex- 
emplified in the Paria Exposition of 1867, gives the following as the substance 
of the instruction in drawing in special schools for industrial purposes. 

First Course. — Practical plane geometry, elementary free-hand drawing, flat 
tinting with pen and brush, elementary coloring, solid geometry, perspective, 
model drawing, and projection of rectangular objects to a given scale. 

Second Course. — Advanced practical geometry — embracing the higher curves 
and figures used in machinery and architecture — such as the conic sections, the 
cycloid, the epicycloid, the helix, conchoid, cissoid, spiral, &c., orthographic and 
geometrical projection, penetrations and sections of solids, development of sur- 
fiices, and the projection of shadows, advanced perspective, free-hand and 
model drawing and shading. 

Third Course. — Machine-drawing — including the construction of the teeth of 
wheels, screws, &c., from blackboard lessons; rough sketches, and actual meas- 
urement to scale and given data ; tinting and broad shading. Building con- 
struction, practical and historic architecture, ornamental and architectural draw- 
ing. Construction of technical working-drawings to scale, adapted for the 
various branches of industry. 

The same paper gives, with marked approbation, the following example of 
the aids of mechanical drawing at the Institute of the Christian Brothers in 
Paris. 

Aids of Scientific Drawing in the Schools of the Christian Brothers. 

This system, designed by Frere Victoris,. the professor in the Institute des 
Freres des Ecoles Chretieymes in Paris, received the gold medal of the Exposi- 
tion of 1867. The whole scheme embraces the following helps : 

(1) Text-books for the pupil and others for the teacher, adapted to each of 
the two years over which the course extends. 

(2) Large diagrams, for schools where the class is so numerous that the mas- 
ter can not spare time to work out the lesson on the blackboard. 

(3) Models, which are still further developed by Frere Yictoris, by the addi- 
tion of a plane at right angles to the other two ; this third plane, on which the 
side or end elevation is projected, inoves on hinges ; and as the lines are made to 
work into each other, the paper which covers the planes will, when laid out flat, 
show how the heights and widths have been obtained from the object. Amongst 
the models is a niche under a pediment in plaster of Paris, which is cut verti- 
cally and horizontally so as to show sections of the niche, cornice, and pedestal, 
and is a good study for artistic as well as for scientific drawing. The other 
models comprise several arches and staircases, with movable parts, three large 
planes with objects, such as capitals of orders, cornices, &c., to be used as stud- 
ies for the projection of shadows ; also numerous roof timbers, not merely as 
trusses, but as portions of roofs showing the whole assemblage of timbers. 
These, if reproduced on a larger scale, would be of the greatest use to our sci- 
ence teachers. The set also comprises columns and entablatures of the orders 
of architecture made of hard wood ; these divide so as to exhibit the entasis of 
the columns and numerous sections of capital, cornice and base, all the parts 
fitting together in the most exquisite manner. 

There are also wooden cornices made up of various moldings, which, being 
open at the ends, show how the members are made up. The models above 
mentioned are but types of the whole system. 

The Institute above referred to is a Normal School for training teachers, and 
has connected with it an asylum for the aged and infirm members of the order, 
who are employed all over France. 



QQQ SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. _. 

TECHNICAL EDUCATION OF GIRLS. 

In 1854, the Yicomtesse D' Anglais, with a view of assisting young women 
respectably born and educated, but left destitute and dependent upon their own 
exertions for a livelihood, founded an institution in Paris entitled Notre Dame 
des Arts, aided by several sisters of a religious order. 

The institution proper is a boarding school, and receives the orphans of liter- 
ary men and artists, who alone compete for the scholarships with which the 
school is endowed. Other pupils are admitted, however, on payment, on the 
same footing as the orphans, but can not compete for the scholarships. The 
endowments for scholarships are fiirnished by grants from the Minister of Public 
Instruction, the General Council of the Department of the same, and the Mu- 
nicipal Council of Paris. In addition to the subjects of a general education, 
particular attention is paid to the teaching of music and the decorative arts. 
This last includes designing patterns for tapestry, for church ornaments, jew- 
elry, painting on porcelain or enamel, on glass and church windows, painting 
in oil and water-colors, crayons, drawing and painting on ivory, lithography, 
engraving on wood and steel, embroidery in general, making of church vest- 
ments and artificial flowers. The productions of the scholars are sold for the 
benefit of the pupils. The number of pupils in 1868 was 140, and the school 
was managed by eighteen ladies and sisters, whose instructions are gratuitous. 

At Nantes there is a manufactory of stained glass connected with a congre- 
gation of Carmelites, which has already attained high reputation, and provided 
beautiful windows for various churches in Paris and elsewhere. The sisters 
began by painting banners used in church processions, and there being occasion 
to put new windows into a building of the Order, they employed their talents 
and taste in designing and fabricating stained glass, and by continued practice 
have reached a skill not surpassed in the manufactories of the same kind at 
Tours and Clermont. 

Besides the Special School of Drawing for Toung Women in the Rue Dupuy- 
tren, in which have been trained very successful designers and artists for man- 
ufactures in ivory, porcelain, and book-work, instruction is now given in draw- 
ing and modeling in a large number of municipal schools in Paris, open to 
women as well as men. 

The experience of the last few years has demonstrated clearly that in the 
whole field of plastic art, all labor which deals with forms and the represent- 
ations of forms, from the highest ideal to the most familiar details of ordinary 
life, can be opened to woman properly trained in the first and successive steps 
of modeling and drawing. The most delicate touches on porcelain and ivory, 
the most exquisite copying in form and color of specimens in botany, the whole 
field of natural history, and the illumination of title pages, have already been 
executed by her; and it will not be long before the whole field of design for car- 
pets, shawls, and ribbons, and all textile fabrics, will be occupied by her genius. 
The pencil and the graver will be as famiUar to her as the needle or the pen. 

In connection with this subject it may be mentioned that Madame laBaronne 
Herald de Pages, a lady who has given great attention to agricultural and phi- 
lanthropic instruction, was commissioned by the Minister to inspect all the girls' 
schools in France in which the principles and practice of household economy 
and* gardening were attended to, in addition to the ordinary studies of primary- 
schools. ■ • 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM, 



INTRODUCTION. 

The kingdom of Belgium, on an area of 11,400 English square 
miles in 1863, had a population of 4,836,566. In 1856, out of a 
population of 4,529,050, 1,062,115 were engaged in agriculture; 
419,037 in mechanical arts, (73,292 in mines and quarries; 56,657 
in metals ; 5,514 in glass and earthen ware ; »86,663 in linen and 
hempen fabrics; 13,883 in woolen fabrics; 12,352 in cotton; 4,016 
in silk; 29,851 in leather; 42,130 in alimentation; 68,995 in ap- 
parel ; 107,332 in building; 15,883 in furniture and decoration, 
(fee. (fee.,) and 106,162 in commercial pursuits. 

The total annual expenditure of the government of Belgium in 
1864 amounted to 150,943,138 francs, of which sum 4,500,000 
francs were expended for public instruction. 

The institutions of public instruction are administered by the 
Minister of the Interior, and embrace : 

I. Primary Schools. — Of these^there were in 1864: 

3,314 Commuual schools, with 4,549 teachers and 354,168 scholars. 
620 Private schools, supported partly by the government, with 1,464 
teachers and 75,421 scliolars. 

32 Private schools under government inspection, with 79 teachers and 

5,116 scholars. 
1,427 Independent private schools, with 2,654 teachers and 98,264 
scholars. 

33 Boarding-schools under government inspection ; 230 independent 

boarding-schools, together with 887 teachers and 11,892 scholars. 

460 Inamt-schools, with 666 teachers and 40,000 scholars. 

Making a total of 6,116 primary schools, with 10,299 teachers and 584.861 

scholars. The total expense for primarv instruction in 1863 amounted to 

9,392,259 francs, of which sum 2,002,902 were paid by the State, 1,131,389 fr. 

by the provinces, and the rest by the communes. 

II. Secondary Schools. 

10 Athenaeums, with 3,177 scholars. 
50 Government secondary schools, with 7,576 scholars. 
19 Communal and provincial secondary schools subsidized by the gov- 
ernment, with 2,801 scholars. 
1 Exclusively communal school in two divisions at Brussels, with 
500 scholars. 
15 Ecoks p'itronnes (schools supported in part by an annual grant from 
the commune.) with 1,676 scholars. 
Altogether 95 secondary schools, supported either entirely or in part. by 



608 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIITM. 

the State or communes, with 15,730 scholars. Besides these, there are 35 
clerical schools, 11 Jesuit schools, and 5 private schools— making a total of 146 
secondary schools. The total expense for the secondary schools supported 
either entirely or in part by public funds, was, in 1864: 2,638.213 francs. 
Of this sum, 980,431 were paid by the State and province, 1,149,014 by the 
communes, and 508,768 were raised by school-fees. 

III. Superior Schook. — There are 4 universities, viz. : 3 Catholic universities, 
[Ghent, with four faculties, (philosophy, law. natural science, medicine,) and 
417 students; Lour.ain, also with four faculties and 744 students ; Z«e(/^, with 
five faculties, (theology in addition to the above named,) and 417 students,] and 
1 free or non-governmental university at Brmsels, with four faculties and 522 • 
students. In Brussels there is an academy of sciences in three divisions, (sci- 
ence, literature, and art) ; an observatory ; a museum of natural history, and a 
museum of antiquities ; the royal library, with more than 200,000 volumes and 
20,000 manuscripts, and an annual budget of $12,000. The library at Ghent 
has 60,000 volumes; the one at Liege 64,000, and the one at Louvain 62,000. 
There are, besides, 17 city libraries, each with more than 25,000 volumes. 
There are 13 art-museums. The number of scientific societies in the provinces 
is very large. 

IV. Special Schools. 

1 Superior normal school ; 5 primary normal schools. 

5 Agricultural schools, viz.: 1 State agricultural college at Gembloux; 

1 State horticultural institution at Yilvorde; 1 State forestry institution 
at Bouillon; 1 veterinary institution at Keuringhem, besides a large 
number of primary schools in which agriculture and horticulture are 
taught. 

3 Schools of commerce, viz. : 1 superior school at Antwerp, besides 1 2 com- 
mercial schools connected with schools of secondary instruction ; 3 nav- 
igation schools, at Antwerp, Ostend, and Nieuport, with an aggregate of 
150 pupils. 
15 Industrial or technological schools, with 2,293 pupils. 
68 "Workshops, with schools and courses of instruction for apprentices and 
workmen, having an aggregate attendance of 1,857 pupils. 

1 School of arts, manufactures and mines at Liege. 

1 School of engineering, manufactures and horticulture at Ghent. 

1 Royal military academy, with 105 pupils; 1 cavalry school; 1 pyrotechnic 
school; 1 school for soldiers' children; and 10 regimental evening 
schools. 
60 Academies and schools of art, with 236 teachers and 10,607 pupUs. 

1 Institution for the deaf and dumb. 

1 Institution for the blind. 

3 Conservatories of music. 

6 Schools for orphans. 

3 Schools for juvenile criminals. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 609 



8YSTE.M AND INSTITUTIONS OF SPECIAL INSTRUCTION. 

Belgium was one of the earliest States, not only to develop the arts of desif^n 
and ornamentation, in reference to the wants and higher civilization of its wealth- 
ier and governing classes, but to extend and encourage in various ways the great 
interests of agriculture, manufacture, and the mechanic arts, out of which the 
commerce, wealth, and civilization of nations proceed. It was not, however, 
till the sharp competitions of international industry, caused by the introduction 
of labor-saving machinery, as well as higher taste and skill, into the workshops 
of other nations, threatened her linen weavers and industrial classes generally 
with utter ruin, that enlightened citizens of different towns united in voluntary 
associations, and the local and state governments of Belgium combined to estab- 
lish a thorough system, with numerous and excellent institutions of technical in- 
struction, varied and adapted to different localities, which have not only arrested 
the progress of industrial destitution at home, but enabled her manufacturers and 
artisans to compete again successfully in the markets of the world. These 
and other special institutions, established at diflferent times, may be classified as 
follows : I. A National Museum of Industrial Models. Designs, and productions at 
Brussels, and similar museums in other great centres of mechanical and manufac- 
turing industry. II. "Workshops for apprentices, in which instruction is given by 
intelligent foremen and competent professors in all the theoretical and practical 
details of certain industries, and particularly of weaving. III. Schools of scientific 
and practical instruction, under the designation of Ecoles Industriellcs, of which 
there are now fourteen. IV. Technical Institutions of a higher scientific aim, in 
which may be included the Superior Institute of Commerce at Antwerp ; the higher 
School of Mines at Hainault, and scientific departments of arts, manufactures, 
and mines, in the Universities of Liege and Ghent. V. Schools and government 
appropriations in behalf of agriculture, gardening and forestry. VI. Schools of 
Commerce and Navigation. VII. Galleries, Academies, and Schools of the Fine 
Arts, and Special Instruction in Drawing and Music. VIII. Institutions and As- 
sociations for the promotion of Science, Literature, and the Arts. 

Of several of these classes of institutions we will give a brief survey, together 
with an account in detail of specimens of the most important institutions, drawn 
mainly from official documents forwarded to this department through the prompt 
attention of the U. S. Minister Resident. (Mr. H. S. Sanford) at Brussels, and 
from the reports of the French and English Commissioners on Technical Education. 

I.-NATIONAL MUSEUM OF INDUSTRY. 

The Industrial Museum at Brussels, founded in 1826, and reorganized in 1840, 
embraces in its operations, (1,) a depository of apparatus for investigations in 
chemistry and physics, as well as models and machines for construction in every 
department of the arts; (2,) plans of machinery and construction of all kinds ; 
(3,) a technical library; (4,) a collection of periodicals, projects, and current 
treatises on the application of science to the industries of nations ; (5,) a chemical 
laboratory, where the analysis to test new inventions can be made; (6,) a 
school of construction drawing, where candidates who are found competent in 
preliminary knowledge, particularly in geometry, are instructed for two years in 
geometrical drawing, and in designing and copying plans and specifications of 



610 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUAi. 



machines ; (7,) models, drawings and specimens of new furniture and utensils ; 
and, (8,) of any and every production which can improve the taste and skill ot 
workmen and the public generally, who are also reached by courses of free public 
lectures on physics, chemistry, mechanics, political economy, and physiology, in 
the winter, from 7.30 to 9 P. M. 

The annual expenses of the Museum of Industry amount to about 24,000 francs, 
and are borne by the state. Its affairs are managed by a government commission, 

II.— WORKSHOPS AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR APPRENTICES, 

The workshops for apprentices in Flanders were first established about 1845', 
their origin being due to the depression existing in the weaving interests of the 
country, arising from the introduction of superior machinery in other linen-pro- 
ducing lands. They were intended to teach the use of the new looms to old 
workmen, and to train new apprentices, and also to encourage the manufacture af 
other cloths besides linen. There are at present 68 of these ; in 1860 there were 82, 
They work 1,528 looms, and are attended by 1,857 workmen and apprentices. 
The government granting subsidies only on the condition that the communes 
furnish the workshops, the latter have provided them, rented or built for the 
purpose. They have sent out, since their establishment, 27,373 weavers, perfectly 
skilled in the best methods of the trade. 

The period of apprenticeship lasts about a year, and the wages paid vary from 
35 centimes a day, (to some of the apprentices, ) to 2 fr. 50 cent, to skilled work- 
men. Five per cent, is deducted from the wages and spent in providing imple- 
ments for the workmen, to bo used at home after the termination of the course. 
The expenses are borne partly by the communes, partly by the state. 

"Weaving establishments for women were first established at Courtrai, in 1854 : 
there are now several of these paying daily wages of from 1 fr. 25 c. to 2 fr. 50 c. 

The result of this system has been satisfactory, both as to the quality of goods 
produced and as to the morals and intelligence of those employed. 

The apprentices who frequent these shops, at the same time they learn their craft 
and receive wages for their work, devote at least two hours a day to primary in- 
struction. 

Expenses of WorTcshops for 1861 and 1865. 



Expenses for 1851. 


Cont'd by 
the State. 


By 

Provinces. 


By Com- 
munes and 
Bureaux de 
Bienfais- 
ance. 


Total. 


West Flanders— Ord'y expenses 

ga^gt «< •' 


/28, 788.04 

13,090.76 

538.75 

7,220.00 

1,863.00 


/10,726.01 

7,970.62 

271.25 


/12. 724.61 
2,423.60 
1,762.00 


/■52,239.26 
23 484 98 


Hainault " 


2,572.00 
7 220 00 


Expenses of inspectors - 






1 863 00 








Total 


51,500.55 


18.968.48 


16,910.21 


87,379.24 




1 




Expenses for 1865. 
West Flanders— Ord'y expenses.... 
East *' " 


36,598.07 
9i463.50 
8,30000 
2,465.60 


15,718.16 
4,809.04 
3,900.00 


17,435.03 
3,517.50 


69.751.26 
17,490.04 




















Total 


56,827.17 


24,127.50 


20,952.53 


87,241.30 







SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 611 

III.-INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. 

Thp present system of scientific and industrial instructioa originated in isolated 
schools established from 1825 to 1852, in the chief centres of industry, by the 
enterprise and foresight of individual manufacturers, associations of public spir- 
ited citizens and communal authorities, to meet the wants of different localities, 
and finally organized, aided and supervised by the State by general legislation in 
1861. They grew out of the necessities of disordered domestic industry, which 
bad been in Belgium confined to the linen trade, and which had been superseded 
in the markets of the world by the introduction of superior mechanism and more 
artistic designs in other countries. 

The general course of instruction common to all the industrial schools comprises 
mathematics and mechanics, in so far as they bear upon industrial science ; linear aud 
ornamental drawing, physics, general and practical chemistry, varying in each 
school according to the industries which it is more especially intended to promote. 
The other heads of instruction comprise the elements of mineralogy ; technical 
drawing, with a special view to the manufacture of stuflFs, carpets, &c.; and to 
the construction of machinery, the elements of metallurgy, and the art of mining ; 
a theoretical and practical study of the various processes of textile manufactures, 
and, in some cases, the mechanism and management of steam-engines. 

The education given at these schools is entirely free of cost to the students, and 
the course of instruction varies from two to four years, but it usually occupies 
three ; in nearly all cases it is accompanied by participation in actual processes of 
manufacture, more especially of textile manufacture. 

The qualifications required for admission are, that the pupil be above the age 
of fourteen, (in a few instances of twelve,) and that he possesses that rudimentary 
knowledge which is to be acquired in the upper classes of the primary schools, or 
in the preparatory schools or evening classes which are attached for the purpose 
to many of the Ecoles Industrielles . 

Every candidate for admission has to undergo a pass examination before a 
board composed of the director and professors of the school, and those who fail 
to pass are allowed to frequent the preparatory school or evening classes, until 
they have acquired the necessary degree of proficiency. The examinations are 
both written and oral. 

As a general rule only male students are admitted to the schools, but girls are 
allowed to attend the drawing classes, and the lessons given in the use'of the 
sewing-machine and in photography at the school of Ghent. In Brussels there 
is a professional school expressly for girls, which is subsidized by the State, and 
there are certain of the Ateliers in Flanders where they receive both primary 
and technical education. 

All students admitted to the schools are required to undergo an examination at 
the end of each scholastic year, to qualify them for entering upon the course of in- 
struction of the ensuing year. They are also subjected to an examination on 
leaving the school, in presence of a jury appointed by the managing board, and 
such as are successful receive a certificate of capacity varying in its terms accord- 
ing to the degree of proficiency shown by the student. 

The school buildings are provided and maintained by the communal authorities. 

The funds required for the annual support of the schools are derived from three 
sources : the commune or municipality, the province, and the State. 

The management of each school is vested in the hands of a commission ad- 



(512 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

mi7nstrative, or board of management, of six or nine members, one-third of 
whom are appointed bj the communal council, a third by the permanent committee 
{deputation perma?iente) of the provincial council, and the remainder by the Min- 
ister of the Interior. In some instances the right of nomination is divided 
equally between the communal council and the government. The director, pro- 
fessors or teachers, and overseers of the schools, are usually appointed by the 
communal council, subject to the approval of the Ministry of the Interior. la 
some schools the appointments are made directly by the government on the rec- 
ommendation of the commission administrative. The members of this commis- 
sion, or a portion of them, vacate their seats every two or three years, but they are 
re-eligible. Their duties consist in regulating the internal management of the 
school, sul^ject to the sanction of the communal council ; in fixing the hours of 
instruction, and exercising, in fine, a general superintendence over the discipline 
and course of studies, and also in ascertaining from time to time, by personal in- 
spection, that the regulations are strictly carried out. 

The director and professors meet in council at the end of each scholastic year, 
and draw up a report upon the condition of the school, addressed to the com- 
munal council, and transmitted by the latter to the Minister of the Interior. 
They have no power to vary in any way the course or hours of instruction pre- 
scribed by the administrative commission, nor have they any concern whatever 
with the religion of the pupils r but they can enforce moral discipline and observ- 
ance of the regulations, when necessary, by the temporary and even permanent 
exclusion of those who infringe them. Permanent exclusion of a student must be 
sanctioned, however, by the administrative commission. 

The professors at the Ecoles Industrielles are in general selected from the 
Universities, or from the professional divisions of the Athenees, or public 
schools. They are required to have passed an examination and to have received 
a diplome scientifique or degree, certifying to their scholastic acquirements; others 
are chosen from amongst students upon whom diplomas have been conferred at 
the ecoles speciales attached to the State Universities, or from engineers in actual 
employment at industrial establishments. 

The classes at most of the schools are held in the evening, when the workshops 
are closed, and when all those employed in daily labor have leisure to attend ; 
in some localities, however, there are day classes, particularly on Sundays. 

The following table exhibits the location, date of -establishment, extent of 
courses of instruction, number of pupils and professors in 1866, and the general 
aim and character of the several institutions designated by law as Industrial 
Schools. It includes the Superior School of Commerce at Antwerp, and the Su- 
perior School of Mines at Hainaalt, which belong to the class of higher technical 
schools. 

It will be seen from the table that, including the Museum of Industry, the School 
of Mines and Industry at Hainault, and the Superior Instiiute of Commerce, there 
are fourteen industrial schools in Belgium. The fourteen industrial schools are 
distributed among the provinces as follows : two in West Flanders, one in East 
Flanders, five in Hainault, four in Liege, one in Limburg, and one in Namur. 

Although originally designed, in most cases, to meet a special exigency in the 
domestic industry of the country, the scope of all these schools has been gradually 
enlarged so as to prepare their pupils for a wider field of mechanical activity. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 



613 



Location^ ^c, of Inrlustrial Schools in Belgium. 



Location. r 



Antwerp 

Bruses 

Clir.rleroi 

Courtrai 

Ghent 

Hainault 

Huy 

Hasselt 

Seraing 

Liege 

Naihur 

Soignies 

Tournay 

Two Houdengs. 
Verviers 



a 


a . 


50 




— . 


•. -r 


'S.^ 












.z c 




H 


= & 


^ K 


~ a; 


c ^ 


Co 


- ». 


r j= 


_• — 


2 « 


5 ~ 


z 


^■~ 


E- 
11 


lSo2 


2 


fi.T 


lt!55 


y 


253 


6 


184.1 


3 


SL'O 


6 


1866 


3 


2o0 


5 


1825 


4 


900 


12 


1837 


3 


67 


9 


1838 


*4 


165 


9 


1864 


3 


106 




1858 


*4 


144 


/ 


1835 


*4 


153 


10 


1861 


3 


80 


8 


1859 


2 


153 


7 


1837 


3 


271 


4 


1864 


2 


153 


7 


1837 


*3 


312 


8 



Aim or Cliaracter. 



To train merchants and commercial agents. 

General mechanical, and industrial. 

Gi'neral mechanical training, with departmentfor mining. 

Drawing, architecture, and mechanics. 

Training for cliemical pursuits, mechanical arts, textile 
design, industrial design, photography, sewing-machine 
school for girls. 

General mechanical, and industrial, with a mining- school. 

General meclianical. and industrial, with special drawing 
section. 

Improvement trade school. 

General mrchanical, and industrial, and overseers. 

General mechanical, and industrial. 

General mechanical, and industrial. 

For workmen in quarries. 

General mechanical, and industrial, with workshops. 

Overseers and skilled workmen in metals and in mines. 

General mechanical, and industrial, with special depart- 
ments for weaving and drawing. 



Including one preparatory year. 



t Including director and all other teachers. 



The number of pupils in those schools, whose creation dates earlier than 1863, 
was, during the last three scholastic years, 2,293, being about 299 to each. The 
number of those graduating with diplomas during the same period, and in the 
same schools, was about 103, averaging about three for each school in each year. 

Subjoined is a table of expenses in francs. 

Expenses for 1861 and 1S65. 



Nature of Expenses. , 


Part of the 
State. 


Part of the 
Provinces. 


Part of the 
i'ommnnes. 


Total. 


1861. 
Museum' of industry — expenses of 
teachers and material 


/24,186.66 

78,566.67 

5,400.00 

4^000.00 






/24, 186.66 

143,580.00 

9,400.00 

9,500.00 


Industrial schools and Commercial 
Institute— ordinary expenses 

The same— occasional expenses for 
material and scientific collections 


/21,000.00 


/44, 013.33 
4,000.00 
5,500.00 


Public courses, free professional 
schools, &c 








Total 


112,.153.33 


21,000.00 


53,513.33 


186,666.66 


1865. 

Museum of Industry— expenses of 
teachers and material 

Industrial schools— ordinary ex- 
penses 


23,727.59 

105,531.05 
2,700 00 

5,250.00 


33,600.00 


84,632.17 
9,300.00 

4,800 00 


23,727.59 

223,764.12 
12 000 00 


Subsidies for public courses, &c... 


Subsidies for the improvement of 
the material of the adopted 
schools 




10 050 00 








Total 


137,209.54 


33,600.00 


98,732.17 


269,541.71 



614 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT GHENT. 

The Industrial School {Ecole Industrielle) at Ghent was founded in 1825 by the 
Chamber of Commerce, to provide scientific and practical instruction to foremen 
of shops and factories, and in 1861 was united with the geometrical drawing and 
weaving school which had been instituted in 1852. 

This institution is under the management of a local committee, consisting of nine 
members, three representing the Chamber of Commerce, three the Communal 
Council, and three the government. 

Scientific Instruction. 

The course prepares the pupils for chemical and mechanical arts, and for 
mechanical or textile drawing and design, and extends through four years. 

The first year of instruction includes mathematics, descriptive geometry, linear 
and ornamental drawing, and book-keeping. 

The second year : Mathematics, physics, mechanics, drawing of machinery, and 
ornamental drawing. 

Third year : Mechanics, chemistry, spinning, weaving, the motive powers of 
steam, drawing and plans of machinery, ornamental drawing and composition. 

Fourth year: Chemical technology, dyeing, bleaching, printing, practical weav- 
ing, the analyzation of samples, ornamental drawing in its application to indus- 
try, and industrial economy. 

A class for steam machinery is attached to the schoolj^for the special purpose of 
practically instructing engineers and engine-drivers in those branches of physical 
and mechanical science which are necessary for the proper exercise of their calling, 

A class of photography, founded by the way of trial in 1861, and a drawing 
class for girls, and lessons on the use of sewing-machines, constitute part of the 
facilities of instruction. 

The instruction is given both in the French and Flemish languages, and the 
average number of students in the year is about 900. 

Practical Instruction. 

The practical instruction in the technology and designing of weaving is given 
in two sections or classes. 

The first of these classes has for its object the making of designs for carpets, 
paperhangings, cotton prints, foulards, shawls, laces, embroidery, and all kinds 
of figured and damasked stuffs. The pupil who completes his studies in it is in a 
position to occupy himself profitably in all the applications of the art of design to 
those diflFerent branches of industry. 

The class of technology and weaving comprises instruction in (1) all prelim- 
inary operations of weaving, such as winding the bobbins, preparing, mounting 
and rolling up the warp , (2,) the apparatus employed in these operations, for 
band-loom as well as for power-loom weaving; (3,) the preparations of the weft, 
winding on bobbins and on spools, dressing, and the necessary apparatus for this ; 
(4,) all the parts of the ordinary loom ; (5,) the interlacing of the threads; -j[6,) 
looms for plain weaving ; (T,) the little Jacquard, called the draw loom ; (8.) 
the Jacquard apparatus; (9,) raised weaving; (10,) the arrangement of the 
cards ; (11,) the setting of the patterns, and the apparatus necessary for this oper- 
ation ; (12,) the weaving of damasks, dimity, figured stufi", chines, velvets, &c.; 
(13,) the power-loom. Examples are given of calculations for the msnufacture, 
and the course closes by the statement of some finishing processes. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 615 

When the professor thinks the pupils sufficiently advanced in their studies, he 
gives them specimens of stuffs to be analyzed, in order that they may describe the 
proper processes. 

A warping-frarae, a common loom for cloth, a loom for damasks, a loom for 
piques, a set of patterns and cards, are furnished for the use of the pupils to practise, 
under the guidance of a foreman and the direction of the professor. 

In weaving, the pupils perform all the operations, from the design to its execu- 
tion in the loom. They analyze and reproduce themselves in woven fabrics all 
kinds of specimens of stuffs, from the most simple to the most complicated. They 
acquire thus a complete and minute knowledge of everything relating to the pro- 
duction of textile fabrics ; those made by plain weaving, as well as those made by 
the Jacquard apparatus. 

Having completed their studies, the pupils are quite proficient in the dififerent 
branches of industrial drawing, and are able to execute on commission, and for 
their own profit, designs for the manufacturers. 

Teachers .—The teaching body consists of eight professors, including the director, 
and two assistants. 

Students by their Trades and Studies. 

The following is a statement of the number of students who attended the general 
course, as well as those who attended the special courses, during the year 1866, in- 
clusive of those who attended them, or part of them, without being actually 
entered as pupils : 

General course of instruction — Flemish, 522 ; general course of instruction — 
French, 235 ; Sunday drawing lessons, deducting those who attended other classes, 
93; evening drawing lessons, deducting those who attended other classes, 108; 
industrial drawing, (daytime,) 8; industrial drawing, (evening,) 21; prepara- 
tory drawing, 23 ; weaving and spinning, 46 ; stokers' and engineers' course, 30 ; 
photography, 59; girls' drawing lessons, 14; lessons in the use of the sewing- 
machine, 118; total, 1,277. 

The average number of pupils registered is about 900, more than twice as many 
being in the Flemish as in the French classes. The trades represented in the 
former were, in 1866, fitters, 68 ; iron turners, 28 ; mechanics, 21 ; blacksmiths and 
locksmiths, 84 ; working engineers, 8 ; carpenters and cabinet-makers, 66 ; and 
241 miscellaneous. In the French, artisans and clerks, 51; draughtsmen and 
mechanicians, 10; fitters, 2; students, 49; teachers, 5; and 124 miscellaneous. 

Certificates. — At the close of the course there are examinations held for the 
purpose of giving certificates of proficiency in various trades, the jury being com- 
posed of the professors, one or two members of the administrative committee of 
manufactures, and of officials belonging to the board of bridges and roads, or to 
the High School. 

Collections and Library. — The collections are very large, and receive annual 
additions of new inventions and improvements. The Industrial Museum has a 
collection of the series of transformations of material employed in industry. The 
number of models for drawing is very large. There is a museum of designs com- 
posed by the pupils, and of stuffs executed from these designs. There is an in- 
creasing library of works upon applied sciences and of periodicals. Connected 
with it is a reading room, which is much frequented by pupils and artisans. The 
books in the library are loaned. 

The annual cost of this school is about 28,000 francs, ($5,600,) two-thirds of 



616 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

which are contributed by the government, and the remainder by the town of 
Ghent. 

The Minister of the Interior, in his report, points out the beneficial influence 
which this particular school has exercised upon the town of Ghent, and upon its 
industry in general, and also to the successful career which it has opened to so 
many of its pupils, who have become foremen or overseers, managers, and heads 
of industrial establishments. He attributes the introduction of new local indus- 
tries to the special education which artisan pupils have obtained at the school. 

TECHNICAL SCHOOL AT VERVIERS. 

The professional school at Verviers was created in 1862, by the union of an 
ordinary industrial school, which had existed since 1837, and a school of weaving 
and dyeing dating from 1857, both having been originated by the Chamber ot 
Commerce a] 
by the state. 

It possesses a corps of eight instructors and (1866) 312 pupils. The course ol 
instruction extends over three years, the first year being preparatory, and is so 
arranged that at the expiration of the three years the pupil may apply himself to 
mechanical art, woollen manufactures, or industrial, design. 

The time occupied in instruction is two or three hours in the morning of week 
days, Saturdays excepted ; and the branches pursued are, in the preparatory year, 
reading, writing, spelling, elementary arithmetic, weights and measures, linear 
drawing, the elements of industrial and commercial accounts, and geometrical 
drawing. The pupils intending to become weavers study, during the second and 
third years, linear drawing and weaving in all its branches, including the theory, 
classification, manufacture, composition and analysis of tissues and colors, their 
theory, contrasts, and combinations. The industrial section, or that of applied 
sciences, pursues during the same time outline drawing applied to engines and 
machines; manufactures of wood, metal, and stone; industrial apparatus and fac- 
tories ; shading and coloring ; arithmetic and elementary geometry, with special 
view to planning and surveying ; physics, mechanics, and general chemistry with 
manipulations. 

There is a distribution of prizes in October, consisting of mathematical instru- 
ments, books, and, for the three best graduating pupils, (one in each course.) a 
gold medal ; and, after passing an examination on foreign industry, a certain 
amount of travelling money is allowed by the Industrial Society to perfect their 
knowledge in their own department by observation abroad. 

The school is prosperous, although the pupils are often absent at work. There 
is the necessary supply of apparatus granted by the government. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT TOCRNAI. 

The Industrial School at Tournai, organized in 1837 as a school for arts and 
trades, was reorganized in 1860, and consists of an industrial school proper, in- 
tended to impart useful information on their trades to tradesmen, and of two 
workshops, one for weaving, and another for mechanical construction, castings, 
&c. There is a department for boarders. All these three establishments are 
independent of each other, but managed by the same committee. To the original 
establishment, the state, province, and commune contributed in equal proportions 
75,000 francs, and several legacies have since been left for its extension. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 617 

Industrial School. — The Industrial School has a corps of four teachers, and is 
attended (1866) by ninety-one pupils. The course extends over three years, and 
includes the following : First i/mr. — Arithmetic, geometry, linear drawing. 
Second year. — Elementary mechanics, physics, graphic drawing upon paper. 
Third year. — Applied mechanics, physics, chemistry, industrial drawing, manage- 
ment and conducting of steam-engines. The classes are held daily, from six to 
eight P. M. in winter, and from six to eight A. M. in summer. Pupils not 
sufficiently prepared have, during the first year, a morning and evening course of 
preparation. 

The apparatus for scientific instruction is sufficient. 

The Workshops. — These are open on all working days from half-past seven till 
twelve, and from half-past one till five. There were, in 1866, seventy-six pupils 
in both of them. 

The workshop for weaving is provided with all the best styles of looms of the 
English and French market. In this department is a machine showing the im- 
provements in the construction of stocking looms. This last class is open to arti- 
sans. A skilled mechanician was brought from Troyes to construct and repair 
circular looms, and sent to England to study the Paget loom. There are seven- 
teen pupils in the weaving shop. 

The workshop for mechanical construction, iron and copper founding and 
moulding, makes steam-engines of the highest power and most complicated ma- 
chinery, and machines employed in various agricultural and manufacturing opera- 
tions. These machines have obtained several honorable notices at various indus- 
trial exhibitions. There were, in 1866, fifty-three pupils in this workshop. 

Connected with the boarding school is a garden, where six pupils are trained 
in its cultivation as practical gardeners. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT SOIGNIES. 

The Industrial School at Soignies/6, 634 inhabitants) was instituted in 1859, 
originally to form good workmen in the local industry, which is mainly confined 
to stone-cutting. 

The teachers (seven) are connected with the secondary school of the town, 
where scientific apparatus is at the disposal of this professional school. 

The course of instruction embraces a review of the studies of the elementary 
school, the elements of geometry, physics, and mechanics, with their application 
to building, drawing from the round, designing, and modelling. 

The school has already provided a better class of intelligent and skilled work- 
men, who design and execute with taste the most complicated work in stone, 
which before was cut only by professed artists. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT COURTRAI. 

The Industrial School at Courtrai (a busy manufacturing town of 22,000 in- 
habitants, largely engaged in the linen trade) was established in 1866, by the 
Communal Council, with the assistance of the province and the state. 

The instruction, which occupies a three-years' course, with a director and five 
professors, and a superintendent, is given in two sections : a section of mechanical 
construction, and a section of the fine arts and architecture. 

The industrial or mechanical section comprises the drawing of arabesques, and 
of the figure, and the outline of machines ; arithmetic ; geometry in its applica- 
tion to industry ; the elements of physics, mechanics, and chemistry, and their 
application to the special manufactures of the town. 



618 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

The scctioa of fine arts and architecture comprises the drawing of arabesques, 
of the figure, and of architecture ; drawing from plaster casts, from the antique, 
and from life; the outline of plans, and the composition of architecture ; arith- 
metic ; geometrj, and its application to construction ; the elements of physics 
and mechanics, and the application of these sciences to the knowledge of materials 
and of construction in general. 

The two first years of study, comprising linear drawing, arabesque drawing 
and figure drawing, arithmetic, and geometry, the elements of physics and of 
mechanics, are common to the two sections. 

The third year of study comprises — 

a. For the industrial section : the drawing of machinery, chemistry, and the 
application of scientific knowledge to the special manufactures of Courtrai, such 
as weaving, spinning, bleaching, dressing, dyeing, &c. 

h. For the section of fine arts and architecture : drawing from plaster casts, 
from the antique, and from life ; perspective, the drawing of plans, the composi- 
tion of architecture, modelling, the application of geometry, of physics, and of 
mechanics to the knowledge of materials and of constrnction in general. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT LIEGE. 

The Technical School at Liege was founded in 1825 by two societies, to train 
overseers of the various manufacturing establishments of the town. In 1832 it 
was recognized by the commercial authorities as a public institution, and in 1861 
was incorporated into the state system. 

The course extends through three years, under a director, a professor of geom- 
etry and applied mechanics ; another of physics and chemistry ; a third of math- 
ematics ; two of the French language, of history and geography, and two of 
drawing, besides two in charge of a preparatory section, and a foreman over the 
special class of working engineers. 

The instruction in drawing is given in two classes. In one the pupil is occu- 
pied with free-hand drawing, to educate the eye, and the hand ; in the other, he 
practises with the drawing pen, ruler and compass. 

The apparatus for illustration was greatly augmented in 1864 by a special sub- 
sidy of 13,000 francs, granted by the town, province, and state. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL OF HUY. 

The Industrial School of Huy was established in 1838 by the municipal college 
for the adult workingmen of the town, and taught by its professors. Satisfied of 
its utility, the town in 1842, the provincial council in 1845, and the state in 1861, 
gave it additional aid (3,000 fr. apparatus) and assumed its supervision. 

The school consists of five sections, with the following studies : 

Preparatory Section. — The elements of arithmetic, French, the geography of 
Belgium, and drawing. Pupils are received in this section who have not acquired 
sufficient instruction at an elementary period. 

Lower Section. — The repetition of the elements and higher branches of arith- 
metic, French, the first elements of geometry and drawing. 

Middle Section. — The first elements of algebra, geometry, the elements of me- 
chanics, of physics, and chemistry, French, and drawing. 

Upper Section. — Chemistry, mechanics, physics, French, the history of Belgium, 
and drawing. 

The special drawing section, comprises the following subjects : 1. Linear draw- 
ing, so organized as to comprise the drawing of machines. 2. Principles of 
practical geometry, and the orders of architecture. 3. Study of ornament, from 
copies and from relief. 4. Study of the head from drawing. 5. Elementar;^ 
perspective. 6. Study of the head from the round. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 619 

IV.-HIGHER TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. 

Belgium possesses several technical institutions of a superior grade, two of which 
are not to be considered as independent schools, since they consist of separate spe- 
cial schools, and as such form part of the universities at Liege and Ghent. These 
special schools were founded in 1835, and have been modified at different periods 
since. Their organization was materially changed in 1856, when they were all 
included in one common plan, and the instruction in each arranged with reference 
to a general system. The School of Mining and allied industries at Hainault, and 
the Superior Institute of Commerce at Antwerp belong to this class, although the 
latter is described in detail in another connection. 

There is now at both universities a two-years' preparatory course for the tech- 
nical department?, which, at Liege, consists of a special school for mining, a 
second for manufacturing, and a third for construction of machinery ; and at 
Ghent, of one for civil engineering, and another for manufacturing. The language 
used in both is the French. 

SCHOOL OF ARTS, MANUFACTURES AND MINING, AT LIEGE. 

Under this name, {Hcole des Arts et Manufactures et des 3Iines,) the higher tech- 
nical instruction at the University of Liege forms a special division. This is the 
more advantageous, from the fact that the lectures of the university professors — 
for instance, of mathematics, philosophy, mineralogy, geology, &c. — are also 
attended by pupils of the technical department. All the higher technical instruc- 
tion given here aims at educating responsible, scientific men for state service and 
for private industry. It consists of a preparatory department, which, for the 
candidates for the School for Mining, lasts two years ; for the others only one 
year, since for the latter the necessary studies of both yearg are combined into a 
one-year's course. 

In the department of mining, th^eis a special course of three years' length, 
and another for manufacturing and the construction of machinery, with a two- 
years' course. The complete course of study at the school of Liege is, for miners, 
five ; for manufacturers, four ; for machinists, three years. The following tables 
will make clear the somewhat complicated courses of study. The figures represent 
hours per week. A star denotes one term of six months. 

Preparatory School. 

First Year's Course. — Higher algebra; spherical trigonometry; analytical ge- 
ometry, 3; differential and integral calculus, 4; descriptive geometry, 3; element- 
ary philosophy, 4^; instruction in style and composition, 2*; drawing, 6. 

Second Tear's Course. — Elementary mechanics, 3*; analytical mechanics, 4^ ; 
chemistry, 4^; experiments in chemistry, 9; eleraentsof geodesy and astronomy, 4|-. 

Those who wish to enter the department for manufacturing or machine con- 
struction take a one-year's course, selected from the above studies, of descriptive 
geometry, elements of philosophy, mechanics, chemistry and drawing. 

SCHOOL OF MINING. — {^cole SpeciaU des Mines.) 

First Year. Sec. Year. Third Year. 

Industrial physics 4^* - - 

Application of mechanics 3 _ _ 

Mineralogy and geology 4* 3* - 

Chemical analysis 16 - - 



620 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

First Year. Sec. Year. Third Year 

Analytical experiments - 4j - 

Technical chemistry - ' 4J - 

Mining _ 3 41 

Metallurgy - 4^ 41 

Architectural carpentry - ^- 4^ 

Laws of mining - - 1 

National agriculture - - l* 

Designs of machinery 8 8 10 

SCHOOL OP ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. 

This is the same as that for mining, and has also a three-years' course, with the 
same studies. 

SCHOOL OF MECHANICS. 

First Year. Sec. Year. 

Application of mechanics 3 3 

Construction of machinery , 4j 4^ 

Chemistry 4| 

Carpentry - 4^ 

Plans for machinery 13 13 

"Work in the shops 16 16 

The manner of giving instruction is the same as in the French. schools. In the 
morning there are generally two lectures by the chief professors. These lectures 
are general, and the rest of the morning is devoted to a review in detail, in which 
the theme of the lecture is dilated upon. The whole afternoon is given to study 
and experiments. Work in the machine shops is considered of special importance. 
These technical courses are held in a spacious and pleasant building. For the 
lectures there are three large halls arranged as amphitheatres; for the designing 
of machinery and architecture there are two extensive halls. There are several 
class-rooms, each accommodating from 20 to 30 students, and completely fur- 
nished with desks, black-boards, &c. 

The philosophical collection is important, and contains some remnrkable appa- 
ratus. There are also large collections illustrating the construction of machinery, 
mining and architecture. 

The machine shops are very interesting. They are situated in a wing which 
was added expressly for this department to the university by the city of Liege 
and the province of Brabant, at a cost of 160,000 francs, ($32,000.) The shops 
consist of two very large rooms, which are furnished with all necessary machines, 
tools and apparatus, among which are to be noted a steam-engine, a planing 
machine, and several screws. 

These workshops are leased for a term of nine years to a skilful machinist, who 
has a salary of $800 and the use of the premises and machinery. He is bound. 
in return, to work constantly on large and varied machinery for the public on 
bis own account, and at the same time to instruct students of this branch (con- 
struction of machinery) in every step of all practical mechanical work. He is 
also obliged to furnish steam to the buildings of the technical course. 

The whole board of teachers consists of 12, seven of whom are regular professors-. 
All of these, together with many other teachers, (for recitation and drawing,) 
belong to the Faculte des Sciences. The professors have salaries varying from $800 
to SI, 200, besides the lecture fees from the students. They have also, as members 
of a " faculty," all the rights and duties of professors at a university; appoint 
their dean, and take part in election of the rector. But as the subjects upon which 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 621 

they give lectures unite to form one technical preparatory school and three special 
departments, there is for these technical courses a special council. It has nine 
members, six of whom are permanent, viz : the Royal Inspector General of Mines, 
the Director General of Public Instruction, the Administrator of the University, 
and three inspectors chosen from among the professors ; also three members chosen 
by the King for a term of four years, two of whom are professors and one an 
engineer of mines. This council superintends the interests of the school and pro- 
poses all necessary improvements. 

Only those candidates are accepted who hare passed a satisfactory examination. 
The examination is one on the French and Latin languages, (or, in their place, 
Flemish, Dutch, or English,) history and geography, arithmetic, algebra, geome- 
try, trigonometry, analytical and descriptive geometry, and drawing. The 
students pay a tuition fee of $40 in the preparatory school and $20 in the special 
schools. The mode of discipline and the examinations are the same as at the Ecole 
Centrale des Arts et Mmufacturcs of Paris. Tbe number of scholars at the technical 
school in Liege was, in 1862, four hundred ; 185 of these were in the preparatory 
school, 74 in the school for mining, 85 in the school for manufactures, 31 in the 
machine department, and, finally, transient auditors of various subjects, 25. 

SCHOOL OF EXGINBERIN&, MANUFACTURES AND ARCHITECTURE AT GHENT. 

{Les Ecoles annexees a la Faculte des Sciences de Ghent.) 

This school belongs to the Faculty of Sciences at the University of Ghent, 
namely, a preparatory school and a special school for civil engineering, which is 
wanting in Liege ; a school for manufactures, and a school for those who wish to 
educate themselves for teachers in mathematics or in the natural sciences. It will 
be sufficient here to give the course of study in the first, which has two objects : 
first, to educate engineers for the public service ; and, second, to educate archi- 
tects for private edifices. A star means one term of six months. 

Preparatory School. 

First Yearns Course. — Differential and integral calculus, 4j hours per week; 
higher algebra, 4^* ; analytical geometry, 4j* ; descriptive geometry, 4j ; math- 
ematical philosophy, 1* ; experimental philosophy, 4^^ ; history and French liiera- 
ture, 2. 

Second Year's Course. — Analytical mathematics, 4|- hours per week; stereo t- 
omy, Ij*; chemistry, 4^; civil constructions, 3*; elements of geodesy and as- 
tronomy, .^* ; elements of machines, 3* ; calculation of probabilities and politi- 
ca-1 arithmetic, 2*. 

SCHOOL FOR ENGINEERS. — {EcoU Specialc du Genie Civil.) 

Higher Department. 

First Year. Second Year. Third Year. 
Science of constructions, (street and hydraulic 

construction) 3 3 3 

Architecture, building of houses 3 1^ 

Hydraulics 1^ - - 

Machines, science and construction l| 3 

Technical chemistry 1 _ _ 

Industrial philosophy _ 1 _ 

Mineralogy and geology 11- 

Business technology.- - — 1^ 

Technology of construction of machinery.... - - 1^ 

National agriculture 1 - - 

Administrative laws - - Ij 



622 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

In the lower department, the students of the two-years' course study some of 
the branches of the preparatory and engiueerinc^ school, especially descriptive 
geometry, elementary philosophy and mechanics, elements of machines and the 
science of machinery, science of constructions, architecture and technology, 
whereby students are enabled to pass the examination for ^' overseer of con- 
structions." 

The Ecole des Arts et Manufactures has a three-years' course, iii which some of the 
studies of the preparatory and engineering school, especially subjects pertaining 
to theoretical and practical mechanics, are combined into a three years' course. 

The collections are as good as those of the school at Liege. There are no ma- 
chine shops, but the government has made an arrangement with a machine man- 
ufacturer, whereby the latter is paid a sum of $200 per year for instructing a 
certain number of students in his machine shops. 

All the other relations, as of scholars and teachors, are like those of the schools 
at Liege, but the number of pupils in both is small. 

SCHOOL OP MINES AT HAINAULT. 

The Special School of Mines at Hainault was founded in 183Y. Its aim is to 
impart instruction directed to the intelligent exercise of all branches of industry, 
especially of mining. There are eleven teachers connected with it, and about sixty- 
seven pupils. The course extends over three years, and occupies two hours in the 
morning, and two in the afternoon. The method of teaching is that adopted at 
the universities, the branches taught being political economy, chemistry, physics, 
geometry and algebra, mechanics, metallurgy, geology, the working of mines, 
assaying, construction, and industrial design. 

Conditions of admission are : the candidates must be sixteen, have a knowledge 
of French, arithmetic — complete, elementary algebra, geometry, and linear draw- 
ing. 

At the end of the course, certificates of capacity in special branches are given, 
after stringent examinations before a jury named by the permanent deputation of 
the provincial council, and presided over by a member of the college. 

In 1864, thirteen were graduated ; eight in the section for the working of 
mines ; four for the mechanical section ; one for the metallurgic. The annual fee 
for tuition is sixty francs, but it is remitted to indigent pupils. There is a large 
collection of minerals and a growing one of physics, chemistry, and mechani'^s. 
These collections are partly contributed by the professors themselves. 



SCHOOLS OF COMMEKCE AND NAVIGATION 

IN BELGIUM. 



SUPERIOR SCHOOL OF COMMERCE AT ANTWERP. 

The Superior School of Commerce was established at Antwerp, as the princi- 
pal seaport and commercial metropolis of Belgium, by the city council, with the 
concurrence of the Minister of the Interior, by a royal decree of October 29, 1852. 

Its object is to train competent merchants and commercial agents by supplying 
an acknowledged deficiency in the system of public instruction — commercial 
studies not being provided for in the higher classes of the primary system, or in 
the general or special courses of the secondary or superior schools. 

The course of instruction occupies two years, in addition to certain attain- 
ments which the candidate must already have made, or must acquire in the pre- 
paratory school. 

The branches of the preparatory school comprise the French, German, and Eng- 
lish languages ; history, geography, book-keeping, arithmetic, algebra, geome- 
try, physics, and chemistry. 

Subjects Taught and Staff of Teachers. 

The subjects taught in the institution are arranged in two divisions, as follows : 

Theoretical Division. — 1, general history of commerce and industry ; 2, com- 
mercial and industrial geography ; 3^ political economy and statistics ; 4, an ex- 
position of the general principles of jurisprudence ; 5, comparison of commercial 
and maritime law, and the principles of the laws regulating the relations of com- 
merce ; 6, custom laws of Belgium and other important countries ; 7, the con- 
struction and the fitting out of ships. 

Practical Division. — 1, commercial and banking affairs and book-keeping. A 
commercial office has been established for the fictitious carrying on of these 
affairs ; 2, the study of natural productions ; fabrics commercially considered ; 3, 
correspondence in German and English, as well as in Italian and Spanish. 

The staff of teachers consists of a director, eight professors, three office clerks, 
and two superintending masters. 

Course of Study for the First Year. 

1. Commercial Office, {lower section.) — The length of the lessons given by the 
head clerk and two under clerks of the office is four hours daily. The subjects 
taught are as follows : fictitious negotiations carried on by a commercial house, 
in all kinds of business, (banking, merchandise, fitting out ships,) on its own ac- 
count, on commission, for part profits, &c. The application of commercial calcu- 
lations, and book-keeping, invoices, buying and selling accounts, accounts of 
expenses, current accounts, accounts for the return of merchandise, &c., opera- 
tions in exchange, arbitration, public funds, the entering of each transaction in 
books regularly and practically kept on the principle of double entry, bills of 

G23 



624 SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE IN BELGIUM. 

exchange, contracts of association, bills of invoice, bills of lading, charter par- 
ties, engrossing letters, contracts of assurance, accounts for recovering assurances 
and for special damages, the regulations concerning great damages, &c., usages 
peculiar to Antwerp and to the principal foreign places, comparison of weights, 
measures, &c. ; correspondence in French, English, and German, on the subject 
of giving and receiving orders concerning the purchase and sale of merchandise, 
the consignment of ships and their cargoes ; balance-sheet and settling of accounts 
at the end of '.he year. * 

The profes-ors of the English and German languages have also the superin- 
tendence of the German and English correspondence. 

2. Commercial Products. — This course is given on the specimens in the museum 
annexed to the institution ; three hours a week are devoted to it ; it comprises the 
examination and study of the produce of the mineral kingdom, of metallic and 
non-metallic substances, and of those belonging to the vegetable kingdom. 

There is a laboratory, in which the pupils are initiated into the operations of 
commercial chemistry. 

3. Political Economy and Statistics. — This class has three hours' lessons every 
week ; every branch connected with the science is taught. 

4. Commercial and Industrial Geography . — Three hours' lesson every week. 
Subjects of study, the topography and statistics of the different countries of 
Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, Australia and Polynesia. These instructions, 
drawn from the latest consular reports and the most recent communications, 
touch on the following points: 1, Topographic situation; soil; mineral, vege- 
table, and animal kingdoms; 2, social and political State institutions, their 
influence on the prosperity of the country; state of the public finances, national 
riches, prosperity, decay, their causes ; 3, principal productions of each country ; 
the productions which can be procured with profit from them ; tables of their 
exportations ; 4, principal productions which each country requires to import; 
those with which Belgium especially furnishes them ; those with which she could 
furnish them in addition ; tables of their importations; 5, a sketch of the legisla- 
tive economy and customs' duties of each country ; obstacles and facilities met by 
commerce in them ; tastes, habits of the population with relation to commerce ; 6, 
detailed information concerning the principal places of commerce, their impor- 
tance, their manner of conducting mercantile affairs, &c.; origin and determinate 
causes of the commercial relations between different countries. 

5. Law^ {the general principles.) — This course occupies an hour every week. 

6. German. — Two hours' lesson a week. 

7. English. — 'Two hours' lesson a week. 

8. Spanish. — Two hours' lesson a week. 

9. Italian. — Two hours' lesson a week. 

Course for the Second Tear. 

I. Commercial Office^ {higher section.) — The lessons last four hours daily. 

The subjects forming the object of this course are : The completion of the study 
of the conditions of purchase and sale, and the general usages in commercial 
places in different parts of the world ; formation of several sections established in 
different countries, and representing different commercial houses, fitting of ships, 
commission, assurance, banking, &c. ; importations, exportations and transits; 
book-keeping ; accounts ; creation, receiving and endorsing bills ; operations of the 
exchange; giving and receiving instructions ; the practical application of matters 
learned theoretically in the other classes ; disputed questions ; practical operations 
applying the knowledge acquired in the first course ; accounts in each section; 
the commercial, financial, and industrial relations to be observed with each trading 
country ; correspondence in French, English, German, Spanish, and Italian com- 
mercial advices. 

Besides daily information from the Exchange at Antwerp, the commercial office 
receives advices and journals regularly from London, from Liverpool, from New 
York, from Havana, from Rio Janeiro, from Valparaiso, from Sydney, from India, 
from China, from Odessa, from Hamburg, from Amsterdam, from Havre, kc. All 
this information is communicated to the pupils whom it concerns, in the original 
language. 

The professors of foreign languages superintend the letters composed in different 
languages. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE IN BELGIUM. 625 

2. History of the Products of Commerce. — This course, comprising three hours' 
lesson in the week, relates to the following matters : continuation of the examina- 
tion and study of the produce of the vegetable kingdom, of the animal kingdom, 
and of manufactured fabrics. 

3. General History of Commerce and Industry. — This course, comprising two 
hours' lesson a week, is divided into four periods, viz : 1, antiquity ; 2, middle 
ages ; 3, renaissance ; 4, modern times. 

4. Commercial and Marine Laws Compared ; Principles of the Laws of Nations. — 
Three hours a week are devoted to this course ; it comprises a complete study of 
the commercial code, including the modifications it has received up to the present 
time, maritime law, and the law of nations in its relation to commerce. 

5. Custom Regulations. — Two hours' lesson a week. 

6. Ship-huilding and Fitting. — One hour's lesson a week; this class is public 
and gratuitous. 

7. Commercial and Industrial Geography. — Three hours' lesson a week. The 
same subjects are taught as in the first year's course. 

8. Political Economy and Statistics. — Three hours' lesson a week ; same subjects 
as those comprised in the first year. 

9. German, [higher section.) — Two hours' lesson a week. 

10. English, {higher section.) — Two hours' lesson a week. 

11. Italian, (higher section.) — Two hours' lesson a week. 

12. Spanish, [higher section.) — Two hours' lesson a week. 

The pupils follow only one of the last two courses, at their choice. 

Since the commencement of the school year. 1 865-' 66, instead of four hours' 
lesson a week, the professors of modern languages give six hours. 

The method of teaching is, for the actual classes, analogous to those of the 
universities. The professor lays down some axioms, and enlarges on them during 
his lesson, leaving the pupil to make notes of the lecture. 

Toward the end of the term, repetitions and catechising are organized, with a 
view to preparing the pupils for examination. 

In the language classes the teaching is more personal. This is also the case in 
the commercial ofiBce, which, properly speaking, is only a simulated counting- 
house for commercial transactions. 

The professor of the history of the products of commerce supplements his 
course by several experimental lectures beyond the hours fixed for the course of 
studies. 

Repetitions of commercial arithmefic, given by one of the masters, complete the 
teaching of the commercial oflBce. 

All the courses of the institution begin between the 10th and 15th October ; they 
are given in French. The affairs of the commercial office are carried on in the 
principal modern languages. 

Practical lectures on the principal articles of commerce, merchandise, the opera- 
tion of the Exchange, may be given to the pupils of the second year, either by 
brokers, merchants, or other practical persons. The pupils visit, in company with 
the director, the principal commercial and industrial establishments of the city 
and its environs. 

The different lectures are given, morning and evening, before and after the office 
hours of the institution and the private offices of the merchants of Antwerp, in 
order to make attendance on them easy to every one. 

The materials for teaching comprise the necessary apparatus for chemical ex- 
periments, having for their object the testing of the genuineness of goods. 

A museum of specimens of natural and manufactured products, and a special 
library, are annexed to the institution. The government furnishes the exotic pro- 
ductions through the medium of the Belgian consuls ; the indigenous productions 
are obtained either from the government, or from the manufacturers or merchants 
of the country^ These collections will ere long become a permanent exhibition 
of all which is industrially and commercially interesting to the country. 

Pupils. 

Each pupil must enter himself annually on the books of the institution ; the 
entrance fee is 25 francs. 

This payment is divided among the professors and masters, in proportion to the 
lessons given. 



626 SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE IN BELGIUM. 

The pupil on the list is allowed to be entered for the course ; this entry is general 
or special. 

The general entry to all the classes for the first year cannot be obtained by the 
pupils until they have passed a preparatory examination, qualifying them with 
the title of scholars of the first year. The fee for this entry is 200 francs. 

The general entrance to all the classes of the secon-d year cannot be granted to 
pupils until they have passed an examination on all the subjects connected with 
the first year's teaching, entitling them to be called pupils of the second year. 
The fee is 250 francs. 

Only half this sum is paid for each renewing of the general entrance. 

Persons who do not desire to pass examinations may attend one or several of 
the classes on the payment of forty francs ; or in case of the renewal of attendance, 
twenty francs. 

The special entrance to the commercial ofiice is 100 francs a year. This entrance 
is only granted to pupils previously entered with special title to at least three 
classes of the first or second yeat of study, not comprising the language classes. 

Special entrance is granted at any period of the year. No reduction of fee is 
made after the commencement of the courses. 

No certificate is required for such entrance, except in the commercial office, 
when the candidate is submitted to an examination before the head clerk, on the 
elements of book-keeping. French, the rudiments of German and English, and 
commercial arithmetic. 

The pupils entered with a special title cannot obtain a diploma on leaving the 
institution. 

JExaminations. 

The examinations are gratuitous. The examination of the pupils of the first 
year (examinations for admission) takes place once every' year, during the first 
week in October, before a commission appointed by the Minister of the Interior, 
and presided over by the director. 

The subjects for examination are those taught in the professional sections of 
colleges, and in the preparatory school annexed to the institution ; they are — 

I.'a composition in French, and a translation from French or Flemish into 
English or German. 

2. General geography. 

3. The elements of universal history, (ancient history, history of the middle 
ages, modern history.) The Minister of the Interior fixes every year, in the 
month of January, what portion of universal history shall form the subject of ex- 
amination for the October following. 

4. Arithmetic and its application to commerce, the elements of algebra, and 
geometry. 

5. The elements of book-keeping. 

■ 6. The rudiments of physics and chemistry. 

This .programme may be modified for foreigners, especially as regards languages. 

The pupils who have passed their first examination in some college or academy 
in the kingdom are exempt from this examination, as are those who hare received 
the certificate of primus in the German gymnasiums, or who can give proof that 
they have completed their preparatory studies, always supposing that they pos- 
sess a tolerable knowledge of French and two other languages. 

The-examination of .the pupils of the second year takes place before the body of 
professors, united in a special commission, and presided over by the director, be- 
tween the 6th and 10th of August annually. The subjects for examination are 
namedin the programme. 

After the sceond year, juries, nominated by the Minister of the Interior, award 
to the pupils having the -requisite knowledge diplomas of proficiency; and the 
recipient of this diploma, if a diploma of "great distinction," is eligible for the 
travelling money granted. 

The government commissioner, in reporting on the operation of this school in 
.1866, states : 

The pupils entered, numbered 19 for the school year 1861-2, 60 for that of 
1862-3, n for.that of 1863-4, and 70 for that of 1864-5. 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE IN BELGIUM. 627 

During this period of four years, 32 pupils have gone up for their final exami- 
nation and to obtain diplomas of proficiency, 23 passed with success, 9 were 
turned back; among the pupils who succeeded 13 have passed satisfactorily, 6 
with distinction, 2 with great distinction, and 2 with the highest distinction. 

The number of pupils entered for the courses of the school year, 1865-6, reached 
65, distributed as follows: 

First Year. — Copamercial office and correspondence, 5*7 pupils ; history and 
products of commerce, 37 ; political economy, 45 ; commercial geography, 39 ; 
law, (rudiments,) 35; German, 46; English, 53; Spanish, 36; Italian, IV. 

Second Year. — Commercial office and correspondence, 5Y pupils ; history of 
commercial products, 14; history of commerce, l"? ; commercial and maritime 
law, 14; customs laws, 12; foreign languages, (see 1st year ;) ship-building and 
fitting, 17. 

Of the 65 pupils entered, 38 have been entered for the general course, after ex- 
amination, or after furnishing proofs that they have completed their preparatory 
studies. The others have followed the special courses as free pupils. 

The examinations have yielded the following results : out of 14 pupils who en- 
tered themselves for the examination for promotion, 3 withdrew, and 11 were ad- 
mitted as pupils for the second year. Twenty-five pupils have presented themselves 
for admission ; 12 were admitted with certificates, 11 after examination, one was 
turned back, and one withdrew. 

In the month of August, 1866, 7 pupils underwent their final examination ; one 
was turned back, and 6 obtained the diploma of proficiency, viz : one with distinc- 
tion and honorable mention, and 5 satisfactorily. 

In 1864, travelling money was granted to three pupils, in order that they might 
complete their commercial studies in India, Mexico, and in the East, Two others 
obtained grants to enable them to visit Mexico and North America. In 1865, 
three old pupils received travelling money and the title of Consul-pupil, to enable 
them to complete their education abroad. 

SCHOOLS OF NAVIGATION. 

There are in Belgium two schools of navigation— at Antwerp and at Ostend. 
Their reorganization dates from the regulation of October lY, 1833, and February 
19, 1849, with slight modifications in 1857. Scholars are admitted during the 
first weeks of October and March every year. Instruction is made free by sti- 
pends, and is given all the year rouSd for at least six hours every day. 

The course embraces the following subjects : geometry, stereometry, trigonom- 
etry, nautical astronomy, navigation, meteorology, commercial sciences applied to 
navigation, and English. As often as possible during the year practical lessons 
are given on board a merchant vessel. 

Annual examinations are held for the scholars of both schools by an examining 
jury, composed of professors of the two schools, which gives certificates to successful 
students. These examinations are open to persons who have not attended the 
school, but have in some other way acquired a knowledge of navigation. The 
certificates of competence entitle the holder to the privilege of " captain," "lieu- 
tenant," and "mate," and without which these functions cannot be performed. 

Each school has eight whole and sixteen half stipends ; the former of 400 francs 
and the latter of 200 francs. 

The inspector, who superintends both schools, is appointed by the government ; 
and each school has a local board of administration. 

The total sum annually appropriated is 19,000 francs. 

The navigation school at Antwerp has four professors, and numbers 53 pupils ; 
that at Ostend has three professors and 68 pupils. 

There is a professor of navigation at Nieuport who gives instruction to a class 
of professional seamen, who can present themselves for examination to the jury- 
named above. 



AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS AND INSTRUCTION 

IN BELGIUM. 



In Belgium the great leading industry of agriculture has from an 
early period received the attention of enterprising and public-spirited 
citizens, as well as the protecting aid of government. So early as 
1645, the husbandry of Flanders was so far advanced that the account 
of it by Sir Richard Weston, published by Hartlib in London in that 
year, was thought to have added millions to the productive industry of 
England, by modifying its system of tillage; and for this timely publi- 
cation, Hartlib received from Cromwell a yearly pension of £100. 

The public aid to this great interest is now organized as follows : 

I. — SUPERIOR COUNCIL OP AGRICULTURE. 

The Superior Council of Agriculture is composed of two delegates, 
selected annually by each provincial commission by ballot, and of mem- 
bers appointed by the king. The number of the latter is not to exceed 
half the number of delegates from provincial commissions. The offi- 
cers consist of a president and two vice presidents, nominated by the 
king for each session, and a secretary, who keeps the records. 

This council gives advice on subjects submitted by the government, 
and discusses, from the stand-point of general interest, the wishes 
expressed by the provincial Commissions of- Agriculture, or proposi- 
tions relating to agriculture made by members of the council in the 
name of provincial commissions or in their own name. The subjects 
submitted to the investigation of the council have been, in advance, 
brought to the knowledge of the provincial commissions and of the 
members of the council. The deliberations of the council, and the 
documents relating thereto, are printed at the expense of the govern- 
ment. 

The members serve without pay^ but their mileage and other ex- 
penses, under the action of the council, are paid from the budget of 
the Interior Department. 

II. — ^PROVINCIAL COMMISSIONS OF AGRICULTURE. 

Each province has a Commission of Agriculture, composed of farm- 
ers or agriculturists, equal in number to that of agricultural districts 



630 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 

in the province. A veterinary surgeon of the government is also a 
member of the commission. 

No one can be a member of the provincial commission unless he is 
also a member of a local agricultural committee or society. 

The members of the provincial commissions of agriculture are ap- 
pointed by the king from a double list of candidates presented by the 
agricultural committees or societies, as nominated in a general meet- 
ing. 

The veterinary surgeon is appointed from the candidates proposed by 
the provincial commission. 

No agricultural committee or society of less than 25 members is 
entitled to representation in the provincial commission. One-third of 
the provincial commissions is renewed each year ; the members can be 
re-elected. The delegate of the province commission must habitually 
reside in the district he represents. 

The king appoints the president from the members of the commission ; 
also the secretary. The latter has no voice in the deliberations. The 
governor of the province, if he thinks necessary, can preside at the 
general meetings of the commission. 

III. — AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS AND SOCIETIES. 

In every agricultural district, which has not a society of agriculture, 
an association is to be formed ; if a district has not a sufficient number of 
communes for this purpose, it must join a neighboring district. 

The objects of the association are : 

1. To promote improvements in agriculture, approved by experience. 

2. To give to the administration such information as appears useful 
and in the interest of agriculture. 

3. To co-operate with the provincial commission of agriculture. 

4. To superintend the execution of regulations in regard to provincial 
or national expositions of agricultural products. 

The association is composed of — 

a. The members of the commission of agriculture and the veterinary 
surgeons of the government residing within the territorial limits of the 
commune . 

h. An unlimited number of members from the different parts of the 
agricultural district. 

Each proprietor or farmer living in the agricultural district is ad- 
mitted, if he desires, unless incapacitated by civil law. 

The association establishes a common fund, into which an equal sum 
is paid by each member, fixed by resolution of a general meeting. 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM, 631 

This fund, together with the subsidies of the state and the province, 
is destined to defray — 

1. Expenses of administration. 

2. Expenses of fairs and expositions. 

3. All expenses for the purpose of facilitating agricultural improve 
ments within the district. 

Members not paying their contributions within the first quarter of the 
year are excluded from the association. 

The association is administered by a president, vice president, secre- 
tary, treasurer, and a counsellor. All officers are elected by ballot for 
three years, and are re-eligible, one-third going out each year. 

In 1864 the different agricultural associations of the state included 
14,315 members. 

Every year a distribution of prizes takes place within the association. 
The prizes consist of medals with the likeness of the king, numbered, 
or in implements of use in the district. 

In the general meeting of the second half of every year, the associa- 
tion defines the principles of competition for the next exhibition, the 
mode in which the prizes will be awarded for agricultural and horticul- 
tural products, for the best cattle, or farming instruments, &c. This 
programme must be approved and is generally approved by the authori- 
ties of the association^ that all inhabitants may have an opportunity to 
concur. 

The competition is principally for the purpose of encouraging — 

1. Persons whose agricultural or horticultural establishments are 
kept with the greatest care, and managed on the best principles. 

2. Those who have introduced essential improvements in one of the 
branches of agricultural industry. 

3. Those who raise the handsomest and best cattle. 

4 Those who have manufactured or introduced, or those who use 
the best instruments for farming or rural economy. 

5. The artisans, masters or fellows, who by their profession benefit 
agricultural industry, whose intelligence, services, and deportment are 
regularly verified. 

Special juries, nominated by the officers of the association, pronounce 
on the merit of the competitors ; these juries must be selected from 
competent persons outside of the district, and cannot participate in the 
prizes. 

IV. — EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. 

By the organic law of July 18, I860, the state established the fol- 
lowing institutions for instruction in agriculture and kindred subjects : 



632 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 

1. An agricultural school. 

2. Two practical schools of horticulture. 

3. A veterinary school. 

4. School of forestry. 

I.-STATE AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT QEMBLOXJX, 

The agricultural school was founded at the expense of the state in 
G-embloux. 

GOURSK OF INSTRUCTION. 

The course of instruction embraces — 

1.- — Theoretical Instruction. 

a. ^MraZ en^m^erm^r, comprising: elementary algebra, plane geometry, stereom- 
etry, surveying, levelling, linear design, the elements of mechanics, the construc- 
tion of farming instruments, agiicultural machines, country roads and buildings, 
drainage and watering. 

h. Physical and chemical sciences: natural philosophy, meteorology, inorganic 
and organic chemistry, as applied to agriculture, chemical analysis, and agricul- 
tural technology. 

c. Natural history : mineralogy, geology, botany and zoology, as applied to 
agriculture. 

d. Zootechnyy comprising the elements of anatomy and animal physiology, 
exterior hygiene, production, raising, improvement, and training of domestic 
animals. 

e. Cultivation, including general and special agriculture, forest culture, tree 
and horticulture. 

/. Rural and forest economy, comprehending the principles of social economy, the 
system of cultivation, distribution of crops, agricultural stock, theory of vegeta- 
bles, animals, agricultural arts, woods and forests, as belonging to rural explora- 
tion, land and forest administration. 

g. Rural laws : the elementary principles of civil law ; the decrees, regula- 
tions, and special laws of interest to the proprietor and farmer. 

h. Agricultural accounts. 

2. — Practical Course. 

The practical course embrace the application of the preceding. 

a. Rural engineering : exercises in linear de.sign, surveying, mensuration, gauging 
of waters, plans, devices, and execution of works of drainage and watering, 
plans and devices of rural construction. 

h. Physical and chemical sciences: chemical manipulations, examination and 
analysis of soil, pasture, and the several products of agricultural industry ; visits 
to brick-works, lime-kilns, factories of drainage-tubs, starch-factories, breweries, 
distilleries, sugar-factories, &c. 

c. Natural history : herborization, excursions for geology and mineralogy. 

d. Zootechny : demonstrations for tlie course in anatomy and physiology ; 
harnessing, grooming, management of animals for the slaughter-house, of milk- 
cows, of working oxen, of wool-growing beasts; examination of animals for sale, 
visiting studs, stables, flocks, market, expositions ; sanitary visits, and attendance 
at veterinary operations, &c. 

e. Cultivation : use of implements, instruments, vehicles, machines ; prepara- 
tory labor of the soil, tilth, harrowing, manuring, seed, and artificial multipli- 
cation ; weeding, second dressing, hilling, watering, cutting of trees ; hay^ 
making, harvesting various crops ; mowing, thrashing, &c. : visiting special 
places of cultivation, gardens, forests, nurseries, and agricultural work. 

/. Rural economy : organization of agricultural work, and reports on explora- 
tions under superintendence of the pupils : estimates, plans of farming, visiting 
of farms, &c. 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN BtlLGIUM. 633 

h. Agricultural accounts : keeping of books in reference to special cultivation ; 
openiiior, keeping and closing of accounts, balances, inventory, budget, balance- 
sheet, &c. 

For practical instruction, they have a farm, cultivated by the state, an agricul- 
tural and industrial establishment, under direction of the Society of Gembloux, 
special tracts of land for experimental cultivation, and gardens. 

The course of instruction embraces four years. A boarding-house is connected 
with the institution. 

3. — Teachers. 

The personnel of *[.he institute consists of one director and one sub-director j- five 
professors, among whom one is charged with keeping the accounts of the estab- 
lishments, three monitors, one steward, one gardener, two overseers, and the persons 
necessary for the interior service. 
The director, appointed by the state, receives a salary of 4,000-5 000 francs. 
The sub-director, appointed by the state, receives a salary of 3,500-4,500 francs. 
The professors, '^ " " " " 3,000-4,000 " 

The steward, " *' " " " 2,000-2,500 " 

The monitors, " " " <' " 1,500-2,000 " 

4 . — Supervision . 

A committee of five members, appointed by the state, is entrusted with the 
chief supervision of the agricultural institute. This committee is renewed every 
two years ; but the old members may be reappointed. It is their office to advise 
on the expenditures and accounts; to control the studies, administration and 
discipline. They can visit the different classes and localities ; examine the books 
of the director and the book-keeper ; inspect the material, the collections, and 
the boarding-house. Each year they report to the Minister of Interior the result 
of their visitations. 

At the close of every scholastic year the committee of supervision, the director, 
and the teachers meet in council, to deliberate on such improvements in the system 
of instruction, administration, and interior management as the experience of the 
year may suggest. 

5. — Pupils. 

Pupils cannot be admitted befoi;p they are 16 years of age ; outside pupils at 
18 years. They must pass a satisfactory examination, from which are exempt 
those who have obtained an academical degree. At the end of every year public 
examinations in theory and practice of agriculture take place ; and certificates 
are given to the pupils who have finished the three-years' course. The annual 
contribution for boarding pupils is 700 francs ; for outside pupils, 300 francs, 
paid quarterly in advance. 

II.-STATE PRACTICAL HORTICULTURAL SCHOOL AT VILVORDE. 

A practical school of horticulture has been established at Vilvorde, 
under the auspices of the state. 

COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 

Botanic : Anatomical elements of plants and organs of nutrition. 

Floriculture : cultivation of herbaceous plants. 

CultivaHon of kitchen vegetables, pot herbs. 

Horticulture : Succinct study of the parts which constitute the ligneous organi- 
zation, and the necessary knowledge of the functions of these parts ; general 
principles of multiplication of trees and shrubberies ; special cultivation of pear 
and apple trees. 

Arithmetic : fractions and problems. 

French and Flemish languages : Elementary grammar to syntax ; grammatical 
and logical analysis ; composing notes on practical work. 

Practical labor : Digging, clipping. 



634 AGRICDLTURAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 

III.-STATE VETERINARY SCHOOL AT CUREQHEM. 

The veterinary school at Cureghem is under one director and eight 
professors, with four monitors, an accountant, steward, clerk, and two 
servants. A physician, also, is attached to the school. - 

CONDITION OP ADMISSION. , 

Previous to admission, pupils are required to pass an examination in 
the following matters : * 

1 . Frmch language : Exercises on grammar, especially syntax ; grammatical 
and logical analysis ; composition of a given subject, narrative or letter. 

2. Arithmetic: The four rules applied to number; vulgar, decimal, and com- 
pound fractions ; divisibility of numbers ; periodical decimal fractions ; square 
and cube root; proportions; rule of three, simple and compound ; rule of interest, 
discount, and partnership ; alligation and mixture; progressions; metrical system. 

3. Algebra : Object — explanation of signs ; reduction of similar terms ; addition 
and subtraction ; rule or signs of subtraction ; rule of mutiplication ; remarks 
on these rules ; division of monomials and of polynomials ; solution of equations 
with one and two quantities ; problems. 

4. Geometry. — {a.) Plane: Demonstration of theorems and solution of problems 
contained in the first three books of Legendre; inscription of regular polygons in 
a circle : expression of the measure of circumference ; ar«^a of circle. 

(6.) Geometry of space: Definition of terms; measure of prism; truncated 
prism ; pyramid ; truncated pyramid ; area of cone, of truncated cone ; solidity 
of fone and truncated cone; area of cylinder; solidity of cylinder; area of 
sphere; area of zone; solidity of sphere; solidity of spheric sector; solidity of 
spheric segment vrith two bases ; solidity of regular polyhedron. 

5. Geography : General, of Belgium ; political divisions ; provinces ; arrondisse- 
ments ; cantons ; communes ; cities ; population ; celebrated men ; special indus- 
try ; commerce ; fortified places ; sea ports ; physical constitution ; basins ; 
plains ; plateaux ; course of water ; rivers ; animal , vegetable and mineral 
products ; special products of each province ; travelling by land and water ; 
geographical nomenclature ; general knowledge of surrounding states ; Europe ; 
the parts of the world. 

6. History: Detailed history of Belgium; universal history; facts connected 
with national history ; the period of the Francs ; feudal ; House of Burgundy, of 
Austria ; Spanish and German branch ; war of Spanish succession ; war of Aus- 
trian succession ; Marie Theresa ; Brabantine revolution ; French empire ; 
kingdom of Netherlands ; Belgium independent. 

These examinations take place once per year, and the programme is published. 

COURSE OP INSTRUCTION. 

The course of instruction embraces a term of four years, and is divided in four 
classes, as follows : 

A. First year: Natural philosophy ; chemistry; botany; descriptive anatomy 
of the horse ;. dissections ; principles of horse-shoeing ; herborization. 

B. Second year : Natural philosophy ; chemistry ; descriptive and comparative 
anatomy of domestic animals ; general anatomy ; physiology ; dissections ; prin- 
ciples of horse-shoeing ; chemical manipulations. 

C. Third year : Materia medica and pharmacyclynamic ; pharmacology ; 
pathology and general therapeutics ; pathology and special therapeutics ; patho- 
logical anatomy ; zootechnic farriery applied ; anatomy of regions ; operative 
surgery ; clinic ; practical exercises in zootechnic ; pharmaceutic manipulations. 

D. Fourth year: Pathology and special therapeutics; surgical pathology; 
obstetrics ; farriery applied ; anatomy of regions ; practical operative medicine ; 
legal medicine ; sanitary police ; practical exercises in zootechnic ; clinic ; phar- 
maceutical manipulations. 

Every year, at the end of the course, is held a general examination for the pur- 
pose of ascertaining what pupils can be admitted to the superior courses. 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 635 

A boarding-house is connected with the school. 

The degree of veterinary surgeon is bestowed upon those pupils who have 
passed one year in the highest class, and who pass a final examination in a satis- 
factor}- manner, with distinction, with great distinction, or with greatest dis- 
tinction. 

IV -FOKESTKY SCHOOL AT BOUILLON. 

This school was established by royal decree of April 22, 1864, at 
Bouillon, province of Luxemburg. 

COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 

A two-years' course embraces the following instructions : 

First Year. 

French Language : Recapitulation of syntax — principles of style, especially 
epistolary ; Composition : Narratives, descriptions, letters and reports. 

Mathematics : Review of arithmetic, rule of interest and discount; plane geome- 
try, measure of surfaces ; elementary algebra ; rectilinear trigonometry, levelling by 
square and graphometer. 

Natural History : Botanic — elementary organs, cells, fibres, tubes, contents, de- 
velopment, grouping ; Compound Organs : Anatomical structure of the stem of 
the dicotyledons — medul'a, sheath, wood, bark, root, leaf, bud, ramification, 
flower, cover, stamen, pistil. 

Reproduction : Fruit, grain, germ. 

Physiology : Structure of plants; sources of alimentation; organic principles ; 
inorganic principles. 

Immediate Principles : Neuters, superoxygens, superhydrogens, azotes. 

Nutrition of Vegetables : Absorption, elaboration, growing of wood, germina- 
tion. 

Nomenclature: Linne's system — natural method. Principal families of trees. 

Mineralogy : Mineral species ; rocks — exterior, crystallographic, and chemical 
qualities. Principal minerals — quartz, lime, gypsum, clay, felspar. 

Forest economy : Definition, subdivision, sylvaculture. Preliminaries— funda- 
mental principles. Elements— their action on vegetation. Soil — its composition and 
qualities. Cutting, dressing, measuyng, sale, qualities and defects of wood. Car- 
bonization, Wood for industrial purposes ; how to estimate its contents and value. 
Design. 

Second Year. 

French Language : Composition, elocution, style, rhetoric, poetry. 

Mathematics : Geometry and dimensions ; levelling by compass ; topographical 
levelling; elementary principles of construction of roads. 

Natural History : Geology — exterior and interior agent. Zoology : anatomy, 
physiology, classification, mammalia, birds, useful and injurious insects, fresh 
water fishes. 

Forestry Economy : Management of forest ; inventory ; special statistics ; sys- 
tem of exploration. 

Legislation and Jurisprudence : Elementary principles of political and adminis- 
trative laws ; forest code ; laws in regard to fishing and hunting ; commentaries ; 
decisions. 

Graphic Work: Draft by compass ; longitudinal and sectional profiles of roads, 
ditches, culverts, vessels, machines, plans, &c. 



ACADEMIES OF THE FINE ARTS AND SCHOOLS OF DESIGN, 

(Compiled from Official Documents.; 



I. — HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 



To understand thoroughly any institution, it is not sufficient to know 
its present condition, but inquiries must be made into the causes which 
gave it birth, the circumstances which aided or obstructed its develop- 
ment, and the modifications to which it was subjected on account of 
changes in the customs of the time and in the wants which the institu- 
tion was intended to supply. 

In tracing the development of instruction in art in Belgium, we 
recognize four periods since the first art association or guild was 
founded at Antwerp, in the 14th century, down to the present time. 

Period I. — Although public institutions for promoting the science 
and art of design, as we now find them organized and administered, 
are of comparatively recent origin, associations or guilds of artists, who 
opened their schools under the patronage of St. Luke, existed as early 
as the 14th century at Venice, Florence, and Paris. At first, mem- 
bership was confined to persons of the same pursuit, and their exclu- 
sive object was to recruit their own ranks. In the 17th century they 
began to admit more liberally from other professions, and adopted the 
denomination of Academy, under which name they were established at 
Rome, Paris, Antwerp, Nuremberg, Berlin, and Dresden. Between 
the years 1711 and 1781 the movement to bring instruction in graphic 
and plastic art within reach of the people had extended to Padua, Bo- 
logne, Augsburg, Florence, Stuttgart, London, Mantua, Amsterdam, 
Munich, Cassel, Turin, Weimar, Bordeaux, and Frankfort. 

The establishment of a school and association at Antwerp was due to 
the efforts of the eminent painter, David Teniers, the younger, who 
began to agitate the matter in 1648, shortly after the foundation of that 
at Paris ; and the letters patent of Philip IV, which gave it the title 
of Royal Academy, as well as certain privileges, are dated from the 
month of July, 1663. These privileges consisted in eight franchises, 
which, carrying with them exemption from taxes, contributions, and 
other charges, were sold, and became a kind of subsidy from the State. 

The first attempt in Brussels was made in 1711 by the association of 



638 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

artists, but the academy had a sickly existence until 1763, when it was 
adopted by the municipality. Bruges organized its school in 1720 ; 
Ghent, in 1750 ; Tournai, in 1757; Courtrai, in 1760; Malines, in 
1771; Ath, in 1772; Oudenarde, in 1773; Liege, about 1775, and 
Ypres, in 1779. Generafly, these institutions were founded not by 
artists, but by associations of citizens. In Brussels, the corporation of 
tapestry-workers, painters, and sculptors, judging that a knowledge of 
art was indispensable to artisans of their respective professions, estab- 
lished a public school of design, and petitioned the magistrates to al- 
low them the occupancy of a room in the City Hall. In Bruges, 
also, a Free Academy of Painting and Architecture was erected at the 
expense of the corporation of painters; and this institution has pre- 
served its independent organization to this day. The only aid they 
asked from the magistrates was a suitable hall. *In Ghent, an artist- 
painter procured the establishment of a school of design by starting a 
subscription among the citizens, and soliciting from the public authori- 
ties the use of a public hall. The academy at Malines was established 
in the same way, but the academies in Tournai and Liege originated 
with the authorities ; in the former instance with a view to perfect the 
manufacture of china. 

The movement thus widely manifested in these enterprising cities 
had its inspiration in the universal demand of European society to escape 
from the yoke of corporations and guilds, which weighed heavily on the 
most important industries, and by the establishment of schools to train 
a larger number of real artists. 

The preamble of the ordinance of Marie Theresa, dated March 20, 
1773, which responded to the aspirations of the most enlightened men 
in the province of Brabant, reads as follows : ' ' We have seen with re- 
gret that the liberal arts, which give so much honor to the country in 
which they flourish, have been confounded with the mechanical arts, and 
that in some cities of this province artists are obliged to become members 
of guilds composed mainly of workmen and artisans." The decree de- 
clares that painting, sculpture, engraving, and architecture are not 
derogatory to nobility, and that every man may freely practise these arts 
and dispose of their products in the market. This decree was originally 
applicable only to the Duchy of Brabant, to which belonged Antwerp, 
as well as Malines and Liraburg; but in 1773 it was extended to all the 
provinces of the Austrian dominion in the Netherlands. 

From this date academies and schools of instruction in art were mul- 
tiplied ; the local authorities interested themselves more and more in 
them, and the communes in various ways aided them, royalty doing 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM 639 

but little beyond a moral patronage and sanction, which, however, was 
of some advantage. The character of this latter aid is easily under- 
stood by reading the letters patent relating to the Academy of Ghent of 
September 14, 177J : 

** Her Majesty, desiring to encourage the re-establishment of an 
Academy of Design, Painting, and Architecture in the City of Ghent, 
as well as to promote a taste for the fine arts generally, has, with the 
advice of her Privy Council and the council of his Euighness the Duke 
Charles Alexander, Duke of Lorraine and Bar, her Lieutenant Governor 
and Captain General of the Netherlands, declared, and does declare : 

"1. That she has pleased to take said academy under her royal 
protection and to give it her good will. 

"2. That this academy can consequently be styled 'Royal Academy 
of Design, Painting and Architecture.' 

" 3. That this academy shall be regulated by the laws and statutes 
already decreed by the magistracy of Ghent, and that in this respect, as 
in all others, it remain subject to the superintendence of the said magis- 
tracy. 

" 4. That the president and directors of said academy are permitted 
to have engraved and make use of a special seal, after a design given 
in their petition, with this inscription : ' Sigillum acad. art., pict., et 
architect., Gliemt,'' and below, ' Renovato, anno 1770.' 

" 5. That they may cause to be struck at the mint of her Majesty in 
the city of Brussels, at the expense of the academy, the medals which 
this academy may require for the distribution of prizes. 

" 6. And, finally, her Majesty is pleased to grant to students who dis- 
tinguished themselves in this academy the same number and kind of 
prizes she has thought fit to accord to similar academies in the cities of 
Brussels, Antwerp, and Bruges, namely : for the first prize, a gold 
medal, with ring; for the second prize, a similar medal, not gold; and 
for the third prize, a medal not gold, and without ring. A copy of the 
present to be sent to the magistracy of Ghent for their information and 
direction." 

In their origin, it will be seen, the academies were neither communal 
nor state institutions, and were as independent of both as they could 
be at that time, receiving from the magistracy or the commune only 
the use of a hall and small subsidies towards annual expenses. 

From the time of Marie Theresa, the academies relinquished or were 
gradually deprived of their exclusive privileges, which they exchanged 
for certain advantages that the communes secured to them ; but the 
change was not effected without a struggle and protestations, as in the 
case of the Academy of Brussels. The pupils, in 1762, applied to the 
Governor General to obtain redress, as they considered, from the action 
of the magistracy in infringing the right of free association, to which 
the school owed its foundation, and which till then had never been 



640 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

contested. The petitioners represent that at the request of a number 
of artists, the magistracy of the city had granted a room in the City 
Hall for the purpose of establishing an academy, the expenses of which 
were to be borne by the pupils ; that the latter not being able to con- 
tribute the whole of the expense, the magistracy, in th« year 1759, 
made them a grant of ten pistoles per year, continued to this day, 
leaving the care of all other matters, including the conduct of the 
pupils, to the directors elected by the members, who always made 
choice of an eminent artist ; that since the year 1759 the magistracy 
had attempted to appoint the directors of the academy, without regard 
to their reputation as painters, sculptors, and architects, and had nomi- 
nated members of their own body, who know nothing of the art of 
design, and are not capable of instructing young students. In view of 
this action of the magistracy, the petitioners unanimously requested to 
be allowed to retain and continue their ancient director, who was well 
known as one of the best artists and designers of this city ; but instead 
of acceding to their request, one of the city treasurers had come to the 
academy, ^accompanied by a director of their choice, and had ordered the 
petitioners to acknowledge him as director or to withdraw ; whereupon 
all, with few exceptions, retired, and since then the academy had been 
inactive. Deprived of the advantages of this academy under these 
circumstances, the petitioners beg for the special protection with which 
your Highness has always honored the arts." 

The magistracy of Brussels, to whom the petition was referred for 
their advice, recite the facts, as follows : 

" By resolution of September 30, 1711, the magistracy granted the 
request of the painters, sculptors and others, for a room in the City 
Hall, to be used for instruction in design ; and by another resolution, in 
1712, light and fuel were granted. The students contributed towards 
the expense for models and other necessary things. In 1729, they 
asked for a grant of 100 florins, which was accorded, and in 1737 they 
received a present of 50 florins to celebrate their 25th anniversary. In 
1737, the academy adopted, by permission, a system of regula- 
tions, by which the burgomasters and senior treasurer were made 
honorary patrons, and the appointment of five directors, citizens of 
Brussels by birth, provided for, one to be elected by the students on 
successive vacancies, one by the two patrons, and four by a plurality of 
votes. Five professors were to be elected at first by the seven regents. 
In the year 1742, the directors demanded an ordinance of discipline for 
the students. In 1751, the city granted annually a benefice of 100 
florins as remuneration for the man serving as model and for other 
purposes." 

This statement does not justify the action of the magistracy ; but the 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 641 

Privy Council, no doubt, viewing the opposition rather in the light of a 
students' mutiny than as an invasion of the privileges of the academic 
society, decided against the petitioners. 

This and similar transactions show much indecision in the action of 
the authorities towards institutions of instruction at this period. The 
same practice did not prevail in all places. The associations which 
established these schools were almost always obliged to ask for aid and 
protection from the communal authorities. The assembling of a great 
number of young men at one place in the city, generally in the evening, 
called for special police regulations. 

The permanent intervention of the state dates to the year 1771. 
Prior to this date, recourse was seldom had to the sovereign power till 
that of the commune had been tried in vain. In May, 1754, the mem- 
bers of the Academy of Ghent, established three or four years before, 
represented to the Governor General that notwithstanding a contribution 
of ten " escalins" per year imposed on the pupils, they had not been 
able to meet their expenses ; that they were in debt to the amount of 
684 florins, and requested an order on the magistrates to allow them an 
annual subsidy of twenty pounds. The Privy Council refused the re- 
quest of the petitioners ; but on the application of the academy at 
Antwerp, a decree, June 13^ 1764, of the king, was as follows : " The 
efi&ciency of the Academy of Antwerp must be maintained, and conse- 
quently the magistracy will continue to pay in the ordinary way the 
annual benefice of 350 florins, with this condition, that an account be 
rendered of its expenditure." ' 

Another reason justified the intervention of the state in the estab- 
lishment of academies, namely : that they were considered as corpora- 
tions, and that the privileges of the associations were subject to previous 
authorizations. For instance, on the 7th of November, 1776, amateur 
artists were authorized to form an academy of design in the city of 
Tamise, under the supervision of the police and magistrates. 

Often the intervention of the government was limited to a simple 
permission to form an association for purposes of art. It must not be 
forgotten that liberty of association has but recently sprung up in 
Belgium. 

It is interesting to see how individual and associated action dimin- 
ished gradually and passed to the communal authorities, which assumed 
superintendence of the academies on the ground of their payment of 
subsidies or other benefits. At the time the Brabantine revolution 
broke out, there were twelve academies in Belgium, viz: at Antwerp, 
Bruges, Ghent, Tournai, Courtrai, Malines, Ath, Oudenarde, Ypres,, 
Liege, and Mods. 



G42 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

Throughout this period the aid of the authorities was very trifling, 
the communes doing more for the academies than the government. The 
latter was contented to decree the title of Royal Academy, and the right 
of stamping medals. The members bore the greater part of the expenses, 
managing economically, and each giving according to his means ; one 
his personal attentions, another his instructions, and those who could, 
money to the common work. In proportion as the government acted, 
this resource of the association diminished. 

Period II. — The Brabantine Revolution and French Occupation. — 
The disturbance accompaying the Brabantine revolution, the invasion 
of the territory by the French armies, the absorption of the provinces 
into the republic, the continual wars of the empire, were unfavorable to 
the development of schools of art. Those which existed before these 
events were reopened, after a longer or shorter interruption^ as soon as 
peace was established. Four academies were founded during the re- 
public: at Diest, in 1796; at Louvain, Turnhout, and Termonde, in 
1800. Two owe their foundation to the empire — the Academy of Alost, 
in 1805, and that of Lierre in 1807. Then the power of the munici- 
palities was much restrained by an absolute central authority, and nothing 
was done contrary to the views of the government, represented by the 
prefect, or without its approval. Six more academies were erected about 
this time, principally by private donations, but dates and other circum- 
stances cannot now be ascertained. 

Period III. — Government of the Netherlands. — The principles of cen- 
tralization, inaugurated by the French, were maintained by the royal 
government, which established its authority in 1815. The fundamental. 
law gave to the king the organization of public instruction, to which the 
fine arts, as connected with the literary and scientific culture of the 
country, were assigned. The royal decree of April 13, 1817, declares : 
*'As far as possible, schools of art shall be established in all the cities of 
the kingdom, where the population is numerous enough to authorize 
them. The schools should afford to the young, and to artisans, the 
benefits of instruction in design. They shall, if possible, be free, the 
cities to furnish the buildings, and the teachers to be appointed by the 
magistrates, who shall provide for their supervision and support." 

The government took charge of the institutions, and divided their ad- 
ministration between the central and communal authorities, and in this 
transaction, at least, it did not take the lion's share. The right of 
ncmination alLwed to the commune was limited by the obligation to 
select master.- of design f om candidates who possessed certificates of 
■ability — a condition exclusively in the interest of the schools. The cer- 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. G43 

tificates of capacity were issued by a commission of independent and en- 
lightened men from the fourth class of the Royal Institute and the two 
Royal Academies of Fine Arts (of Amsterdam and Antwerp) created 
by the same decree. 

In the decree of 1817 a classification of the different institutions was 
first officially announced ; those of an inferior grade were called Schools 
of Design, while the title of Academy was confined to establishments 
in larger cities where a higher range of instruction was required and 
could be maintained. The programme for the '* Academies of Design," 
besides elementary drawing, included drawing from embossments and 
living models, architectural drawing, and geometrical and perspective 
design. Two institutions were called "■ Royal Academies of Fine Arts," 
one of which was in Amsterdam for the northern provinces, and one at 
Antwerp for the southern provinces. To these two institutions a course 
in painting, sculpture, and engraving was assigned. Though the de- 
cree determines their creation, and regulates to a certain extent their or- 
ganization, yet it leaves to the local authorities the duties of furnishing 
most of the means for their support, when a system of state subsidies 
was at the same time inaugurated. To the '* Schools of Design" the 
silver medals and official testimonials were furnished ; to those of Brus- 
sels and Bruges an annual contribution of 2,000 florins was made. The 
two "Royal Academies of Fine Arts" at Antwerp and Amsterdam 
were more liberally treated, each receiving an annual donation of 4,000 
florins, besides a stipend to support the best graduate of each at Rome. 

In 1819, (April 23,) M. FalciT, Minister of Public Instruction and In- 
dustry, issued a circular in reference to application of other institutions 
for subsidies : " The ficancial situation of the kingdom has not per- 
mitted his Majesty to grant the subsidies requested, and the minister, on 
the part of the king, directs the schools and academies who have 
solicited the aid of the government to apply to the local authorities." 
This shows thatthe schools in question had not at that time the charac- 
ter of communal establishments. Some of the academies established in 
the preceding centuries had preservedtheir independent constitution, and 
continued to be maintained by voluntary subscriptions and to be gov- 
erned by their own officers; such are the Academy of Bruges and the 
Institute of Fine Arts in Malines. 

The decree of April 13, 1817, assigns also prizes of 1,200 florins 
for the laureate pupils of the two Royal Academies to go to Italy, and 
which the successful competitor enjoys during four years. Article 15, 
of the same decree, establishes prizes for the best works of art in the 
annual exposition, which shall take place in one of the largest cities of 
the kingdom. 



644 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

Besides the reorganization of existing schools, twelve new academies 
were erected by the government of the Netherlands : of Tirlemont, 
1824; Maestricht, 1824; Menin, 1828; Renaix, 1838, and the schools 
at Sottegem, 1817; Nivelles, 1818; Saint Nicolas; 1818; Ostend, 
1820; Grammont, ie21 ; Wetteren, 1823; Cruyshanten, 1826; Ise- 
ghem, 1828. The School of Design at Lierre, which existed long be- 
fore, was reorganized in 1817. Two of these institutes (Cruyshanten 
and Iseghem) have since suspended ; the Academy of Maestricht is no 
longer Belgian. 

It is not of recent date that efforts have been made to give to 
schools of design a more practical direction, and more in accord with 
the present wants of industry. This problem, which presented itself 
anew after the first Universal Exposition at London in 1851, had occu- 
pied the educators and statesmen of France and Belgium as far back 
as 1830. The society of which Baron Charles Dupin was president 
introduced lineal drawing into the Lancastrian schools, and the system 
of mutual teaching after the methods of Pestalozzi and Francoeur. 
This movement had not escaped the notice of the government of the 
Netherlands, and led to modifications in the organization and pro- 
gramme of 1817 by the royal decree of October 10, 1829 : " On the 
report of our Minister of the Interior of September 29 last, No. 108, 
by which we have been informed that the greater number of ' Schools 
of Design,' mentioned in articles 1 to 4 of our decree of April 13, 
1817, have too exclusive a tendency to the fine arts, by which the 
useful arts are more or less neglected, and these schools have become 
of little or no benefit to the working classes," etc. The decree goes on 
to prescribe the study of geometrical linear design, and lays down a 
programme more soientifio than artistic, inasmuch as it gives great 
preference to geometrical drafting with instruments. 

Period IV. — Kingdom of Belgium. — After the revolution of 1830^ 
the state ^Yas filow to intervene in the management of the academies, 
lest it should conflict with the constitution, which ordained liberty of 
instruction and of association. But the subsidies were continued to 
the Koyal Academies at Antwerp, Brussels, and Bruges. The city 
of Brussels, in 1835, obtained an annual subsidy of 4,000 frcs. for its 
new Boyal x\cademy of Design, Sculpture, and Architecture ; Bruges 
and Liege obtained an annual grant of 5,000 frcs each. The Royal 
Academy at Antwerp, without ceasing to be a communal institution, 
had its subsidy increased to 25,000 frcs., and all these institutionj ac- 
cepted the inspection of state officials and the general programme of 
instruction. Under the fostering care of the government and the com- 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIU^. 645 

munes, the establishments for instruction in design have steadily in- 
creased and improved, and all are now on a solid basis. One of the 
most important steps taken by government was the royal decree of No- 
vember, 1859, by which a Council of Improvement, consisting of 
twelve members, was constituted, to whom was assigned the supervis- 
ion and consideration of all matters of instruction in Schools and Acad- 
emies of Design and the Fine Arts. Of this body, the Minister of the 
Interior is president, and in his absence the Director- General of Fine 
Arts, Literature, and Science. Of all meetings, and of all subjects 
referred to them by the government, and of the condition of the in- 
struction, a report is made to the Minister annually. 

II. — PRESENT ORGANIZATION AND CONDITION. 

1. Official Classification and Denomination. — Thirty-one schools 
adopt the title of Academy ; four add the word Royal, namely, those of 
Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, and Ypres; while the academies at Brussels 
and Antwerp are styled '* Royal Academies of Fine Arts." That of 
Ghent is named " Royal Academy of Design, Sculpture, and Architect- 
ure of the City of Ghent." Seven institutes — those of Malines, Lou- 
vain, Bouillon, Alost, Saint Nicolas, Mons, and Liege — are called 
Academies of Fine Arts. This name is properly applicable only to 
those of Malines and Louvain, which, besides instruction in plastic art, 
have a section for music. Of the institutions known as " Schools," (of 
which there are now twenty-seven,) some style themselves " Schools of 
Design ;" others, " Schools of Design and Architecture" and " Schools 
of Design and Modelling," while still others have taken the names of 
** Communal Schools of Design," of "Communal Schools of Arts 
and Mechanics," or of " Fine Arts." There is also the " Institute of 
Fine Arts" at Malines, and the " Normal School of Arts and Design " 
at St. Josseten-Noode. Official reports recognize three grades: 1, 
Schools of Design ; 2, Academies of Design ; and, 3, Royal Acade- 
mies of Fine Arts. 

2. Supervision. — The immediate administration of the academies and 
schools of design is generally confided to a special committee, which 
often bears the name of administrative council or commission, and is 
usually composed of members of the city councils or friends of art 
selected from the citizens. Sometimes the director or the principal 
teachers of the school are part of it. Often the mayor of the city is 
the president; but there is no uniform practice or rule. In some local- 
ities the commission is appointed by the Arclibishop. Two institutes, 
the old academy at Bruges and the Institute of Fine Arts of Maliues 



G46 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUa-i 

founded 1830, elect their own council. The association^ which main- 
tains a school, nominates their administrators and director. 

3. Directors. — The directors of the different academies are either 
permanent or are elected for a certain term, or their position is of a 
mixed "system. The Academy of Brussels elects one director for a 
three years' term of ofl&ce. In Grhent, the direction is permanent, but 
distributed among the three principal teachers. There is a director of 
design, another of sculpture, and a third of architecture. 

4. Fees of Admission. — Instruction is generally gratuitous. Out of 
fifty-nine institutions only nine charge tuition fees. In Herenthals, 
eight out of fifty pupils paid each six francs per year. At Nivelles, 
pupils pay one franc per month. At Courtrai, pupils not able to pay 
are taught gratuitously. In Liege, pupils pay thirty francs per year for 
the superior course and twenty francs for the others, in proportion to 
the culture required in the teacher. As the schools are purely local, 
it rarely happens that, with gratuitous instruction, all pupils which can 
be accommodated do not come from the commune. Only when there 
is a vacancy can strangers be admitted. 

5. Revenues. — All receipts are derived from (a) the commune ; (6,) 
the province ; (c,) the state ; (d,') donations, foundations^ legacies ; (e,) 
voluntary subscriptions ; (/,) contributions of the scholars. During 
the year 1863 the schools and academies of design of Belgium disposed 
of the sum of 351,683 francs, derived from the following sources : from 
the commune, 263,504 francs: the province, 8,500 francs; the state, 
71,625 francs; foundations, &c., 247 francs; subscriptions, 4,569 
francs; contributions, 3,237 francs. These figures show the change 
which has taken place in these institutes. While from foundations, 
subscriptions, and contributions, formerly the most productive sources 
of income, only the small sum of 8,054 francs are derived, the public 
funds are now taxed with 343,629 francs. 

6. Expenditures. — The expenditures of these institutions vary widely ; 
the Academy of Brussels costs annually 62,300 francs; that of Ant- 
werp, 58,500 francs; that of Liege, 43,375 francs; that of Ghent, 
28,353 francs ; that of Tournai, 1.2,350 francs ; that of Bruges, 12,200 
francs. Seven institutions, those of Malines, Ixelles, Louvain, Alost, 
Termonde, Mens and Hasselt, cost between 5,000 and 10,000 francs; 
seven others, at Lierre, Nivelles, Lokeren, Saint Nicolas, Soignies, 
Dinant and Namur, between 3,000 and 5,000 francs; and nineteen 
schools expend between 1,000 and 3,000 francs ; six schools between 500 
and 1,000 francs, and seven which cost less than 500 francs. 

7. Material Equipment. — A building, in order to answer the pur- 



Anr INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 647 

poses of a school of design, should be spacious, well ventilated and 
lighted, not damp, and easily and uniformly heated. In 1864, thirty- 
nine buildings were reported as satisfactory in these particulars. The 
furniture for the various class-rooms consists of seats and tables, a few 
black-boards for graphic demonstrations, and wardrobes to receive and 
protect, the models. The system of instruction prevailing from the 
foundation of academies, and which employs the first years of study to 
drawing after engravings, has determined the kind of furniture. The 
three lower classes have desks, at which the pupils work standing. In 
classes where the drawing is from*objects in relief and from nature, the 
seats are generally arranged in a semi-circle and like an amphitheatre. 
The pupils are seated, but have no desks. Each has a map and a board 
resting on his knees. Often a whole class in linear drawing, when all 
pupils draw from one model, is disposed similarly. For architectural 
drawing, large and horizontal tables are deemed absolutely necessary. 
Models of various kinds and cost are provided, viz : (1,) engravings for 
instruction in drawing; (2,) models in relief, solids, ornaments, busts, 
figures, fragments, etc.; (3,) models of architecture. 

The selection of copies and models is left with each institution, within 
the range and with the minimum prescribed by the Council of Im- 
provement for each grade. The models are classified in six divisions, 
arranged according to the difficulty they present to the pupil. These 
articles range from the simple mast to the perfect statue ; from the 
fragment of a column to an exact model of the Parthenon and the horse 
of Phidias. The cost of the necessary outfit for a school of the inferior 
or lowest degree is 604 francs; the second class, 2,470 francs; of 
the first degree, 5,487 francs. These articles are procured by the 
government at cost. 

The council, in their annual report for 1864, refer with approbation 
to the liberality of the English government, through its Department of 
Art and Science, of furnishing to all schools of art the necessary and 
desirable models and material aids of instruction at a price below the 
actual cost, making the outfit of an English school of art cost less by 
one-half than a Belgian school of the same grade. The English gov- 
ernment also provides, in the Kensington Museum and Library of Art, 
a very valuable and almost exhaustive collection of specimens and 
models in every department of art, in every country, and in different 
stages of its development.- 

8. — Museum of Models. — The example, both of England and Wur- 
temberg, of aiding schools of design in the acquisition of good models 
and a central museum, is made the subiect of a special report by the 



G48 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM, 

council to the Minister of the Interior, to which department the super- 
vision of these schools in Belgium belongs. The example of Wurtem- 
berg is thus referred to : " The collection of models in aid of instruction 
in design and modelling is very rich, and is, moreover, completed by a 
library containing the most important and expensive works on decora- 
tive art published in ' different countries. This museum is not only 
serviceable to the schools of the capital, but the objects which it contains 
can be sent by mail, free of charge, to the schools in the provinces. A 
moulder is also authorized to furnish at moderate price a copy of any 
article ordered. Professor Herdtle h,as designed and engraved a cata- 
logue of all the pieces in this museum which can be had for use in 
schools ; it has the title, 'Models in plaster executed for teaching tlie 
art of free-hand drawing, and of modelling, after models in the collec- 
tion of the Royal Central Institute of Industry and Commerce in Stutt- 
gart, hy order of the Royal Commission on Schools for the perfection of 
Industry.' This catalogue contains 212 articles, represented on a scale 
of one-tenth of actual size, with the price affixed. The first 128 articles 
are exclusively in the department of ornamentation. All our secondary 
schools of design and modelling should be provided with a similar col- 
lection, which can be obtained through Mr. Togmarelli, moulder, No. 
15 Prince Royal street, Stuttgart. We recommend the purchase of a 
complete collection of models for ornamental design ; those of antique 
human figures can be found better in Paris." 

The desire expressed in this report was realized without expense, the 
government of Wurtemberg having' presented a copy of each of the 128 
pieces of the collection. Upon recommendation of the Council of Im- 
provement, a copy of all ornamental models included in the list published 
by the English committee was also procured. Both collections are 
deposited in the Royal Library until a suitable hall, accessible to the 
public, shall be provided. The Belgian Council, also, has repeatedly 
expressed the desire that the government should form a collection of all 
models, graphic and plastic, which can be used for teaching. In its 
session of September 25^ 1861, the royal commission advised, "that 
it would be useful to establish in the Museum of Sculpture a section of 
middle age and renaissance," in which all original models or copies in 
plaster of the best statues, bas-reliefs, ornaments, tombs^ etc , of these 
periods, should be collected. 

For the schools of design four premiums are established for the best 
specimen of linear drawing, introductory to architectural, artistic and 
industrial design. 

9. — Subjects and Methods of Instruction. — A uniform programme of 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. G40 

subjects and methods of instruction in all the schools is not attempted, 
the government exercising the right of approving the programme of 
each institution as the condition of its receiving any grant in aid. The 
following plan of sudies was submitted by the Council of Improvement 
in 1861^, and is generally followed : 

First Division. — Linear Drawing. — In localities where no industrial 
school exists, the course should include machine drawing, practical 
geometry, orders of architecture, ornaments from flat copies and objects, 
heads from flat copies. 

Where no other art school exists, there should be added elementary 
perspective heads from busts. 

Second Division. — Academic Drawing — Human figure, from flat 
copies ; heads and antique fragments from the round ; human figure 
from nature. Ornamental drawing — Modelling from casts of the an- 
tique ; modelling from nature. Architectural drawing — First course, 
mapping and levelling ; second course, copy of plans, elevations, and 
sections ; third course, design of house, elementary stereotomy, hygiene. 

Third Division. — Human figure from nature and the antiques. 
Painting — Studies and composition ; practical exercises and oral direc- 
tions. Sculpture — Studies and composition ; practical exercises and 
oral comments. Architecture — Composition ; drafting ; oral directions ; 
specifications ; stereotomy and legal requisitions as to buildings ; con- 
struction and technics. Human anatomy. Perspective — History of 
art and assthetics. 

The Council desire that the instruction given in the principal acade- 
mies and schools should satisfy the following demands : 

(1.) The programme of examination required for admission to the 
grand prize competition in painting_, sculpture, and engraving — per 
royal decree of October 10, 1850. 

(2.) The programme of examination for the grand prize competition 
in architecture — per royal decree of April 19, 1852. 

(3.) The programme of examination for admission as laureate to the 
grand prize competition in architecture. 

A course of engraving is not given in the plan of studies, it being 
left as a special and optional study in localities where the public inter- 
ests and tastes may require it. A class in engraving, in wood, stone, 
and steel, exists at Antwerp and Liege. 

No method of instruction is prescribed, each teacher following his 
own method, having by him facilities for knowing the methods of 
others, and* profiting by the suggestions of criticism and the results of 
competitive examinations. 



650 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

10. Teachers. — Teachers are elected by the local administration, and 
the number and the qualifications of each are left to the same board. 
The Council of Improvement have repeatedly noticed the absence of 
all knowledge of method in teaching, both in its historical development 
and its accepted principles ; and complain of the constant reappearance 
of what is claimed to be improvement in teaching, and which, in real- 
ity, were plans long since tried and abandoned. The report of 1867 
cites from an official circular of the Prussian government, issued in 
1863, respecting drawing in the gymnasiums and polytechnic schools, 
the following passages : "As to methods of instruction, only general 
directions can be given. The teacher should familiarize himself with 
the best methods and suggestions ; but as he must finally do the work 
himself, and must secure the attention and stimulate the faculties of 
his pupils, he must have the largest liberty of method ; and even an 
inferior method, applied with fidelity, will yield more satisfactory results 
than a better method in the hands of one not familiar with its details. 
Every one advances slowly and insecurely under the constraint of a 
half-mastered method." But while in Prussia teachers in schools of 
art are left free as to the choice of methods, the government exacts of 
all candidates for appointment a stringent examination, which is con- 
ducted by a commission composed of professors of the Royal Acade- 
mies of Art at Berlin, Dusseldorf, and Koenigsberg. Among the reg- 
ulations of these examinations are the following : 

'* For admission to an examination, the candidate must furnish, (1,) 
a brief abstract of his previous life; (2,) certificate of his attendance on 
a gymnasium or polytechnic school of the first grade, to its third class, 
or have passed the final examination of a normal school; (3,) certifi- 
cate of moral character; (4,) certificate of attendance as pupil on some 
academy of fine arts_, or of instruction from an artist of acknowledged 
excellence. 

" The examination of the candidate in Prussia embraces the followirig 
particulars with pen and pencil : (a.) In free-hand drawing — (1,) head 
from life or cast, in outline and shaded; (2,) finished drawing in 
crayon of an object of ornamentation ; (3,) a study of trees or landscape. 
(6.) In geometrical drawing — (1,) the principles of geometrical projec- 
tions, solids, &c.; (2,) perspective; (3,) descriptive geometry; (4,) 
technics and construction of machines ; (5,) surveying and laying out. 
The three last points are reserved for candidates for polytechnic schools. 
The oral examination includes, (1,) history of art, ancient, medieval and 
modern; (2,) general anatomy of the human body; (3,) different 
methods of teaching drawing, particularly those of P. Schmidt and 
Dupui, and. the material aids of instruction." 

11. Pupils. — Pupils are admitted into the academies and schools of 
design at the age of fifteen. In 31 institutions, a thorough knowledge 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 651 

of matliematics and the elements of natural science are required ; in 17, 
reading, writing and arithmetic ; in 14, only reading and writing. If 
drawing were obligatory in the public primary schools, the age of ad- 
mission could be reduced to the age of twelve. The period of attend- 
ance varies from two to twelve years, with a daily attendance from one 
to six hours. To complete the programme of the Royal Academy at 
Antwerp requires 12 years, while that of six others embraces an 
average of eight years. 

In the Royal Academies of Brussels, Antwerp and Ghent, students 
from all parts of the world may be found; as at Antwerp, in 1863, 
there were 119 Germans, 10 Americans, 35 English, 5 Brazilians, 1 
Scotchman, 1 Spaniard, 48 French, 505 Hollanders, 6 Italians, 1 
Japanese, 1 Portuguese, 10 Russians, 4 Swedes, &c. 

12. Concour ; or, Competitive Trials for Prizes. — There are three 
kinds of public competitions for prizes open to students in art institu- 
tions, viz: (1.) Local — confined to each institution; (2,) General — 
open to all institutions; (3,) Superior — limited to the best pupils of the 
highest institutions. * 

(1.) A local competition for prizes takes place in all the public schools 
of art, except six of recent origin ; in thirty-five every year, and in 
nineteen every two years. They begin at diflerent periods of the year 
and extend for varying periods, several for six weeks; in others for 
thirty sessions, and in none for less than twelve sessions. The judges 
are composed of the teachers of the institution, with artists and ama- 
teurs. In the larger schools, professors of the academies are called in. 
The prizes are medals, books on art, models, and mathematical instru- 
ments. The medals bear thp portrait cf the sovereign, and are of three 
.kinds: (1,) of silver gilt; (2,) of silver, small; (3,) of silver, large. 
These medals are awarded in reference to the subjects studied, to the 
efforts made, and to the merits of each candidate. 

(2.) The general competition was instituted to test the relative value 
of the difi"erent systems of instruction in the several academies and 
schools. 

(3.) The superior competition was inaugurated by the government 
of the Netherlands in 1817. Prior to that year, young artists of great 
promise had been aided by the sovereign, or by municipal authorities, 
to go to Rome to continue their studies. The artists of Liege had a 
special foundation for this purpose. But the royal decree of xlpril 17, 
1817, provides: "Beside the medals and subsidies already granted, 
the state gives to each of the Academies of Fine Arts at Amsterdam 
and Antwerp two pensions of 1,200 florins each, for Dupils who have 



652 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 



attended the superior course for one year at least, and have obtained 
the first prize, in order to enable them to continue and complete their 
studies in Italy. The competition shall be opened every two years, 
and the successful artists shall enjoy the pension during four years ; the 
last semi-annual amount to be paid on his return to the kingdom." 

The restriction as to the place of studies has been removed, and the 
number of competitors has been reduced to six. The successful candi- 
date must give evidence of his possessing the general scientific educa- 
tion to enable him to profit by a residence in Italy, and he is allowed 
one year to enable him to acquire such knowledge. > In the space of 14 
years, the successful candidate represented painting 5 times, sculpture 
3 times, architecture 3 times, and engraving 3 times. 

13. Statistical Summary. — The following Table exhibits the present 
condition of this important department of education in Belgium in 1867 : 





Annual 

Expenses. 


CONTHIBOTED BY — 


NO. OF- 


Provinces. 


6 
a 

S 
B 
o 
O 


i 

a 
'> 
p 

(5 

Frcs. 
1.300 
3.200 


02 




t 




2 

1 


Antwerp 


Francs. 
74,873 00 
94,575 00 
30.211 .35 
57.958 63 
29.509 84 
45.675 00 
6.450 00 
1^500 00 
9,680 00 


Francs. 
43.5 00 
69.855 00 
22,100 00 
52 ; 343 88 


Francs. 
29.700 00 
21 .'400 Oj 
5.000 CO 
4^250 00 
2-774 92 
5,000 00 
2,400 00 
100 00 
1,000 00 


Francs. 
575 00 

2,"866'6o 
300 00 
834 92 


Francs. 

48 00 
120 00 
245 00 
823 75 

].'6o6"6o 

'400 00 


2.648 

2.090 

J.G64 

2,539 

811 

514 

114 

91 

136 


34 


Brabant 

West Flanders 

East Flanders 


48 
45 
61 


Hainaut. ... 


24.900 00 1,000 
37.575 00 J, 500 

3.650 OO; 

1,000 00 i 400 
8,580 00 1.1 on 


9? 


Liipsje 


15 




6 




2 


Namur 






3 






8,500| 








Total 


350,432 82 


263,503 88, 


71,624 92 


4,569 92 


3,236 75 


10,607 


236 







From this Table it appears that in the nine provinces thisre were in 
operation sixty institutions, located in as many diff"erent towns, for 
imparting instruction in the principles and practice of drawing, and 
its associated studies, in reference to its a3sthetic as well as its immedi- 
ately useful results. In these 60 academies and schools of art 236 
teachers were employed in instructing 10,607 pupils in the principles 
of art as applied to drawing, painting, sculpture, architecture, and 
engraving, with their several applications to the principal industries of 
the nation. 

Out of 13,176 pupils registered as pupils in the Royal Academy of 
Fine Arts at Antwerp from 1854 to 1863 the following professions were 
chosen: artist painters, 1,172; artisan or decorative painters, 1,470; 
sculptors, 1,070; architects and designers, 415; carpenters and join- 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 653 

ers, 3,1" 7 ; stone and m.arble cutters, 664; painters of carriages, &c., 
300; goldsmiths and carvers, 233; engravers 143; tapestry designers, 
218; ship-builders and sail-makers, 247; cabinet-makers, 116; masons, 
321 ; smith and mechanicians, 247 ; diverse occupations, 247 ; not 
known, 2,767. 

These special institutions were maintained in 1864 at an expense of 
350,432 francs, towards which the communes (cities and villages in 
which located) contributed 263,603 francs; the nine provinces, 8,500 
francs; the state government, 71,625 francs; permanent endowments 
or funds, 247 francs; citizens by voluntary subscriptions, 4,570 francs; 
and the pupils, in tuition fees, 3,237 francs. 

14. Government Aid to Art and Science. — In addition to the pecu- 
niary aid and administration extended to the art institutions already 
described, established for the purpose of instructing young men in the 
principles and practice of art, the government of Belgium makes liberal 
appropriations, having the same objects in view, to public museums, 
galleries, and annual exhibitions of works of art, and to a comprehen- 
sive and liberal system of public instruction in science as applied to the 
great industries of the nation. 

The following items of appropriations in the budget of 1867, with 
a few explanatory remarks, will show the encouragement given to the 
fine arts by the Belgian government, amounting in that year to the 
Bum of §200,000:* 

Subsidies to young artists to assist -them in iheir studies. 14,000/. 

Under this head are included the yearly j)ensions granted — 

1st. To the pupils of the Academy of Antwerp. 

2d. To the students in architecture attached to the Royal Commission of 
Monuments. 

3d. To the pupils of the Royal Musical Schools {Conservatoires) of Brussels 
and Liege. 

Encouragements to young artists "who have already given proofs of merit : 
Journeys in the country and abroad, to assist them in developing their 
talent; missions in the interest of the arts ; assistance to needy artists, or 
to the families of deceased artists, 15,000/. 

Encouragements to copper-plate and medal engraving : To publications rela- 
tive to the fine arts, subsidies, subscriptions and purchase of works of 
historical or archaeological interest, &c., 3o,000/. 

Subsidies to Musical Societies, Music Schools : To towns for the institution 
of grand festivals of classical music ; to societies for the encouragement of 
the Fine Arts, to local exhibiiions, &c., 16,000/. 

There are a great number of municipal or private music schools or musical 
societies in Belgium. The government grants them subsidies varying according 

* We are indebted to our Minister Re-ident at Brussels, Hon. Henky S. Sanford, for this 
and other official documents relative to the system of public instruction in Belfiium. 



654 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

to the importance of the institution. The sum devoted to this purpose may be 
fixed at about 15,000/. 

Everj' year exhibitions of works of art are opened in the principal towns in the 
country. The government assists the societies which organize them by granting 
them subsidies to assist them in covering the expenses of these exhibitions and in 
purchasing works of art exhibited. 

Orders and purchases of works of living artists, or deceased within ten years ; 

subsidies to public establishments, to assist them in ordering and purchasing 

works of art, 100,000/. 
Encouragement to mural painting, with the co-operation of the towns and 

establishments interested, 100,000/. 
Subsidies to churches, for articles of religious furniture, 10,000/. 
Academies and schools of fine arts besides the Academy of Antwerp; council 

of improvement of the teaching of the arts of design, 100,000/. 

There are academies of fine arts and schools of design in the principal towns 
and localities of the kingdom. These institutions, which are placed under the 
patronage of the towns and subsidized by them, are each regulated by special 
rules. Some of the most important receive annual subsidies from the government. 
For instance, the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of Brussels receives annually a sub- 
sidy of 20,000/., 12,000/. of which are specially reserved to the school of engraving. 

The academies of fine arts of Ghent, Bruges, and Liege receive each a yearly 
grant of 5.000 francs. Moreover, the government grants them a collective subsidy, 
varying according to the importance of the establishment, to be distributed by 
the managing board between the most deserving and most needy pupils. 

The other academies and schools of design receive annually from the government 
subsidies to assist them in improving their teaching and purchasing models. 
Moreover, medals are distributed annually to the victorious competitors of the 
local contests, {coneours.) 

The council of improvement of the teaching of the arts of design is called upon 
to deliberate on the ameliorations to be introduced in said teaching. It meets in 
an ordinary or extraordinary session, if requisite. After each session it addresses 
a detailed report of its proceedings to the Minister of the Interior. 

Grand competitions (coneours) in musical composition, painting, sculpture, 

architecture, copper-plate engraving, pensions to the victors, 21,000/. 
Expenses connected with these grand competitions, sundries, 6,000/. 

A competition in musical composition takes place every two years at Brussels ; i 
it is open to any Belgian artist less than thirty years of age; the laureate (victor) 
receives, during four years, a pension of 3,500 francs to go and improve himself 
in his art in Germany, France, and Italy. Besides the grand prize, a second 
prize and an honorable mention may be granted. The second prize consists in 
a gold medal worth 300 francs ; this prize, as well as the honorable mention, may 
be divided. 

A competition takes place every year successively in painting, sculpture, en- 
graving, and architecture. It is open to any Belgian artist less than thirtj- yean^ 
of age. 

The laureate receives, during four years, a pension of 3,500 francs to travel 
abroad. 

The rules and conditions of these competitions are developed in decrees which 
have introduced from time to time new principles or essential modifications. 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. G55 

Royal Academy of Antwerp, 63,850/. 

The Royal Academy of Antwerp is chiefly intended to teach painting, sculp- 
ture, architecture, engraving, carried to the highest degree of art, as well as the 
sciences most necessary for the cultivation of each of these branches. 

It strives, moreover, to propagate the taste for the fine arts, to encourage and 
protect those who cultivate them, by all the means that its organization affords. 

Lastly, in its teaching of drawing applied to industrial arts, it endeavors to 
form, for certain industries, chiefs and workmen provided with acquirements ne- 
cessary for excelling in their professions. 

Considered as an administrative institution, the Academy of Antwerp has in its 
operations three distinct departments : 

The Academy, or teaching of the Fine Arts. 

The iMuseum of Ancient Paintings. 

The Academical Body and Museum of Academicians. 

Royal Musical Conservatoire of Brussels : Subsidy from the state, intended, 
with those from the province of Brabant and the city of Brussels, to cover 
the expenses both for salaries and material, 40,240/. 

This Conservatoire is instituted to give gratuitously to young persons of both 
sexes instruction in all the branches of the musical art. 

A royal decree of March 19, 1848, instituted, instead of the subsidies which were 
granted to the pupils of this establishment, and which had reached a figure out 
of proportion to the resources at the disposal of the administration of the fine 
arts, six entire yearly pensions [bourses] of 250 francs, and ten half pensions of 
125/. each. 

Royal Conservatoire of Music, of Liege : Subsidy from the state, intended, with 
those from the province and city of Liege, to cover the expenses both for 
salaries and material, 40,240/. 

The object of this institution is th^same as that of the Conservatoire of Brussels. 

A royal decree of January 17, 186Y, has instituted, instead of the subsidies 
annually granted to the pupils, four yearly pensions of 250 francs and eight half 
pensions of 125 francs. 

Royal Museum of Painting and Sculpture, salaries, 12,425/. 

Material and purchases, costs of printing and sale of catalogue, 23,400/ 

This museum is the property of the state. The administration of this establish- 
ment is entrusted to a commission, charged to watch over the preservation and 
proper placing of the works of art forming the collection of the museum. This 
commission takes for that purpose all the measures it may judge necessary in the 
interest of the preservation of these collections. It is, moreover, charged to com- 
plete as much as possible the collections of ancient and modern masters. It 
addresses to that effect to the Minister of the Interior the propositions it may 
think proper. 

The collections of this museum are divided into two quite distinct sections, one 
devoted to the arts of painting and drawing, and the other to statuary. 

Besides the sum allotted in the budget for purchases for the benefit of the col- 
lections of this museum, the legislature grants extra credits, when necessary, to 
purchase the most remarkable works of our great masters. The sums applied to 
this purpose have risen as high as 100,000 and 250,000 francs. 



656 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

The Wiertz Museum: Salaries of superintendent and porter; material, and 
cost of keeping in order, 3,500/. 

This museum is the property of the State. 

Royal Museum of Armor and Antiquities : Salaries, 8,V00y. 

Do. material and purchases ; cost of printing and sale of catalogue ; cost of 
publication of an edition illustrated with plates and vignettes of the collec- 
tions in the museum; creation of a sigallographical section, 19,000/. 

This establishment is the property of the State. 

The collections in this museum are divided into two sections ; the first comprises 
objects of every description relating to archaeology, particularly national archae- 
ology and ethnology ; the second section comprises fire-arms, modern oflFensivt 
and defensive weapons. 

Cost of surveillance of the Modern Museum established in the Rue Ducale, 
3,600/. 

Cost of preservation, keeping, firing, furniture, and sundry unforseen ex- 
penses of said museum, 5,000/. 

This establishment is the property of the State. The collections of this museum 
are divided into two sections, viz : one reserved to painting, the other to sculpture. 

Monuments to the great men of Belgium : Subsidies to the towns and provinces ; 
medals to be consecrated to memorable events, 90,000/ 

In this round sum of 90,000/., 10,000/. constitute an ordinary and permanent 
charge, and 80,000/. an extraordinary and temporary charge, and therefore 
essentially varying from year to year. 

Subsidies to the provinces, towns, and communes, Ihe resources of which are 
insufficient for the restoration of public buildings, 44,000/. 

Subsidies for the restoration and preservation of objects of art and archasology 
belonging to public bodies, churches, &c.; works for keeping in repair 
such propertv of the State as may present an exclusively historical interest, 
12,000/. 

Royal Commission of Monuments: Salaries, 11,200/; indemnity for mem- 
bers of the commission, 3.600/; travelling expenses of members of the 
commission, of secretary and two draftsmen, 6.000/; library, furniture, 
firing, printing and office expenses, purchase of instruments, 2,000/; ac- 
count of general sittings, indemnity to reporters and publishing expenses, 
700/. 

This commission, created by a royal decree of June 1, 1835, is charged to give 
its advice to the Minister of the Interior on the subject of the restoration and 
preservation of civil public buildings incumbent on the Home Department, 

This advice is given, 1st, on the repairs required by the buildings in the king- 
dom remarkable for their antiquity, the remembrances they recall, or their im- 
portance in an artistic point of view ; 2d, on the plans relative to constructing 
and repairing churches and edifices destined for worship, and all other public 
buildings in general. 

This commission depends on the Home Department only for as much as concerns 
public monuments and buildings distinct from those of a religious character. 

Three architectural students are attached to the commission, each receiving a 
yearly pension of COO francs during four years. 

Preparing and publishing the bulletin of the Commissions of Art and Archae- 
ology, 6,000/. 



AET INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 657 

Travelling expenses of the three commissioners of the Royal Academy of 
Belgium attached to the Royal Commission of Arts and Monuments, and 
of the corresponding members of that commission, 6,000/. 
National Exhibition of Fine Arts, 1866, ad memorandum. 
General exhibitions of fine arts are opened every three years for the productions 
of living Belgian and foreign artists. 
The direction of the exhibition is entrusted to a committee of arrangements. 
Two juries are appointed, the duty of the first being to decide on the admission 
and placing of the works of art, and that of the second to propose medals, pur- 
chases, and pecuniary rewards. 

The Jury of Rewards points out to the government, if it think proper, works 

of remarkable merit, which it considers worthy of being purchased by the State. 

A gold medal is bestowed on such artist as has given proof of eminent talent, 

who has not already attained this distinction at a previous exhibition. The cost 

of the medal may not exceed 1,000/., nor be below $200. 

The excess of expenses of the exhibition, including the purchase of works exhib- 
ited, engraving, &c., of diplomas, &c., over subscription, is met by the govern- 
ment. 

Summary. 

In 1867 Belgium possessed 60 academies and schools of art, in which 1,067 pupils 
were instructed by 236 teachers, at an expense of 350,432 francs, toward which 
the communes and provincial authorities contributed the sum of 272,000 francs, 
from a conviction of the resultant benefits to the industries of the people. Toward 
this sum the state appropriated 71,625 francs for the encouragement of art, as ap- 
plied to drawing, painting, sculpture, architecture, and engraving. 

In addition to this sum of 350,432 francs, the large sum of 87,241 francs was 
contributed by the state, communes, and provinces toward the special»instruction 
of 1,857 young and adult workmen assembled in 68 workshops provided for this 
purpose, in the principles and practices of their several occupations, in all of which 
drawing formed an important element. To these sums must be added the further 
expenditure of 279,541 francs on 16 special industrial schools located in all the 
great centres of mechanical, mining, and commercial industry, taught by 111 
professors to over 3,000 pupils. This sum does not include the cost of the higher 
scientific instruction in the Universities of Liege and Ghent, or of the four schools 
of agriculture or the three schools of navigation. In all these schools drawing 
receives a large share of attention. Not satisfied with this provision in special 
schools, friends of art, with special reference to the advancement of industry, now 
ask that this study be made obligatory in public schools of every grade — the 
elementary as well as the superior. 



INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 

Proceedings of a Congress held at Brussels, September 21 — 23, 1868, io examine into 
the best methods of generalizing artistic instruction. 



Belgium, so early aud so faithfully and for many centuries the home and fruitful 
nurse of the arts, the country of Van Eyck and Rubens, has, especially since the 
year 1830, added many bright stars to the brilliant galaxy of artists of olden 
times. And as in manufactures and industry, so likewise in arts and sciences, the 
people, as well as the government, have nobly emulated the efforts made by 
other and larger countries; yea, in many respects, outstripped them, A recent 
proof of this zeal is furnished by the Congress of Artists and Schoolmen, held at 
Brussels in the month of September, 1868, which is all the more important, as 
the discussions of this assembly throw much light on a subject of vast and general 
interest, namely, the popularization and improvement of artistic instruction. 

By a royal resolution of March 11, 1868, it was announced that during the 
course of the year an exhibition would be held at Brussels of the drawings by 
the pupils of the academies and schools of design j- likewise of the methods, 
models, and instruments used in the graphic and plastic arts ; and. finally, that 
at the same time the directors, professors, and teachers of all these institutions, 
would meet, and consider the best means of furthering artistic instruction. The 
assembly accordingly met for the first time in the morning of Tuesday, September 
21, in the large hall of the academy. Besides a great number of inspectors and 
teachers from Belgian academies, and of painters and sculptors, there were present 
delegates from various foreign countries — France, Germany, Holland, and Den- 
mark. The session was opened by M. Visschers, member of the Board of Mines, 
and president of the committee of organization, the prominent members of which 
were, M. Kindt, Inspector General of Industry ; M. Canneel, Director of the 
Royal Academy of Design, Sculpture and Architecture at Ghent ; M. de Taeye. 
Director of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Louvain ; E. Fetis, Professor of 
^Esthetics at the Academy at Brussels, Assistant Librarian at the Royal Library, 
and member of the '• Class of Letters;" Moreau, Professor of Perspective and 
Geometry at the Academy of Fine Arts at Brussels. 

M. Visschers, in his opening speech, clearly defined the aim of the assembly 
and the questions to be discussed. After briefly adverting to the general ad- 
vancement of industry, arts, and sciences in Belgium since 1830, he adds : 

" Gentlemen, you have all seen the remarkable exposition of "drawings by the 
pupils of our academies and our free schools. A jury composed of competent 
men has been commissioned to judge of these productions, and to propose to the 
government the distribution of suitable rewards to be given to the authors of the 
best works. Our duty, on the other hand, will be to examine the questions con- 
tained in our prograname, which may be expressed in a fe'w words : Extension of 
the instruction in the principles of drawing to all the primary schools ; and reorgan-'^ 
ization of the artistic instruction imparted in the secondary and higher schools." The 
subject before us to-day is inseparably interwoven with the true interests of the 
mass of the people, the advancement of industry, the useful and the fine arts. 

658 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 659 

The question is, by what means we can place in the hands of all men, particularly 
the workingman and mechanic, a new instrument to increase their personal 
capital — the power of usefulness and enjoyment." 

The programme was divided into two sections : the first devoted to '' elementary 
instruction in drawing and its application to manufactures ;^ ' the second, to " higher 
instruction in the arts of design, and to the general means of encouraging it." 

SECTION I. — ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. 

The first day was devoted mainly to the subject of the first section. The 
assembly naturally could not pass such resolutions as would be binding, but 
could merely discuss the subject thoroughly, and by approving some new method 
or system, recommend its general introduction, and clear the ground for future 
action. 

The first two questions of the 1st section were the following : 

1. Since instruction in the principles of drawing in all the primary schools is 
considered eminently useful and desirable, what ought to be the character and 
conditions of this instruction? and, 

2. What steps ought the government to take to accelerate and permanently 
improve the teaching of drawing in the primary schools ? 

The conclusions arrived at with regard to these two questions, after an ani- 
mated discussion, were the following : 

1. Instruction in drawing ought certainly to be introduced into all the primary 
schools, and should chiefly consist in linear drawing ; and, 

2. Government should take steps at once to supply, as soon as possible, the 
great want of drawing-masters, and assure itself of their competency by organ- 
izing a good system of inspection, by giving diplomas, &c. 

After having given the result of the debate on the first two questions of section 
1, it will be interesting to notice briefly some of the suggestions of the most com- 
petent speakers on these important questions. 

One of the first speakers in this fitst section was M. Braun, Professor at the 
Normal School of Nivelles. He hailed that day with joy, as he now saw some 
prospect that his long-felt wishes would be fulfilled. With regard to the main 
question, he remarked : 

" The children that frequent our schools should learn drawing just as well as 
they learn writing ; they will thus acquire that ability of measuring with the 
eye, that precision of the hand, that clear conception and accurate execution, 
which, when gained at an early age, are never forgotten. By copying, imitating, 
and reproducing a given model, they wiFl finally create something new in their 
turn. The school will thus prepare them for the workshop, where, knowing the 
theoretical rules of drawing and their practical application, they will apply them 
to their special branch of industry. The chief gain lies in the increased faculty 
of observation indispensable to a designer, whether he draws the plan of a house, 
surveys some tract of land, or reproduces the human figure, or inanimate nature 
in a landscape. Memory herself lends powerful aid to the rational teaching of 
drawing, placing before our eyes, faces and views, the recollection of which has 
long since departed." 

M. Dardenne, Professor at the Middle School at Andennes, spoke next, and in a 
long speech developed his views of the matter, which may be briefly summed up 
in the following ; He recommended the establishment of special conferences of 
all teachers of drawing in the country for the purpose of interchanging their 
ideas ; the organization of expositions at certain stated times, in every town and 
every province ; that the school and the teacher have part of the rewards in order 



6G0 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

to awaken some competition— these rewards to be more or less works of art ; to 
furnish the best teachers of drawing with the necessary funds for enabling them 
to gather new information and more expanded views bj travel ; to lay greater 
weight on drawing at the half-yearly examinations of the normal schools ; to 
establish collections of drawings and models in connection with all the cantonal 
libraries; finally, to admit no one to the office of drawing-master who has not, 
in a rigorous examination, given sufficient proof of his capability. The useful- 
ness of all these measures was fully recognized by the assembly, although all ac- 
knowledged that it would require time as well as strenuous efforts to carry some 
of them out. 

M. Desceepper, from the Academy of Lokeren, pronounced in favor of having 
the instruction in drawing made obligatory in the primary schools by the legis- 
lature, and, because as a general rule the time now spent at school was by far too 
short, to extend that time to the fourteenth year. 

The THIRD QUESTION of the 1st section comprised the following : 

a. AVhat are the best methods for teaching the principles of drawing? 

b. In how far should the use of the printed copy be extended or limited, before 
allowing the pupil to draw from models? 

c. Is it not essential to accustom the pupil from the very beginning to draw 
from sight, i. e., excluding ruler and compasses? 

d. Should not the teacher, whilst the pupil is practising the theory of light and 
shade, perspective, &c., give short explanations? 

e. What works or treatises could serve as guides in imparting the first instruc- 
tion in drawing? 

The consideration of this question, (especially a, which implies the others,) 
naturally the chief question of the 1st section, gave rise to long and animated dis- 
cussions, leading to no positive resolutions, but bringing to light the various 
methods followed by the different teachers, giving an opportunity to compare 
them and select the best. We shall give a short abstract of the most important 
speeches, indicating the various methods pursued. 

M. Paul Geliberi , painter from France, made some remarks concerning a new 
mode of teaching drawing, invented by himself. In order to gain time in in- 
struction, he has invented an instrument, which he calls the per spectomctre. This 
instrument is a small ruler, by means of which the pupil finds without hesitation 
the scientific proofs applied to the art of drawing. Based on a law of nature, the 
development of the visual organ, it does not allow the pupil merely to copy what 
he sees. Varied in its length according to the varied length of arms, it gives 
precise results, and can be under the imnaediate control of the master. Placed at 
an angle of 17 degrees it gives faultless perspective points. The ^^ perspectometre^' 
is not merely mechanical ; its application follows the development of the reason- 
ing powers ; it goes step by step from the known to the unknown, leaving the 
artistic development of the pupil to his own discernment, forming his judgment 
of proportions and distances, and giving a certain ease to his hand. 

M. DE Taeyb, Director of the Academy of Fine Arts at Louvain, gave his reasons 
for having the drawing after an engraved copy completely abolished : 

" One copies designs after different principles. I know only one, viz : linear 
drawing based on elementary geometry . It has been proved by all men who have 
observed infants, that in the beginning they do not see, but that they must be 
taught to see. The child's eyes must be opened, and he must be taught to dis- 
cover the things which surround him, and this is effected by no other means than 
elementary geometry. One places before the child some object and impresses its 
form on his mind, not by means of his seeing it, but through his reasoning powers. 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 661 

If we, for instance, take a cube. Reason says to the child, 'this cube has difiFerent 
faces,' and makes him understand tbese faces according to their plan and elevation. 
This result is obtained by means of very simple instruments made of wire, and 
one can thus, as I can testify from my own experience, be understood by a child 
of five or six years of age. After a child has gained this experience, the teacher 
will succeed in making him comprehend the difference between the form which 
he has conceived in his mind and the form as it appeared to his eye. There are 
consequently two ways of seeing, viz : by the reasoning powers and by the eyes. 
The child should draw from models by means of cross-lines, and should soon get 
an idea of elementary perspective. In basing the system of instruction on the 
above-mentioned fundamental principles, the teacher will not be obliged to speak 
to every pupil sepacately, which in a large class will always be injurious, as those 
with whom the teacher is not engaged at the time find too much opportunity for 
being idle. It is far otherwise when the teacher can devote himself to all his 
pupils; at the same time the brain is exercised as well as the hands, and through 
a constantly intelligible mode of teaching the mostbrilliant results are obtained. " 

M. VON Marke thought that the reason for the little advance that was made in 
drawing was to be found in the circumstance that many teachers did not keep 
within the limits of elementary drawing, but only tried to make a fine show at 
the yearly expositions. They consequently let their pupils draw great heads and 
ornaments, the greater part of which had been touched up by themselves. As re- 
gards the method to be employed, he thought that there was something good in 
every method, but that it was entirely wrong to expect a method alone to form 
good draughtsmen ; if the teacher had experience and the necessary talents he 
could produce good results, no matter what method he employed. One ought, 
therefore,^ not to follow any method in a servile manner, but there ought to be in 
every school a series of graduated models, which the teacher could place before 
the pupil and give his explanations, even if he could not draw much himself. As 
regards the materials to be employed, he thinks they ought only to be paper and 
pencil, and not black-board and chalk ; there should not be any use made of rulers 
and compasses. The course of instruction should be arranged in the following 
manner : At least the first four lessons should be employed in making vertical and 
horizontal parallel lines: after this the pupils ought to commence drawing the ele- 
ments of geometry, learning at the same time the name of each figure. During 
the first year each pupil should, twice a month, be called up to the black-board 
and draw some figure which the master might ask for. He (the pupil) should at 
the same time give explanations of the figure, thus showing whether he has com- 
prehended and retained the lessons given ; after these geometrical figures, the pupil 
ought to commence to draw rectilinear designs ; then those composed of curved 
lines, thus advancing gradually to the designing of ornaments. Arrived at this 
degree of instruction, the pupil will be able to take up drawing after nature with 
advantage. He will commence by copying solids, and the professor should give 
the necessary explanations, viz: the elements of perspective, and the principles of 
light and shade. Next should follow models of very simple ornaments, gradually 
advancing to the more elaborate. 

M. Kindt, Inspector General of Industry^ thought that black-board and chalk 
were, after all, preferable in the beginning, because in this manner of drawing 
the pupil had greater freedom. The point in question was to give the working- 
man the means of expressing his thoughts by a sketch, and to perfect the teaching 
of drawing in the primary schools where 99 per cent, of thepupi".>, devoted them- 
selves to agriculture or industrial pursuits. 

M. Hendricks, for many years Professor of Drawing and the Arts of Design, 



66'^ ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

after being urged by many members of the assembly, consented to give an exposi- 
tion of his method, as follows: 

" I hold the opinion that in order to judge a method, one ought, above every- 
thing, to examine the conditions under which it has been studied, and the object 
which its author has in view. The system which, in the year 1861, I submitted 
for examination to the legislature, was intended to remedy, as far as could be 
done, the deplorable state of inslruction in drawing in its application to our in- 
dustry and the different trades which constitute the national labor, by intro- 
ducing into our primary and middle-class schools a system capable of accommo- 
dating itself to the various necessities of the different trades. I must state here 
that 1 have investigated everything carefully before I became aware of the evil, 
and found that it consisted alone in confused ideas on the part of the teachers. 
In my opinion this evil is not the consequence of want of talent in. those who 
teach ; on the contrary, many of our teachers are very competent, and by far the 
greater number possess undoubted talent. No ; ,the fault lies in another direction : 
in that too frequent and widespread mistake, that the study of the human figure . 
suffices, and ought to precede everything else, how inferior soever the trade may 
be to which the pupil intends to devote himself. There lies the mistake, and the 
generally acknowledged decline of our artistic teaching in its application to the 
various branches of our national labor, I will prove this by mentioning a few 
simple statistics. Upward of ten thousand pupils attend annually our various 
academies and schools of design, and the majority of them have practised nothing 
but copying the human figure from engravings or plaster casts. Now, if this ex- 
clusive study was sufficient, ought not our manufactures, as a general rule, to 
show the highest artistic taste? We all know that this is far from being the case. 
Nobody will deny that the study of the human figure is the basis of all purely 
artistic teaching ; but it may likewise be very justly remarked that several 
branches of art, such as the painting of landscapes, flowers, views of cities, naval 
scenes and many other subjects, have been cultivated to their highest degree of 
perfection, without their authors being able to show a profound knowledge of the 
study of the human figure. A great number of other less important branches of 
art may likewise thrive without having this study for its basis, and to the dec- 
orator or ornamental sculptor, the three natural kingdoms furnish a large number 
of other elera-ents which are just as indispensable for him. The foundation of his 
whole art lies more than anywhere else in the study of the various phenomena 
presented by the vegetable kingdom, from whose inexhaustible sources he from 
time immemorial has drawn the ideas for his most beautiful creations, and his 
happiest applications to useful objects, as well as for the architectural designs 
which antiquity has bequeathed to us. 

"I now conclude, from what I have said before, that if a limited study of the 
human figure has been sufficient for the manifestation of the various branches of 
art which I have just enumerated, other still less important studies may even be 
dispensed with altogether, especially by pupils intending to enter trade,, which 
only borrows from art the application of the elements which geometry furnishes, 
or those which are found in the most beautiful architectural combinations ; and I 
conclude from this^ that if we wish to give back their old renown to all the 
branches of our national labor, the only way to do it is to apply to them a 
system of teaching corresponding to their wants, and to divide the instruction in 
accordance wiih the way in which the branches of public instruction are sub- 
divided. This I have tried to do for several years by applying experimentally a 
method deduced from the preceding considerations. I do not pretend to say that 
this method is perfect; on the contrary, I have, in every new edition, added some 
new improvements gained by experience. I do not claim, either, that my method 
is the only one to be recommended for' introduction into our schools. I am too 
much in favor of true progress to make such a demand ; but what I demand as 
the sole reward for my efforts and personal sacrifices is this : that a free trial of 
my method be made without being trammelled by government interference, and 
that the same privilege be given to the author of every method. According to 
my idea, all constitutive teaching of drawing ought to be elementary ; should take 
as its foundation geometry, and make the elements of this science subservient to 
the analysis of artistic forms in such a manner that they are not only an inani- 
mate instrument, but, on the contrary, a means by which the pupil can himself 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 660 

control and appreciate his work. Every method, then, must be rational, positive, 
and nbt leave room for doubt in the pupil's mind. This is the idea which has 
served me as a starting point in making out the method which I am about to lay 
before you. I have arranged it in such a manner that the pupil is at once enabled 
to appreciate the peculiarities of the most complicated forms, using simpler forms 
with which he already has been made familiar." 

The division of studies is briefly given as follows : 

** First Degree of Teaching. — These studies' consist in the free-hand drawing of 
forms and figures in general, geometrically represented. Before letting the pupil re- 
produce a copy of the smallest object, we exercise his eyes and his hands in using 
elementary figures, which allow him to understand gradually their relative pro- 
portions; their characteristic combination, {ensemble;) their particular form; 
and, finally, all their details. On the thorough pratice of these preliminary ex- 
ercises depend the immediate and complete results in the reproduction of forms 
and figures. 

" The pupil, knowing how to construct (by free-band drawing) a perfect square, 
and rectangular figures of all dimensions, will gradually apply the generic_ geomet- 
rical figures which he has been taught ; this knowledge practically acquired will 
enable him to understand immediately the characteristic combination of the object 
presented to him, to analyze all its outlines, and reproduce them in all their rela- 
tive dimensions. Twent}^ lessons have been sufficient for adults to reproduce 
successively, and in a very complete manner, the most complicated figures, not 
excepting even the human figure. The pupil .making these studies on a large 
scale, on a picture placed vertically, acquires a firmness of the hand and a correct- 
ness of the eyesight which have astonished many an artist, and is consequently 
prepared to enter upon the practical part of the special branch to which he devotes 
himself. 

" Second Degree of Teaching. — Solids ; their construction and their study. — As 
in the first degree of teaching, we also here, before letting the pupil copy from 
some figure, give him the means of understanding the form and the way in which 
it is composed. We commence by making him understand the construction of 
elementary fioures. He learns first of all the construction of the cube and its 
difierent rectangular divisions, and, next, to place it in all the positions possible. 
If he has once acquired this foundation, he successively refers to it all the generic 
forms, the combinations of which he makes in the various positions which the 
professor prescribes ; he proves by this that he can see in the space, and that he 
possesses a correct knowledge of tb^ principal parts of which any figure is com- 
posed. Arrived at this point of his studies, he undertakes the construction of 
more developed figures at the same time studying the various elements of orna- 
mentsln their second degree. He represents, on an even surface, what a moulder 
represents by his mould. He sees solid forms, and he will soon be able to express 
his thoughts in drawing, building, &c., forms which constitute the object of his 
special study. 

'Third Degree of Teaching. — Drawing after objects or figures placed at some 
rfzsto^c^.— It is indispensable here, that at the very outset the pupil should become 
thoroughly familiar with the rules of perspective; but simple and easy as they 
are in their application to the whole figure, just as difficult and tedious do they 
become in their regular application to the construction of every single ^ar^ of an 
object. In recommending the study of the rules of this science, we do not mean 
the rigorous application of these rules to the elevations on the profiles of the 
thousand different points of a capital (of a pillar) or other architectural ornaments ; 
we will leave this to those men who study science for its own sake ; what we want 
is this, that the pupil learn to know the construction of the objects which he has 
to represent, that then he may learn to give to all the details of this object their 
proper perspective position. The same would also apply to the study of light and 
shade. 

" Any pupil who is in earnest, and has thus been prepared by the elementary and 
analytical study of the three degrees of our method, will be able in less than a year 
to copy any object placed before him, and do it successfully. Thus does the^rs^ 
degree comprise the study of forms, geometrically represented, and the means of 
reproducing them in all their just proportions, whilst the second and third degrees 
have for their aim the initiation of the pupil in the construction and reproduction 



664 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

of forms and figures such as they present themselves in space. In order to sum 
up briefly what I have said, I would offer the following resolutions for the con- 
sideration of the government and all persons interested in the cause of artistic 
instruction : 

"The teaching of drawing should be divided into three degrees, corresponding to 
the three degrees of public instruction. 

" The first degree, limited to geometrical drawing, should embrace all the pro- 
fessional or artistic applications which are connected with this part of drawing. 
The elementary study of this first part of instruction in drawing should be made 
obligatory in all the primary schools, and frequent inspections by artists should 
be held. 

" The second degree should comprise the study of drawing from figures in th( 
space and its manifold applications to art and industry. The academies of th( 
second and third order, transformed into special schools for art applied to in- 
dustry, would devote themselves chiefly to this part of instruction in drawing. 
Every school should have the free choice of the method of teaching, and the studies 
which would have a bearing on the manufactures carried on in the vicinity. From 
time to time provincial and general expositions should be held by these schools, 
and equitable rewards given to the best. 

" The third degree, the realm of pure art, which requires as much of innate 
genius as of science, should be confined to two or three academies of the fine arts, 
placed in the most populous cities These academies only should give ' artistic ' 
instruction, properly so called." 

M. Hendricks closed by inviting the members of the assembly to accompany 
him some day to the Exposition, where he would show them the practical working 
of his system; which invitation was accepted. 

M. PiRON, Director of the Norm^d School at Carlshourg, further developed the 
system of M. Hendricks, which he has introduced into his school, and adds that 
he would like to see instruction in drawing introduced in the normal schools like- 
wise, and to make a difference, in the method and extent, between town and 
country schools. 

M. DE Taeye followed in a speech more or less opposing the system of M. Hen- 
dricks. He says : 

"The chief point is, to establish positive principles, on which to build up all 
instruction in drawing; whatever maybe the method, there is only one art of 
drawing. Experience teaches us, that, as a general rule, young people commence 
the study of drawing at a time when they are still far from a choice of employ- 
ment for life. Two intellectual currents ought therefore, I think, to be brought to 
bear on every given number of pupils : one for those with whom imagination pre- 
dominates ; the other, for those positive minds which are more inclined towards 
mathematical exactitude. In order to show the necessity of this division of studies, 
let us examine what is understood by drawing, and let us analyze its elements. 

'• Drawing is a language like writing. Reading, i. e., seeing written signs, 
creates ideas and sentiments. The same result should be produced by drawing, 
which originally formed part of writing, and is inseparably connected with it in 
the Egyptian hieroglyphics. Writing finds its expression in certain conventional 
figures ; drawing, by imitating natural forms ; drawing is therefore the represen- 
tation of the real or apparent forms of things, by means of lines traced on an even 
surface. 

" He who knows how to draw possesses likewise in a particular degree the 
faculty to express every conception of the mind, and thus to make his thoughts, 
his sentiments, intelligible to all. From this we conclude that all instruction in 
drawing ought to have for its aim the imitation of the real or apparent forms of 
objects. What, then, is required to reach this end? Above everything, an exact 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 665 

knowledge, a clear geometrical conception of the form which one wishes to rep- 
resent; for what is firmly and thoroughly conceived by the mind is easily exe- 
cuted by the hand. The true form of every object keeps within the limits of 
geometry ; in fact, when we analyze the various objects which nature presents, 
we discover that all their forms belong to geometry. Geometry, therefore, is the 
fundamental principle of drawing — the touchstone of every good method ; and 
where this fundamental element is wanting, the teaching will be vacillating and 
based entirely on imagination. We may here, for safety, establish this principle: 
the elementary study of every kind of drawing must necessarily be based on 
geometrical forms, only we shall see that in putting it into practice it is indispen- 
sable to pursue two different ways. By geometrical drawing, one arrives at an exact, 
precise and mathematical representation of the object, taking note of its length, 
breadth, etc. Thus the mind gets a complete knowledge of its real form, and is ena- 
bled to make the most detailed analysis ; whi 1st by drawing from sight one only takes 
note of the apparent form of the object, according to the point of view from which 
one considers it, without being able to arrive at an analysis of its real form. The 
first way of drawing obtains its results by means of instruments, such as ruler 
and compasses, whilst the second relies substantially on the exercise of the eye 
and the practice of the hand. I believe, therefore, that a combination of these 
two methods is an absolute necessity in order to constitute a complete and ra- 
tional system of teaching which satisfies the demands of imagination and of reason." 
In confirmation of these ideas, the speaker quoted several authors and artists' 
words. He then continued: ''It is therefore clear that geometrical drawing 
should form the beginning with every pupil, without distinction, and only after 
having fully mastered this branch of study should he be allowed to proceed to 
the study of drawing from plaster casts or nature. The advantage of following 
this system is incontestable ; it leads the pupil gradually by oral and graphic 
demonstrations from simple to composite forms, developing simultaneously his 
intelligence and the practice of his hand. The result of this rational mode of 
teaching is, that the pupil quickly acquires that accuracy of the eyesight and that 
faculty of judging of proportions which alone make a correct draughtsman. 
Another great advantage is this : that later, when the pupil is to study the scien- 
tific demonstration of descriptive geometry, he will find this very easy, for he 
knows already the name, the form, and definitions of figures, and more than that, 
he knows how to draw them ; even the solids, that part of geometry frequently found 
60 difficult, do not puzzle him, for he has already drawn them from nature. 
Another advantage is this : that the pupil is freed from drawing after an engraved 
copy, which now-a-days very generally has been acknowledged is one of the 
greatest obstacles in the way of learning to draw, for not only does he not learn 
to ' see' things as they are, but the poor copies which one generally finds in our 
Bchools only tend to depress the taste of our pupils, who thus lose their precious 
time in imitating these copies with their cross-lines of shade or their dotted lines; 
I may well say that the great majority of pupils, after having lost five or six 
years in drawing noses, mouths, and at last heads, finally give up the study of 
drawing from mere disgust." The speaker believed that it would be utterly im- 
possible, as M. Hendricks asserted, to teach drawing of ornaments and the human 
figure in 20 lessons. 

M. LouvRiBR DB Lajolais thought that as art was " one," so the teaching of art 
ought likewise only to be " one;'' that the teaching should rest on these funda- 



666 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

mental points : the choice of a method appropriate to the age of the pupils; the 
time they can devote to this study, and the degree of education which onght to 
be required from the teachers. The method should consist, naturally, in the study 
of the practical means of producing on an even surface the image of a solid ; suf- 
ficient time should be devoted to the study of drawing ; and the teachers ought to 
be thoroughly versed in the principles of free-hand drawing and mathematics, 
and should also have gone through a course of simple aesthetics. 

Several others spoke very much to the same purpose, and the discussion on this 
point was closed. 

The FOURTH QUESTION of the 1st section comprised the following : 

a. In order to favor the study of drawing, and to answer the wants of modern 
industry, industrial schools and academies of design have been established. 
What, therefore; is, from the industrial stand-point, the species of drawing that 
should be taught there? 

h.- Should there not be, on a smaller or larger scale, according to circum- 
stances, museums of works of art to serve as models near all such schools? 

c. What European institutions set, in this respect, the best example? 

From the somewhat rambling debates on this question, leading to no positive 
results, we select some of the most important suggestions. 

M. PiRON, Director of the Normal School at Carlshourg, drew attention to the 
great difference existing between the schools in cities and in the country. He 
Baid : '' The cities have all the resources, while the country has none ; and if our 
programme speaks of the introduction of teaching of drawing in the primary 
schools, this means the country as well as the city. What now are the elements 
in the country to assist the teacher in imparting his instruction in drawing ? 
There are none. One would seek in vain in all our country schools for a single 
model. Everything is wanting there. If, therefore, museums are to be founded 
in our cities, they are an absolute necessity in the country ; of course not on that 
large scale, but even the smallest school in the country should be provided with 
a collection of drawing copies, and, perhaps, a few models." M. Piron strongly 
recommended annual or semi-annual expositions of the drawings produced in all 
the schools to give a new impetus to the cause, and produce a spirit of emulation 
among the tearhers. 

M. Kindt, Inspector General of Industry^ made a speech, in which, after having 
dwelt on the general importance of industrial schools, he remarked; "The kind 
of drawing-instruction imparted in the industrial schools can very well exist by 
the si^e of the academies. A professor may be able to teach drawing, but he 
cannot give to his pupils artistic taste. One must have seen a great many objects 
of art to acquire a correct artistic taste; taste is the recollection of the beautiful. 
Do not believe that the professors in our smaller towns are able to teach their 
pupils in such a manner as to acquire taste. One way of greatly aiding the pro- 
fessors in imparting instruction would be to give to objects which are continually 
before the eyes of all, such as a pump, lamp-post, balcony, etc., an artistic form, 
and thus to cultivate the artistic taste of the working classes. Brussels, and some 
of our larger cities, have a great many such public objects of art ; but more might 
be done in this direction in many of our smaller towns, thus aiding the professors 
of drawing in imparting instruction." 

M. C. BuLS, Secretary of the \st Section^ spoke against the opinion expressed by 
some of the former speakers, especially M. Louvrier de Lajolais' assertion, that 
art was "one." He says : " No ; art is not ' one; ' but every nation has its owa 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 667 

Idea of the beautiful, which idea finds its expression in the diflFerent arts — different 
because thej are based not only on diflFerent, but thoroughly antagonistic princi- 
ples ; as, for instance, Greek and Gothic art. I understand why one of the pre- 
ceding speakers maintains that there is no other way to real art than through the 
study of Greek and Roman art. It is because he belongs to a nation which hag 
much aflEinity with the civilization of Greece and Rome. But we, who belong to 
the Germanic race, ought certainly not to be obliged to pass through the '■furculce. 
caudince ' of Greek and Roman art. Our ancestors, who have raised the glorious 
cathedrals and other public buildings, of which we are justly proud, were they 
inspired by the Greeks and Romans ? No. Maintaining the unity of art kills all 
national art. Art is the most elevated expression of a nation's life, and the arta 
of the different nations differ as much as their customs, religion and civilization. 
The nation, then, gives its character to art. Academies will never create any 
great artistic development. This is only produced when all the conditions required 
for producing it centre in one period. It is not correct to say that art alone has 
an influence on industry, for industry, in its turn, exercises a very marked influ- 
ence on art. The architect cannot merely trust himself to the aspirations of hia 
imagination, but must have regard to the requirements of construction. The 
architecture of the eighteenth century, with its broken pediments, its curved 
architraves," its twisted columns, mistaking the essential conditions of all rational 
construction, has shown what art comes to when it leaves its rational basis. It 
is not true to say that great art is sufificient to give to an architect the knowledge 
which we wish to give to the pupils of the industrial schools. If such were the 
case, we would not see sculptors obliged having recourse to the aid of an orna- 
ment-maker when they wish to crown one of their statues with flowers. I 
maintain, in fact, that the majority of painters are not able to design the 
frames of their paintings. I have seen with my own eyes in the workshop of an 
ornament-maker the formless sketches which architects, and architects of renown, 
have furnished for consoles, mouldings, ornaments of edifices, for which they had 
drawn the plans, which have thrown much light on their talent for drawing. 

" It would not be difiicult to quote the names of a considerable number of work- 
ingmen, who, coming from the workshops of jewellers, blacksmiths, and potters, 
have risen to the rank of sculptors and painters, such as Palissy, Quentin Matsys, 
Ghirlandajo Francia, &c. In every age there is a ruling tendency in art, and the 
painters, the sculptors, the musicians, poets, &c., express in their works the ideal 
at which the period aims. But below these, I might say along-side of them, 
there is a host of satellites, who, revolving in the same orbit, form small groups, 
with an independent life of their own. They are as much active centres of in- 
vention, and it is not in accordance with truth to say that they shine merely 
with a borrowed light. Any one who is acquainted with workshops knows that 
there is no lack of workingmen endowed with a certain artistic education; men 
who every day invent new combinations, reflecting the general character of art. 
In short, I claim the introduction into the academies of design of a course of 
applied archeology and aesthetics. If any one should doubt the possibility of ren- 
dering these sciences popular, we can produce conclusive evidence of this having 
been done in a satisfactory manner. Such a course would also give to the people 
some general notions of history, initiate them into the character of the great 
civilizations which have preceded ours, and cultivate their minds in many ways. 
How often has the varied culture of the artists of the renaissance been spoken of 



668 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 



with admiration ! men who were at one and the same time painters, sculptors, 
architects, jewellers, engmeers, musicians, and poets. Has the elegance of their 
works ever been equalled ? Such a course of instruction as I mentioned above 
would add considerable interest to the technical instruction by teaching the pupil 
the reason, origin, the signification, and the character of the forms which he em- 
ploys ; under his very eyes they would become animated ; for the professor who 
is to give this instruction should abandon the dry descriptive and analytical 
method of archeology and French aesthetics, and boldly cast himself into the 
broad domain of German aesthetics, which has been rendered so fertile by the ad- 
mirable works of Visschers, Boticher, Schonaase, Lubke, Semper, Springer, and 
Lotze. 

'' There the artist does not place himself before a work of art merely to analyze 
all its details, but he sees in it a living organism, all the parts of which are de- 
veloped as beautifully and regularly as the leaves and flowers of a plant ; it is no 
longer a production produced by accident or the individual fancy, but the natural 
unfolding of plastic forms, the types of which take root in the very depth of our 
social being. Such a method gives to the teaching of archeology and aesthetics 
a life, an interest, which make it so attractive that I do not think 1 am exaggerat- 
ing when I say that it will awake among the pupils a true enthusiasm for art. I 
even go further, and I say that such a course of instruction is imperatively de- 
manded by the cosmopolitan character of our time, our frequent journeys, the 
interest which the recent archeological researches awaken, by enabling us to com- 
prehend the most different styles of beauty. All this exposes us to the danger of 
mixing our styles, and of offending good taste by the alliance of forms which are 
entirely opposed to each other, or by employing them in a manner different from 
that for which they were originally intended. It is therefore necessary that the 
pupil thoroughly masters the essential character of each style, in order that he 
may always employ the right elements in the right place. This course should be 
limited to history of art among the European nations, and should consequently 
comprise the history of the Greek, Roman, Romanic, Gothic, and renaissance 
styles ; also the history of the styles of the 17th, I8th, and even the 19th centu- 
ries, in so far as their characteristics can be determined. It would be well to add 
the Moorish (moresque) style, which would furnish numerous illustrations for the 
theory of colors, the laws of which have been so accurately laid down by Mr. 
Brucke in his lessons at the Imperial Museum for Art and Industry at Vienna. It 
is easy to shorten or to extend this course in proportion to the pupil's degree of 
intelligence and culture. According to his advancement, he might learn from six 
to twelve lessons in one hour. After the general course has teen gone through, 
one could, in some lessons, give the history of some special industrial art, such as 
sculpture, the locksmith's trade, book-binding, the goldsmith's trade, &c., for 
such pupils as have already chosen a trade. It will scarcely be necessar}- to say 
that the professor ought continually to place before the eyes of the pupil the ob- 
jects, or at least good copies of the objects, of which he speaks. These objects 
he should find in the museums, which ought to be attached to every school of 
design, and the necessity of having such a museum is so self-evident that it does 
not need any argument. The institution at South Kensington has shown the 
way, which every school of this kind should follow, sooner or later. The pro- 
fessor would do well to make excursions with his pupils to monuments and col- 
lections of art in the neighborhood ; to draw his illustrations, if possible, from 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. G69 

the history of the national art, and endeavor to inspire his pupils to connect their 
own work with the traditions of their own country's art. What we finally de- 
mand, is this : 

*' 1. Every school of design should hare a course of history of ornaments as a 
supplement to the technical teaching of the arts of drawing. 

" 2. The professor should, in such a course, endeavor to connect the productions 
of art with the different manifestations of the nation's life which has produced 
them, so as to give the pupil some general idea on the history of civilization, and 
this by taking account of the German aesthetics. 

"3. Every school of design should have a museum comprising a methodical 
exposition of specimens of the various styles of ornamentics. 

"Besides the influence which such an instruction could not fail to exercise on 
the production of the pupils, it would also, in my opinion, have the advantage of 
increasing in the schools of design a tendency, which they follow wherever indus- 
trial art is foremost in the minds of people, namely, the tendency to change gradu- 
ally to industrial schools, to school-workshops ; here lies the road to a radical 
reform of primary instruction, which has already been followed by some, and 
with a happy result, for we see in it the means of attaining a more general diffu- 
sion of instruction by the universal attendance at the school during all the time 
required for the acquisition of a good and solid education." 

M. Braun, after some discussion on the question how far museums or collec- 
tions were practicable in all the schools, made the following practical propositions, 
which were received with applause : 

1. For the primary and normal schools, a well-defined, well-limited, well- 
co-ordinated method of drawing is required, in accordance with the nature and 
the aim of the establishment, and with all the time which can be devoted to the 
Study of this branch. 

2. In order to obtain the best results in the normal schools, a larger number of 
drawing lesions is required, and moje attention bestowed on it at the half-yearly 
and final examinations. 

M. Canneel mentioned the example which England has set with regard to 
museums. Duplicates of all the objects have been procured for the central museum 
at London, and thus a small museum has been formed which answered all reason- 
able demands. During the last nine years this museum has made forty journeys ; 
75,0t)0 persons have seen it, and 35,000 catalogues have been sold ; and this cata- 
logue gives excellent instruction on all the various objects contained in the museum — 
is in fact a brief course of archeology. This museum is placed in two railroad 
cars constructed expressly for its use, and only one man accompanies it. 

M. DE Taeye could not refrain from making some remarks with regard to an 
idea mentioned by M. Buls in his speech, viz, '• that it was not necessary to extend 
the study of archeology into antiquity." Although M. Bcls denied having said 
this, M. DE Taeye said : "I ask, how can it be possible to understand the middle 
ages, if one does not know the landmarks which have preceded it? I maintain 
that it is not possible to understand the middle ages if one does not know the 
Greek and Roman art. To give one example : there is between the sculptures, the 
figures of Rheims and the Greek art, such an intimate, astonishing connection, 
that you could not appreciate the beauties of the sculpture of the middle ages in 
France but by placing before them the most beautiful productions of Greek art. 
Phidias alone is worthy to be placed by the side of the beauties of the cathedral 



670 4RT INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

at Rheims, The traditions of Greek art had been preserved during the downfall 
of Greece. Through the crusades they have been carried all over Europe, and 
are reflected in the beautiful sculptures of the middle ages. Every artist who has 
attentively studied the works of these two periods will be convinced of the truth 
of what I have said." These remarks of M. de Taeye were received with applause, 
and the president announced the discussion on the fourth question as closed. 

SECTION II. — HIGHER INSTRUCTION IN THE ARTS OF DESIGN. 

1st Question. — Up to the "time of the foundation of academies, the graphic and 
plastic arts were only taught in the workshops of artists. Public schools have 
to-day replaced the ancient mode of teaching. The question is to examine the 
merits and demerits of the two modes of instruction. 

Passing by the discussions on various less important questions, we proceed at once 
to give the chief speech on this subject, made by M. de Taeye. He said : 

" A speaker who preceded me (M. Clu^^senaar) has asserted that the academies 
are badly organized, and that everything which is there should be entirely re-made. 
Gentlemen, these accusations go much further. I even go so far as to say that it 
is quite in accordance with the character of our times to consider the word 
'academical' as synonymous with medioc - and bad. I will now endeavor to 
show that this way of reasoning is entirely, radically false. It is said that acad- 
emies were first founded in those times when art declined, and that, therefore, 
their organization must be bad. I maintain, gentlemen, that the academy was 
not created at the time of the decadence of art; on the contrary, it is as old as 
the revival of modern art. The whole period of this revival, (renaissance.) from 
its commencement in Italy, in the 15th century, till the time of its greatest splen- 
dor, under Raphael and Michael Angelo, was pervaded by academical elements 
and animated by a purely academical spirit. The manner in which Squarcione, 
the founder of the school of Padua, exercised his wide-spread and beneficial influ- 
ence, is entirely academical. From a union of the works of art of antiquity, and 
their methodical study, he formed the basis of his teaching ; and the 'same prin- 
ciple, even at this present day, forms the fundamental element of all actual 
teaching. 

"The school which Leonardo da Yinci opened in Florence was intended to be 
an academy, and had in reality the greatest similarity to our modern idea of such 
institutions, because the isolated teaching of the old artists' workshops in .the 
middle ages was supplemented and completed by general studies on antiquities, 
science, and aesthetics. In order to attain to this, Leonardo felt the necessity ot 
writing his immortal treatise on painting. 

"The idea of academies belongs essentially to the spirit of the 'Renaissance' 
period. The return to the study of antiquity had produced a genuine enthusiasm 
for the institutions of Greece, and Plato's academy at Athens formed the ideal oi' 
artists. 

" All the academies which made their appearance under the reign of the Medici, 
during the 15th and 16th centuries, and produced a lively intercourse and inter- 
change of ideas between all men of science and artists, were but the realization o' 
this ideal. This union between science and art produced new researches in the 
fields of philosophy, nature, aesthetics, and art ; and in this grand tournament 
for the laurel wreath of science and art we see all the distinguished men of the 
' Renaissance ' and of art enter the lists. 

"Who dares to apply to such a movement the word 'decline! ' Who would 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. G71 

not rather recognize in this close alliance of spontaneous creation and the researches 
of free thought one of the most beautiful characteristics of this brilliant revival of 
arts (renaissance) in the 16th century! As long -as art was maintained at its 
height by the power of some few men of genius, its twofold aim could be attained 
by isolated masters. At a time when knowledge and inspiration seemed to give 
to all persons and to all artistic creations one common thought, in order to realize 
this object, no pedagogical teaching was required ; life itself was the school. 

"The strength of the traditions of the middle ages was broken, but the ideas 
of classical antiquity had taken their place, and influenced life, customs, science, 
and religious belief. It is only natural that they also influenced art. As in this 
union [ensemble) the aim was fixed, there only remained for individuals to 
search the expression of their feelings in order to arrive at the expression of the 
general feeling. Thus we see, during this whole period, certain grand artistic 
creations becoming the models, the examples for all. What had been produced 
by the common feeling ('sentiment') of a whole period naturally was admired 
by all. 

"Thus we see a school of artists form itself round the works of Leonardo da 
Vinci, the same as round the paintings of Masaccio in the church of Santa Maria 
del Carmine. Michael Angelo studied there, and after him Raphael did not dis- 
dain to borrow from them the types for his own works. The works produced by 
the competition between Leonardo da Vinci and Michael Angelo for the palace 
Vecchio, at Florence, became a school for a whole generation of artists. Raphael, 
leaving for the fir^t time the circle of his school, drew new strength from these 
studies ; one of the grandest compositions of his later days still shows most un- 
mistakably the influence of Leonardo da Vinci, and a century later our great 
countryman, Peter Paul Rubens, copied the remains of this work that had been 
saved. 

'' Let us now examine whether the method of teaching employed in these great 
epochs did not shorten the time of stud^ by rendering them at the same time more 
intense. Every workshop, as we have seen, formed, so to speak, a school, where 
the studies carried on were brought to their most complete development, regarded 
from a scientific and practical point of view. On entering, the scholar made an 
engagement of several years with his master, and was received as a simple ap- 
prentice, and was at first employed to prepare the palette and the paints ; he thus 
became acquainted with the material procedure, whilst the master and his more 
advanced scholars initiated him into the practice of drawing, geometry, and per- 
spective. As soon as he was familiar with the labors of the workshop, the master 
tried to advance his pupil. Then his artistic education really commenced. At 
first he traced on paste-board the designs of his master, in order to transfer them 
again to canvas or to the wall ; when the master drew from models, the pupil 
sat by his side and also made a sketch, thus learning to draw from nature, and 
keep account of the part which must be left to servile imitation in order to arrive 
at the truth, and of the part which must be left to the imagination, in order to get 
at the true expression and the style. Another important point was the following : 
he did not only learn drawing, painting, geometry, and perspective, which made 
him capable of comprehending architecture, but he was likewise taught model- 
ling. 

" How far from this wise practice are we to-day ! It is a principle of education, 
as it has been organized at a later time, that one person learns painting, another 
architecture, a third sculpture, without any one of them troubling himself in 



t>/~: ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

the least with the other branches of art. I go still further, and maintain that in 
this country of ours some have even studied sculpture vi^ithout having learned 
drawing. 

These subdivisions of study are completely unknown in the grand schools of the 
past. How many great artists have come from the common trades and work- 
shops ? It is only since the end of the llih century that painters ceased to model 
and sculptors to draw, and since the end of the 1 8th century they completely ig- 
nore everything pertaining to architecture. All the great masters of the ^renais- 
sance ' period were at the same time architects, painters, and sculptors, and one 
feels considerably embarrassed if he wants to class them under one of these heads ; 
whilst later, during the period of decline, when a painter would have architectu- 
ral design in his painting, he was obliged to ask the assistance of some architect, 
and in our days there are those who ignore the study of perspective, and have re- 
course to a perspectivist for the draught of the work. Where will this system of 
subdivision stop? 

" In former times the pupil had only one desire, viz, to acquire this universality 
of knowledge which he found in his master, and which was imparted to him all 
the more voluntarily, because the master could make ase of it for his own works. 
As soon as the pupil had mastered a certain science, the master let him make a 
rough sketch of his own drawings, arrange some drapery, execute parts of some 
importance ; and as he had an interest in its being well done, he was not sparing 
in giving advice. Such advice was given at any moment, for the pupil lived the 
same life as his master, had a place at his table, slept under his roof, and, through 
a daily increasing intimacy, became completely initiated. The artist was for him 
not the kind of demi-god, who, according to popular belief, had only to touch 
his brow in order to make, in a moment of inspiration, masterpieces spring forth 
from it. No ; he was a man eager for universal knowledge ; a prey to all human 
weaknesses, but knowing how to overcome discouragement, rather commencing 
the same work a hundred times than leaving it imperfect ; combining, making 
trials, undoing and remaking, before giving shape and form to a thought ; proud 
one day and furious or despairing the next ; always battling with difficulties. By 
constant contact with him, the pupil rapidly instructed himself, endeavoring to 
follow him and to equal him ; thus he learned the practice at the same time with 
the theory, and when he had finished his apprenticeship, then not only his artistic 
education was complete, but he had likewise drank deep from the fountain of 
science, and been thoroughly imbued with those moral sentiments which are 
essential to every man, and, above all, to the artist; and the master was likewise 
rewarded by the respect and the consideration of his pupils, who kept alive in 
him that sacred 6re, that love of the beautiful, which had been the constant 
thought of his whole life. 

" This golden age of artistic instruction lasted as long as the rising of the great 
schools lasted ; but as the development and the decline of art does not depend 
alone on the methods of teaching, but also on the social medium {milieu) in which 
the artists live, nothing could prevent art, like all other expressions of thought, 
from yielding to the enervating influence which prev£|iled at the close of the 17th 
and in the 18 th centuries. Diderot writes : ' The degradation of taste, of color- 
ing, of composition, of the character of drawing, has followed step by step the 
depravation of manners.' And truly the history of art, during that period, cor- 
roborates his words, and proves their entire truth. Was it not when Italy dis- 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 673 

carded all moral sentiment that she lost that royalty in art of -which she was so 
proud? Thus Spain, surrounded by the treasures of America, descended to the 
very lowest step on the ladder ; thus France, when she brought down her 
painters to the level of her courtesans, made them, during the reign of Louis XV, 
professors of libertinism. In the same way our own schools disappeared when 
their powerful painting, ceasing to be the exponent of ideas, was nothing but a 
bloated and conventional expression, occupying itself only with ordering and 
arranging. Thus it was that this vast world of artistic individualities became a 
multitude of insignificant particularities ; arbitrariness, flightiness, exaggeration, 
took the place of that classical dignity based on the consciousness of knowledge; 
avidity to seize the success of the moment replaced that calm love of the beautiful 
which formerly reigned at the time of conception of works of art — a sentiment 
which formed the fundamental character of that flourishing period. 

" At that time there awoke in the mind of a serious and well-informed artist a 
keen feeling of this decline of the arts and the wish to fight against it. That was 
the time of the foundation of academies in our modern sense of the word. The 
foundation of the academy at Bologna by Ludovico Carracci was a necessity 
produced by the conscioasness of this decline ; it saved art, for on one side the 
hollow idealism of the mannerists threatened all truthfulness, whilst on the other 
side a brutal materialism menaced all loftiness, beauty and dignity. Ludovico 
was joined in realizing this work of reform by his two young nephews, Agostino 
and Annibale ; and animated by a lofty and dignified sentiment, he boldly waged 
war against his powerful rivals. They ccmmenced their work under sarcasm 
and contempt, and by an iron energy brought it to the desired end. The 
school, the teaching of which the three associates had divided amongst themselves, 
each one taking the part for which he was particularly qualified, finished by 
attracting all the talent of the other studios, {ateliers ;) and as they sought to set 
up again as the only true standard of art truthfulness to nature and life, as well 
as grandeur and loftiness, they were justly considered the new founders of Italian 
art. Thus their teaching was free from all forced pedantry, from all systematic 
rules, preserving at the same time the traditions of style, disposition and ensemble, 
without which no teaching is possible ; they could preserve for each individuality 
his character and his liberty, and it is their greatest glory to have raised up so 
many artists of original talents, such as Albani, Quercino, Dominico, Lanfranchi, 
Guido Reni, &c. Thus must be conceived the origin of the academy of Bologna, 
in which we recognize the first example of those academies which the artistic 
education of our times requires. Far from having accelerated the decline of art, 
it has, on the contrary, always fought against, this movement, and thus saved art 
for a new future. The instruction given in these academies had a great advantage 
over the instruction given by one man in his studio. Art^ such as it is to-day, 
has assumed a general character ; it touches everything, and has in the higher 
spheres of its instruction almost assumed a character of a university education. 
It is impossible that one man, however great his genius and talents may be, could 
meet all these varied demands. Can one professor in his workshop (atelier) 
teach philosophy of art, aesthetics, history, literature, technics, perspective— in 
short, all the various branches which constitute art? This is utterly impossible. 
The academies here felt this, and have established a system of instruction no 
longer by one man only, but by a number of men with special talents. This is 
progress. This organization shows a great development ; but at the end of a 



674 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

certain time, the influence of abuses makes itself felt in the schools, the traditions 
grow contemptible and art sombre. In the academies you see from time to time 
a man who resists these invasions, and I find an admirable though little known 
example of this in our own country. At the Academy of Antwerp, founded by 
David Teniers, an old professor, endowed with an admirable simplicity and d^Toted- 
ness, Herrens, preserves intact, though all the decline of the .18th century, the 
technical tradition of Jordaens and Rubens. Herrens traverses this whole unaus- 
picious period without in any way yielding to its influence. He is calm and 
immovable in his work, without allowing himself to be influenced by the evil 
passions which are at work around about him ; and when David, as an exile, fled 
to this country and made the acquaintance of old Herrens, he said to him : * If I 
were young still, I would come to your school and recommence my studies.' 
This is historical, for I know it from a scholar of Herrens himself. In France, 
David raised art from the depths into which it had sunk. Only, as at his time the 
study of the antique was not as much developed as to-day, as the works of 
Phidias were not known, he could only draw his inspiration from the works of 
the declining period. Ingres, likewise, drew his inspiration from the antique, but 
he studied the works of the classical period of Greece ; hence the difference between 
his teaching and that of David. David has nevertheless rendered art immense 
services. All our most eminent artists have come from his school in passing 
through that of Van Bree and Navez. I hope that this short historical review 
has dispelled many erroneous ideas on the nature of academies. 

^' What other criticisms are made on the academies? Sometimes it is their 
jBethod of teaching ; sometimes the selection of studies ; but, as a general rnle, 
all these critics are governed by one thought — that everything one learns besides 
•the onere technicalities is useless for the artist ; yea, may even become dangerous 
for him. Is not this extremely foolish ? For an artist, whatever gifts nature 
may have bestowed on him, must, in order to put them to good use, join the 
development of his intellectual qualities to that of his technical ones. The 
progress of his art in that respect ought to be as important as in his natural gifts 
themselves. History is rich in illustrations of this truth. Look at the art of 
Greece, the period which preceded the renaissance itself, and modern art ! Fig- 
ure to yourself the great artists of these different periods, those who symbolized 
the-glory of their countries. They were, with few exceptions, remarkable men ; 
men not only skilled in their art, but distinguished by their mental culture, and 
by the varied character of their knowledge. The more a country rises in the fine 
arts, the more is felt the necessity of uniting with the technicalities the highest 
attainments of human science. Knowledge, far from enslaving and fettering tal- 
ent, only gives to the artist the consciousness of his liberty. We see in the grand 
classical periods, politicians, philosophers, painters, sculptors, musicians, poets, 
living in a fruitful familiarity, in a constant interchange of ideas. And what 
else is the aim of academies if it is not to realize for the artists of our days this 
ideal? Let us clearly establish the position which art occupies in the field of 
mental activity of the human race, and the mission of the academies will become 
self-evident. All mental activity may be divided into three great divisions : 

" First, philosophy, the foundation of all knowledge, which has a character of 
universality, and governs every science. It is the heart and centre of it ; it is the 
principle of thought and of reason ; the inexhaustible source of universal truths, 
.whose eternal _principle is God. Its aim is the search after truth. 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 675 

'* The second division is art. Its aim is the free reproduction of the beautiful ; 
not only physical beauty or the beauty of nature, which, alone, would make art 
merely a servile imitation, but the ideal beauty, such as the human imagination 
conceives it, by the aid of those gifts which nature furnishes. 

*' The third division is 5ci>nce. Its aim is the search for physical utility. It 
modifies nature for the benefit of our race by the rational application of its dis- 
coveries. It invests man with a true royalty over matter. 

"The state ought to offer to all its children the means of acquiring these dif- 
ferent expressions of culture, which form its greatness, its development, aud its 
wealth. Therefore we have universities, schools of the fine arts, schools of 
mining, schools cf civil engineering, schools of arts and manufactures. Thus the 
academies have not been established to form as many artists as possible ; they are 
not destined to guide the taste ; but we have academies in order to offer to every 
individual, who feels within his heart a spark of that sacred fire, the means of 
arriving at its free and complete development. This possibility, however, can, 
in our times, no longer be realized by a single master or a single studio. The 
greatest artist can no longer do justice to this variety of knowledge. For this 
reason a union of forces has become necessary, just as at the schools and univer- 
sities. Only in this manner can the multiplicity of wants be satisfied ; a way 
be opened to develop the various talents, and the studies of the workshop 
{atdier) be completed, in order to find the true relation between master and 
pupil, which is necessary for the proper development of art. The academy gives 
the instruction ; the master seeks out for himself a pupil after his own heart, and 
the two, by their united efforts, raise an artist. This is, in my opinion, the posi- 
tion which an academy ought to occupy, and which gives the basis for the extent 
and character of the studies. What can be learned ought to be taught; technics 
in all its branches, from the fundamental elements to the highest scientific know- 
ledge. In order to attain to this, we must acknowledge that the higher studies in 
the academies are insufficient; that they ought to be supplanted by studies in 
{Esthetics, history of art, and literature. I said, a while ago, that everything 
comes to us from the school of David ; criticism, however, ought to go side by 
Bide with eulogy. I said that everything good with us comes from the school of 
David ; but this teaching is not complete. I would like to add to it two very 
important elements. I would like to add to the academical and university teach- 
ing the teaching in the workshops, [ateliers studios.) Some people will say that 
this wish is chimerical ; how can academical traditions and free teaching be united ? 
Nevertheless, this plan is perfectly feasible. It has been carried out at Munich 
and Dusseldorf, and, by the efforts of M. Violet-Leduc, this system has beeen or- 
ganized in the most complete manner in the Institute of France. I will give a 
striking illustration : In Germany, sesthetical courses are found everywhere ; not 
only at the universities, but also in the schools, and in the most elementary es- 
tablishments, and a book has just been published entitled 'Aesthetische Briefe 
fur junge Maedchen,^ (Letters on ^Esthetics for Young Girls.) In our own 
country, on the contrary, instruction in aesthetics is almost entirely want- 
ing, and many artists do not even know the meaning of the word. In 
my opinion, this is not all. I say, first, that the elementary teaching at 
the academies is insuflScient; but the superior instruction likewise is in- 
complete, not in its course of studies, for that is good, but in its intellectual 
development, through the great voids which exist. Important higher courses are 



676 ART INSTIIUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

entirely wanting in the academies. At none of our universities is there a course 
of aesthetics. At the university of Louvain a course of Christian archeology has 
been established, which is only a portion of aesthetics. A course of instruction 
in the philosophy of the beautiful ought to be established everywhere. At present 
we see the strange fact that distinguished men, men whom their talents have 
helped to obtain the first positions in the state, encourage the fine arts and artistic 
instruction, but, as regards art, are themselves real barbarians. How is the 
the higher instruction organized at Munich ; at Dusseldorf; at Paris? An intel- 
ligent and learned director superintends the teaching. At Munich, Kaulbach; 
at Dresden, Schnorr von Caralsfeld. They have a studio, which bears their name. 
At Munich, there is the studio of Schwind, of Piloty, &c. The pupil chooses the 
artist whose teaching he prefers ; the colorists choose a colorist ; the draughtsman, 
an artist who makes forms a specialty; an artist who possesses fire; a master 
whose temperament is analogous to his own. The master has a right to accept 
or refuse a pupil. He can say to the pupil, ' Your studies have been incomplete ; 
go and perfect yourself in the classes.' There is a constant rivalry between the 
pupils, and also between the professors. Every professor naturally desires to 
have the most beautiful studio and produce the best results. The pupils are ani- 
mated by an excellent spirit. They wish to be the strongest at the annual exhi- 
bition. All are filled with an emulation worthy of the golden age of art. I will 
give you an example how the directors understood this sentiment. There was 
wanting at the Academy of Munich the proper appreciation of color, [sentiment 
de la couleur.) A man who had received instruction in our school of 1830 came 
to Munich, and there created quite a revolution in art. That man was Piloty. 
The director having seen this revolution, immediately demanded the establishment 
of a new studio, and asked Piloty to direct it. Here was a man who understood 
his mission. The war between the old and the new school broke out, and this war 
produced, as its result, progress. If one wishes to be sincere, one frankly points 
out the sore point. In our country there are chiefly two obstacles which prevent 
the artistic instruction reaching a complete development, viz ; the elementary 
instruction is bad, and the higher instruction is incomplete. The question, there- 
fore, is to produce an organization which is free from these faults. One word 
more. The government, in endeavoring to develop the higher studies, should 
also insist on having the artistic instruction at the academies more developed. If 
we thoroughly examine our present system, we find that there are scarcely two 
schools where instruction is given in the studios besides the regular instruction 
in the classes. Such is the case at Antwerp, and to some degree at Louvain. Is 
it not deplorable that some of the largest cities in the country have no higher 
artistic instruction ? It seems to me, therefore, that certain criticisms made on 
the academies are greatly exaggerated, but that nevertheless there is every reason 
for us to put our hand to the work and arrive at a complete organization." 

This speech of M. de Taeye was received with loud and prolonged applause; 
and though several members of the Congress expressed different opinions on some 
minor points, the great majority thoroughly agreed with him on the urgently 
needed reorganization of the academies in accordance with the general ideas pro- 
pounded by M. de Taeye. 

2d Question. — In the organization of academies of fine arts, that is to say, of 
gpecial schools for a complete instruction in the arts of design, oueht there to be 
introduced, iqi view of the demands of industry, a course of artistic instruction, 
different in some parts from that which art, properly so called, demands? What 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 677 

ought to be the programme of such instruction ? If some parts of this double 
teaching are in common, where does the separation begin ? 

After considerable discussion on these questions, the great majority of the 
assembly agreed as to the urgent necessity of establishing throughout the country, 
not merely academies and studios-, but some rather more democratic institutions 
for the artistic instruction of workingmen. The aim, as was said, was not to 
produce thousands of painters and sculptors, but thousands of intelligent work- 
ingmen, with some taste for the beautiful m art and nature, and the ability of 
applying it to their work. Many very able speeches were made, amongst the rest 
by M. Klein, Professor of Architecture at the Royal Academy of the Fine Arts 
at Copenhagen. He spoke about the different kind of instruction to be given to 
artists and. artisans, both as to matter and method, and finally gave some exam- 
ples of a school for artisans recently established* at Copenhagen. 

We give some extracts from the last speech on this question, made by M. 
Janssens Smits, member of the administrative council of the Academy of St. 
Nicholas. He said : 

' ' There is not, and there cannot be a difference of opinion as to the end aimed at ; 
everybody is convinced that the talent, devotedness, and the important pecuniary 
resources which the teaching of the fine arts annually absorbs in Belgium, ought 
not solelj^ to contribute towards the glory of the country, but also bring new life 
to all the branches of its activity. One says : Our academies ought not merely 
to give instruction in the 'fine' arts, {ks arts d^ agrement,) as they are commonly 
called ; they ought likewise to popularize the knowledge of the useful arts ; the 
beautiful and the useful ought to be united indissolubly. The grand, the high 
art does not suffice ; we also want the common art. Separated from the useful, 
the culture of the beautiful does no longer justify the offerings which it claims. 
These are the arguments of a great number of persons. It will doubtless not be 
difficult for them to justify the sympathy which they have for arts and industry 
united, for the good reason that en the most important points they will not be 
contradicted by any sensible person. Our academies ought, for every pupil who 
is educated for an artistic career, to form a hundred other pupils for the manual 
professions. Living in the midst of an essentially industrial population, I would 
be very guarded in questioning the high and even glorious mission of the arts, 
and the powerful influence which artistic instruction ought, consequently, to ex- 
ercise on all industrial productions. But I ask whether the question of industrial 
art does not partly derive its success and popularity from the novelty of its name. 
The question in itself is old as art, old as work. It is pretension and injustice to 
believe that this question is so novel. 1 do not deny that certain improvements 
might be made in the instruction given in our academies ; that certain more 
direct applications of art to industry might not be attempted ; but there are de- 
fenders of the new systems, who, it seems to me, are not grateful enough for the 
immense results obtained by our academies up to this present day ; results from 
which our industrial progress has had its full share. The reformers, with the 
most excellent intentions and arguments, to contradict which is often very 
difficult, have, I believe, a tendency to specialize. Can the too divisionary 
application of art, its application merely to certain local wants — can this be 
taught without injuring the unity of art; and if this unity were wanting, 
would it not injure its solidity {solidi(e)l Ought not the principal and most 
practical aim of this Congress to be to lead to this unity of views, of aspira- 



678 iRT INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

• 
tions, and perhaps, to a certain point, of methods ? One of the speakers who 
preceded me has eloquently and justly remarked ; ' Wherever there is mat- 
ter, there is form; wherever there is form, there is art.' Well, precisely because 
there are as many expressions of art as there are different forms, and as many 
kind of forms as there are matters to work upon, I ask whether it is possible to 
teach professionally all the trades with a view to a special application of art. We 
cannot follow these infinite classifications in giving instruction. We cannot even 
theoretically admit thousands of distinct arts ; art cannot be broken up into dif- 
ferent parts without losing a part of itself. No ; there are not thousands of arts; 
there are not even two different arts ; and we go too far, if we speak of an indus- 
trial art which ought to differ from another art, doubtless a speculative, abstract 
and metaphysical one. I only know one art — that is, the idea of the beautiful 
reproduced in matter ; every man who possesses the artistic sense will let its 
influence be felt in every one of his works ; every work which bears this impress 
of the beautiful is artistic. The classical teaching of our academies has, since 
their foundation, powerfully contributed to develop this simultaneous culture of 
the mind and the heart, which constitutes taste; this feeling of distinction ; this 
comprehension of the beautiful. And this taste, this feeling, this comprehen- 
Bion, which might be inculcated into all the classes of the population, if they 
wished it, have had a decided influence on the general development of our indus- 
try. One often speaks of art for all ; but does not this specializing imply an 
abandoning of 'art for all?' It becomes then 'art for some few,' for some one class 
of workingmen. The true 'art for all' are the unvarying principles, the general no- 
tions, which, for ages, have been taught in all our great academies. With the 
principles once given, pure tastes once inculcated, it remains for the workshop, 
the factory, the studio, {atelier^ ) to do the rest. I do not hesitate to say that by 
the experience and education of the industrial workshop, more than by the teach- 
ing of some special useful art, Paris has monopolized the trade of the world in 
almost all articles whose value lies in their artistic taste. The select pupils whom 
you would educate in your special schools would have to go and complete now 
their artistic instruction in those Parisian workshops ; they would have to form 
themselves under working artists, not one of whom, perhaps, has ever enjoyed a 
professional artistic instruction in schools. What is true of the Paris articles is 
equally true of the flourishing French silk industry, the manufacture of porcelain 
and crystals. This is true everywhere ; and we could find some striking examples 
in certain Belgian industries. It is by working that one becomes a workingman; 
it is by making oneself an artisan that one becomes an artist in his profession, 
if the head has taste and the hand skill. Having to answer those who find 
fault with the academieal teaching, because it is not specialized with a view 
to local industry, and who seem to forget the immense and beneficial influ- 
ence which it exercises on the whole working population, we have already 
eome months ago answered them thus : One loses sight of the fact that instruc- 
tion in the fine arts, independent of its practical and professional applications, 
possesses a general usefulness for everything and for all. It is a powerful means 
of popular education; it exercises on the workingmen an eminently civilizing in- 
fluence ; it polishes his manners and gives him calm and serious tastes ; it throws 
into the young mind a germ of arUstic sentiment, which, although it is often 
denied, is in reality more developed among our working population than among 
men whose knowledge and taste are lauded everywhere. Let us only for a mo- 
ment think of the artist painters and sculptors, to whom the lessons received a* 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. C79 

our academies open a brilliant career. Let us speak of a more general interest ! 
No ; there is not one profession or trade where it is not beneficial to have a tinge 
of aesthetics^ to have trained the eye to the gracefulness and correctness of the 
outlines ; to have inculcated in one's mind a knowledge of perspective, for in- 
stance, a science which gives a good deal to think about, and which forcibly leads 
to it. All these results have in a great measure been attained by our academies ; 
the aptitude of a large number of our workingmen, whose relative inferiority I 
deny, bears testimony to this fact. In order to convince us of inconsistency, we 
are accused of too strong a predilection for the special industry of building ; our 
academies are said to be industrial building schools, {ecoles industridles de bdiisse.) 
We are truly astonished to hear it maintained that the study of linear, decorative, 
anatomical, stereotomic, and architectural drawing, which forms the basis of our 
popular artistic teaching, will not be of any use to those who will have to handle 
the compasses, the trowel, and the plane. The value of this appreciation is al- 
most equal to the value of the opinion of those who despise humanitarian studies ; 
who imagine that the study of the higher mathematics is not generally useful ; 
that geometry, e. g., is only good for training land-surveyors. 

"Let us not specialize beyond measure ! Let us not break the synthetic organi- 
zation of the study of the beautiful ! We admit, e. g., that the application of 
linear drawing to the drawing of machinery can in many localities be of incon- 
testable usefulness. It ought, therefore, to be an advantage to the workingman 
to have drawn the mechanisms [Us mecaniques) with which, in some way, he has 
to identify himself. The study of models might become to him of great practical 
usefulness in comprehending and managing his machine or his tool. There will 
doubtless be other^iiseful applications of drawing and painting without entering 
on those subdivisions, which are a terror to us ; but there are persons who want 
to specialize, and convert the academies into industrial schools. It would be chi- 
merical to establish, under the cover of fine arts, an academy for armorers at Liege, 
an academy for lace-makers at Maljnes, an academy for weavers at Ghent, an 
academy for cutlers at Namur and Lierre ; for manufacturers of delph-ware, at 
Tournai ; for corsetmakers, at Lokeren, and academical courses {sections academ- 
iques) for locksmiths, upholsterers, tailors, seamstresses, and shoemakers every- 
where. We can show the greatest care for the success of industry, and 
favor the introduction of improvements in the teaching of the fine arts, yet at the 
same time see that it is not practicable to teach as many species {categories) of the 
beautiful as there are innumerable ways of applying it to the manual professions. 
By demanding too much, we are misled. The teaching of the ten or twelve great 
academies of the country has no such urgent need of rejuvenating itself as some 
seem desirous to prove, and up to the present moment we have not learned that 
the new methods of our days, which have been praised so much, have discovered 
a single new line, or that in the combination of lines they have furnished types 
of a novel and modern beauty which will make us forget the study of the human 
form and masterpieces of antiquity, from which our old classical teaching obsti- 
nately draws its inspirations. Some advocate, in connection with schools of 
design, special courses of chemistry and physics, in view of the wants of industry. 
Well, the teaching of chemistry and physics, a knowledge of which, however 
elementary, aids so powerfully in developing the intellect, and which are of con- 
stant practical use to the workingman — the teaching of these sciences, without 
which all the industrial proceedings can only go on by laborious groping on the 



GSO ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

beaten tracks of routine, these purely scientific studies have nothing in common 
with the development of taste and sesthetical sentiment, to propagate which is 
the mission of the schools of the fine arts. Far from condemning .the study of 
chemistry and physics, I consider it on the contrary of the highest usefulness, and 
I believe it to be indispensable to all true progress in industry. I fully appre- 
ciate the enlightened solicitude of all those v^ho see in the diffusion of these sciences 
a means of improving the condition of our workingmen. If we only wish to give 
to the pupils elementary notions of science in the academies, we supplant the 
primary schools, for this branch of instruction would naturally find its proper 
place in the highest class of primary schools. If we wish to give a profound, truly 
professional knowledge of these sciences, this requires arduous and complete study, 
which in my opinion is only possible in the great industrial centres, such as Ghent, 
Liege, Mons, Verviers, which alone can provide the necessary laboratories and 
collections, a competent factory, a supply of pupils, and, above everything, the 
funds which such institutions would require. In some special cases, where a 
school of design has a surplus of room and funds, I would advise the introduction 
of these elementary courses. As a general rule, however, I would not advocate 
it. It is a completely distinct instruction, which, outside of important centres of 
industrial activity, would most assuredly result in absorbing the few. hours of 
leisure which are left to our workingmen, and in taking away the room, which 
nowhere is too ample, from the teaching of the fine arts. 

''As regards the second part of the question, viz, if some parts of this double 
teaching are in common, where does the separation begin? I have to say this 
separation ought necessarily to commence where the artistic side {cote) ceases ; if 
not, old academies ought to drop the name, academies of t^ie fine arts ; they 
will remain useful under another and new name; but our mission in being called 
together here is to purify the taste, to infuse love for the beautiful. Art in it- 
self will exercise an immense influence on the aptitude and the success of the 
workingman. It is not possible that a good pupil of a good school of fine arts 
should ever, in whatever branch of industry, become an incapable or awkward 
workingman. Where his taste and his aesthetic tact have been, formed by the 
classic teaching of art, he will, when at his work, always know how to avoid 
what is not harmonious, incorrect, or ungraceful. But we will accord more than 
this to the professional education of the workingman ; we desire that there be 
placed at the service of industry an artistic teaching specialized in a just meas- 
ure, having in view as much as possible the general wants of industry, and pre- 
serving as much as possible the precious unity of teaching. Drawing of ma- 
chinery, decorative drawing and painting, which, in many cases, can be applica- 
ble to manufactures — all this may be excellent; but one should remain within the 
boundaries of art, in order that the artistic teaching may not degenerate to a 
cold and inanimate utilitarianism. Let us be prudent in making such experi- 
ments, which might suddenly overthrow what we have slowly and laboriously 
built up. Let us not forget that this would mean a weakening of art, a reducing 
of its noble mission to what I will call the 'bare facts,' the 'mere mechanical 
procedure,' {du /aire, du procede.) Above everything, do not let us make of our 
academies and of their professors, teaching so well and so devotedly, the scape- 
goats of the weaknesses and the incapacity of certain manufacturers, [produc- 
teurs.'") * 

As a longer time than had been originally intended had been taken up by the 



ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 681 

discussion on the second question of the second section, the third question could 
only be briefly mentioned, which could be done all the more easily as, in its 
import, it veiry nearly coincided with the first question. 

3d Question. — Should there be introduced in the academies of the fine arts a 
course of aesthetics and literature? 

Only a few minutes were devoted to this question. We only quote some re- 
marks of U. Slingeneyer : " There are always certain intervals during the hours 
of study ; thus, a pupil, whilst he studies painting, does not get very tired, and 
the professor could easily engage him to devote himself during those intervals to 
certain useful studies; thus, e.g., Homer, Virgil, Shakspeare, Cervantes, would 
form excellent subjects for reading. In Homer, the artist would find simplicity ; 
in Virgil, rhythm; in Shakspeare, passion. There is no doubt that a judicious 
selection from the works of these poets would exercise a very happy influence on 
his artistic education." 

4th Question. — Would it be useful to found in Belgium, besides the academies 
of the fine arts, one or more special schools of architecture, where all the studies 
required for a thorough theoretical and practical knowledge of this art are united, 
and what subjects should be taught in such a school ? 

From want of time this question was also treated but briefly. It was very 
generally conceded that the instruction in architecture, as given at present, was 
not as full as might be desired ; but it was doubted whether the foundation of a 
central academy of architecture at Brussels, which was all that could be aimed at 
for the present, could supply this want. M. db Taeye cited the example of Ber- 
lin, where, as he said, the pupils, on entering upon their studies at the academy, 
were not asked, will you be sculptors, or painters, or architects ; but where they 
were told : '' Learn the language of art, which is drawing ; and when you have 
finished your studies, and know the language well, choose your career — be sculp- 
. tors, painters, or architects." * 

bth Question. — Among the general means of encouraging the study of the arts of 
design, should the establishment of competitive (general and local) courses be 
recommended, how should such competitive courses be organized? 

All were agreed as to the usefulness of such competitive courses, and the only 
question to be settled was, how they should be organized. No speeches of special 
interest were mado, and we only quote some remarks of M. Braun. He said : 
" The method is only an instrument ; it is therefore not the method which makes 
the master, but the master who makes the method. Impose a method upon a 
master, and you will only retard the progress of his pupils. The professors of the 
academies themselves should therefore organize these competitive courses, after 
having deliberated on the subject, as they think best, and the government should 
certainly do all in its power to encourage these courses." 

M. Canneel recommended that all the academies should be notified that they 
were invited to take part in such a competitive course ; that at such and such a 
time each pupil would be called upon to draw such and such a figure, in such 
and such dimensions, and under such and such conditions. It should be superin- 
tended by a person who has no interest in it, that no fraud takes place. Thus, 
Ghent might be appointed to watch Brussels ; Brussels, Antwerp, &c. 

After the discussion on this question had been closed, the president read the 
following proposition, made by 20 members of the Congress, which was received 
with great applause, and was signed by all ; and which, by unanimous consent, 



682 ART INSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM. 

was to be handed to the Minister of the Interior : '• The undersigned, members of 
the Congress for examining into the best methods of generalizing artistic instruc- 
tion, are of opinion that the progress made by neighboring nations in the realm 
of fine arts, and in that of the application of art to industry, do not allow Belgium 
to remain stationary, and therefore hereby express their ardent desire to see es- 
tablished at Brussels, as soon as possible, a palace of the fine arts.'- 

The session of the Congress was closed by a short speech from M. Visschers, the 
president, in which he said : " I believe I express the wish of the whole assembly 
that this Congress on instruction in the fine arts may renew itself. We have 
entered on the realm of the practical, but we are yet far from having exhausted 
it. I will not predict the future, and cannot say what questions we shall have to 
discuss at some future meeting; but if we have restricted ourselves to technical 
questions, [evfermes dans la domaine techraque,") if we have not touched the highest 
questions of art, we shall have been amply indemnified for this by the results 
obtained by the benefits due to our labors, and we shall grow stronger from these 
results. If England has shown us what road to travel to reach the highest glory, 
Belgium will imitate her, and her future glory will outshine her past." 

These remarks were received with prolonged applause of approbation. After a 
unanimous vote of thanks had been passed to the president and the members of 
the committee of organization, the assembly adjourned sine die. 



PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC IN BELGIUM. 



I.-ROYAL CONSERVATOIRE AT BRUSSELS.* 

The Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels was established by 
royal decree in 1822, as a school for imparting gratuitous instruction in 
the whole range of instrumental and vocal music to young Belgians of 
either sex, and received its present designation by royal decree in 1832. 

The branches taught are: 1. Solfeggio and reading music; 2. Singing — soloand 
concerted ; 3. The organ ; 4. Stringed and wind instruments and the pianoforte; 
5. Thorough bass and accompaniment; 6. Composition; T. The Italian language 
and Latin pronunciation ; 8. French declamation. There may be, in addition, 
a class for the plain chant, for acoustics, and for musical aesthetics. A director, 
professors, supplementary professors, and repetiteurs, hare charge of the instruc- 
tion. 

The administration of the institution is under the charge of a commission of 
seven members, including the president, all of whom are named by the king. It 
chooses a vice-president and treasurer from among its own body. The burgo- 
master of Brussels is honorary president. The director and secretary, who is also 
librarian, are not members. The commission proposes to the Minister, jointly 
with the director, all the officers. It regulates all the expenses, the discipline, 
and interior economy, and, in consultation, the director fixes the number of repe- 
titeurs and pupils in each class. The commission meets once a month, and annu- 
ally settles the budget of expenses, with the director, and presents a report. Once 
every three months, at least, the members must make an inspection of the classes. 
Every member who has been absent from the meetings of the commission for six 
months ceases to belong to it. 

The director is appointed by the king, and can be removed by a ministerial 
decree. He has the general direction of the studies, methods of study, and the 
discipline of the classes, as regards both professors and pupils. He may attend 
the deliberations of the commission, but has no voice in it. He examines and 
admits or receives pupils, reporting the same to the commission. He has charge 
of the furniture, instruments, and of the property of the establishment generally. 
With him, assisted by the professors of singing and instrumental music, rests the 
admission or the rejection of the candidates. 

Candidates for admission as pupils must be able to read and write, and must 
bring certificates of birth. They must be above seven years old. After twelve 
they cannot be admitted to the solfeggio classes, unless they can read music. 
After fifteen they are not admitted to an instrument class unless they show a cer- 

* Drawn up from Report of M. Ducpetiaux, and a Special Report of T. Le Neve Foster. 



6S4 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC IN BELGIUM. 

lain aptitude, and can read music. Thej can enter the singing classes up to the 
age of twenty-five, provided they can read music. Those admitted commence 
their studies the first Monday in October annually. The pupils cannot be absent 
without leave from the professor, or more than one day in the month without leave 
from the director, and only for serious reasons. After prolonged absence they' 
are re-examined before re-admission. 

The professors and sub-professors are responsible for the conduct of their classes, 
under the supervision of the director. Leave of absence may be given them for 
a fortnight by the director ; for a month by the commission ; for beyond that 
period by the Minister, under the advice of the director and the commission, but 
not more than once in the year without the special authority of the Minister. 
Absent professors are replaced by sub-professors or repetiteurs. The former re- 
ceive the salary of the professors during their absences. If the absence is un- 
avoidable for important reasons, the professor loses only half his salary for the 
time. If absent for a fortnight or for a month with a medical certificate he loses 
nothing ; beyond that time a quarter of his salary is taken for the benefit of his 
substitute. Any professor absent without leave or illness is fined two days' salary. 
Prolonged absence is reported to the Minister, and visited with dismissal or sus- 
pension. Professors named by the director take part in the practices and public 
and private performances. The director chooses the repetiteurs from the most dis- 
tinguished pupils. They have an annual salary, and after two years of approved 
conduct may succeed to a vacancy as sub-professor. There is an officer termed su- 
perintendent of studies, who is responsible for the order of the studies, and for the 
maintenance of discipline in the classes. He registers and makes a daily report of 
the presence or absence of the teachers and pupils, and must be present a quarter 
of an hour before and during the time of study. He has under him servants who 
attend to the classes, fill the ofl&ces of messengers, porters, and orchestra men. 
He has also the care of the instruments. 

The library contains — 1. Works on the theory and practice of music for the 
use of the classes ; 2. Scores and separate parts for the concerts ; 3. Books and 
music for the instruction of the pupils and for reference. The advanced pupils 
may borrow library books with the permission of the director, the same being re- 
gistered, and for not more than a month. 

In the month of May the director commences his examination of all the students 
in the Conservatoire in the presence of the professors in charge of each class. He 
ascertains the progress made in the year, and how far each pupil has advanced 
in- his education. These examinations, which take place daily, last about six 
weeks. On the results of these examinations the director determines the dismis- 
sal of those pupils who have done nothing during the year. This, however, is 
rare, for there is a great amount of emulation in the school among the students. 
The director also determines from among the students those who shall be ad- 
mitted to the competitions. The director examines all the pupils twice a year, 
and makes a report to the commission. Each professor and teacher makes a re- 
port of the pupils in his class. 

The competitive examinations for prizes take place annually in the last week in 
July, and in the first week in August. After receiving the reports from the pro- 
fessors, the director admits the pupils for competition, and those who are to ac- 
company the solos and conduct the classes. The competitions in harmony and 
solfeggio are conducted with closed doors. Those for instruments and singing 



PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC IN BELGIUM. 685 

in public. A jury of five or seven members is appointed by the commission to 
award \he prizes, of which the director is president. The prizes are given by a 
majority of votes. In case of an equal number of votes, the director has a second 
vcrte. 

The names of the successful candidates are published in the newspapers Each 
candidate plays or sings one piece at sight, and one which has been previously 
studied. 

The prizes, of which the value is annually fixed by the commission, consist of 
scores and work^ on the theory and history of music, collections of music for 
pianoforte, voice and solfeggio ; and to the instrumental pupils bow and wind 
instruments. The prize-holders receive with the prizes a laurel crown and a cer- 
tificate. The accessits receive a palm. The distribution of prizes takes place if 
possible in the month after the beginning of the academical year. It is followed 
by a concert, in which the pupils who have obtained the first prizes are permitted 
to perform solos. The pupils who obtain the first prizes for their instrumental 
performances, their singing, their performance on the organ, or for composition, 
are artists whose education is considered complete, and their studies finished. 

The term usually required to turn out an artist of talent, complete, comprising 
a knowledge of composition, is about eight years. Each pupil gets about six 
hours of teaching in a week. Concerts are given by the professors and pupils of 
the Co7iservatoire. The commission fix the number with the director, who ar- 
ranges the days and the programme, and at the beginning of each academical year 
be publishes in the school a Vst of the professors and pupils who are to take part 
in the orchestra and chorus at concerts. Tickets for the concerts are sold, and 
the proceeds distributed among the most distinguished scholars. The town coun- 
cils of the provincial towns are in the habit of paying the expenses of promising 
pupils, i. s., of those who obtain the first prizes at the Academies des Beaux Arts 
in these towns, in order to enable them to follow the classes at Brussels or Liege. 

There are annually two vacations, from Palm Sunday to the first Sunday after 
Easter, and from the 15th of August'to the 1st of October. 

The number of professors required in 1865 for 629 different pupils was as fol- 
lows : 

Professors. Pupils. 
Readingmusic 5 85 

So'f^^S- { IZtu} 1»* 

Bassoon 1 6 

Flute 1 5 

Cornet 1 10 

Trombone 1 t 

Fre'nch born 1 6 

Trumpet 1 4 

Hautboy I 9 

Clarinet 2 6 

Violin , 5 69 

Violoncello. 2 25 

Double bass 1 4 

P'^"°f-'^ ' { iTemlle} "* 

Singing 2 34 

Italian language 1 14 

Organ 1 16 

Declamation 1 20 

Counterpoint 1 19 



PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC IN BELGIUM. 

Professors. Pupils. 

Harmony* 1 42 

Practical harmony* ,. 1 19 

Accompaniment* 1 11 

Total ...44 629 

The Conservatoire is supported as follows : 

Fran.:s. 

Subsidy from the state 15.540 

" " town of Brussels 20.000 

'^ '' province i 4,500 

Fees from foreign students 2,500 

Total 42,540 

The expenditure is as follows : 

General Expenses. 

Francs. 

Rent 6,200 

Music, &c., and books 3,100 

Pianofortes, furniture, and general maintenance of the establishment *7,120 

Total >.16,420 

Expenses of Tuition, 

Francs. 

Director 8.000 

Secretary 1,100 

Superintendent of studies..... 1,380 

Two inspectors of do. 2 440 

Accompanyist of studies 740 

Tuner '. 200 

Porter 180 

Organ-blower 150 

Twenty -eight professors, from 3,000/. to 1,1'70/ 53.190 

Six sub-professors, from 950/. to 600/ 4,500 

Eight repetiteurs. at 3*70/ ( 

Two " 300/ \ 3,020 

Two " 400/ I 



Total 76,100 

The director has a private residence in the building of the Conservatoire. The 
rooms for conducting the teaching of the Conservatoire consist of ten class-rooms, 
and a large room in which the organ is placed. In it also the smaller concerts 
are given, the larger concerts and the competitive examinations taking place in 
the Palais Ducal. 

The building appropriated to the Conservatoire forms a quadrangle, with a gar- 
den in the centre. It was formerly the residence of a nobleman, and has been 
purchased by the government for the use of the Conservatoire. 

II.-THE CONSERVATOIRE OF MUSIC AT LIEGE. 

Tlte Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Liege was established as a school of in- 
struction in instrumental and vocal music in 1827, and received its present desig- 
nation in 1831. It is supported mainly by an annual grant of $6,000 from the 
government, and a subsidy from the province and the town of Liege. The ad- 

* Two courses. 



PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC IN BELGIUM. 



687 



ministration is committed to a commission, composed of the burgomaster of 
Liege and eight members appointed by the king. Tlie direction of the studies i-, 
confided to a director, whose appointment, as well as that of the professors and 
substitutes, (27 in all,) belongs to the Minister of the Interior. There is a secre- 
tary, a treasurer, and a librarian, (the latter registers the attendance at the 
classes, ) appointed by the commission. 

^The instruction consists of— 1. Musical reading and solfeggio; 2. Singing, 
individual and collective ; 3. Instruments, bow, wind, and keyed ; 4. Harmony,, 
and accompaniment from a figured bass ; 5. Counterpoint, fugue, and composi- 
tion. There is also a course of Italian and Latin pronunciation and of French 
declamation. 

All persons intended for the profession have a right to the benefits of the Con- 
servatoire gratis, but amateurs must pay 80/. per annum. There are scholarships 
for those who have a decided talent for music, and who can prove that they have 
not the means of continuing their musical studies without assistance. The inhabi- 
tants of the town have no advantage over strangers. The Conservatoire is sup- 
ported by government, but the town gives a subsidy. 

The pupils have two lessons a week. Each professor has to attend twice a week 
for three hours at a time, and this has to be divided equally between all the mem- 
bers in his class, but the number may not exceed twelve. 

The report from M. Soubre, the director, states that the number of pupils on 
his accession to office in 1861 was 258, and in the year 1862-3 reached 498. He 
considers great benefit to have been derived from the establishment of extra classes 
for concerted music, one for the organ, and one for declamation. Four concerts 
were given, in which there were about 220 executants, including H instrument- 
alists. In 1863 the ordinary receipts were : 

Francs. 

Subsidy from the state 30,440 

" " province 4,000 

" " town ^ 13,000 

Produce of the fees 2,000 

49,440 
Extra receipts 2,652 

The expenses were : 

Francs. 

Director 6,000 

Twenly-six professors and several agreges^ (1,200/.) 36,000 

Employes, prizes, librarj^, warming, lighting, &c 7,440 

46,440 
Extra for instruments, furniture, &c 2,652 

Programme of Studies. 

1. Class for composition : Study of double counterpoint and fugue; composi- 
tion for symphony, dramatic, religious, and so-called chamber music ; analysis 
of best works of each class. Books : Courses of counterpoint and fugue, by Che- 
rubini and Fetis. Number of pupils, 9. 

2. Class for hnrmony, (male:) Study of harmony, theory, and practice ; exer- 
cises written for four voices, four instruments, and pianoforte. Books : Treatise 
on Harmony, by Catel ; On the Theory of Harmony, by Fetis. Number of pu- 
pils, 22. 

3. Course of practical harmony, (female :) Studies on the pianoforte, from the 
"Partimenli" of Fenaroli ; Practical Harmony, by Samuel. The pupils are prac- 
tised in playing on the pianoforte at sight by score. Number of pupils, 12. 



688 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC IN BELGIUM. 

4. Class for bow instruments and piano: Study of duets, trios, quartets, and 
quintets, by Haydn. Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Mendelssohn, and Schumann. 
Number of pupils, 17. 

5. Class for bow instruments : Study of trios, quartets, quintets, &c., by Haydn, 
Mozart, Beethoven, and Reicha. Number of pupils, 11. 

6. Class for wind instruments : Study of trios, quartets, quintets, &c., by Mo- 
zart, Beethoven, and Reicha. Number of pupils, 12. 

7. Class for concerted singing, (female:) Study of oratorios, dramatic pieces, 
and religious music, by Handel, Haydn, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Weber, Cheru- 
bini, Schumann, &c. Number of pupils, 55. 

8. Clnss for concerted singing, (boys and men:) The same works as Class 7. 
Number of pupils, 83. 

9. Orchestral practice: Symphonies and overtures of Haydn, Mozart, Beetho- 
ven, Mendelssohn, Weber, and Cherubini. Number of pupils. 28. 

10 to 14. Classes for solfeggio, (in nine sections :) Elementary study of the in- 
tervals ; reading and dictation from the methods of the Conservatoire of Paris, the 
solfeggio of Italy, and the elementary solfeggio by M. Soubre. The upper depart- 
ment practises change of clefs, and further study of the theory of music. Num- 
ber of pupils, 176. 

15 and 16. Singing classes for men: Study of vocalization, dramatic and re- 
ligious pieces ; methods of the Conservatoire of Paris and Manuel Garcia ; vocal 
studies by Crescentini, Bordogni, and Masset. Number of pupils, 23. 

17 and 18. Singing classes, (female:) Same studies. Number of pupils, 23. 

19 to 22. Classes for pianoforte for young pupils : Gradual studies, up to the 
execution of the works of FJummel, Weber, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Chopin, 
Listz, &c.; methods of Adam, Kalkbrenner, and Fetis ; Encyclopaedia of the 
Pianoforte, by Zimmerman. Number of pupils, 41. 

23 to 29. Classes for pianoforte, (male:) Same studies. Number of pupils, 70. 

30 to 34. Classes for violin : Prom the beginning, to the execution of concertos 
by Viotti, Rode, Kreutzer, De Beriot, Vieuxtemps, Ferdinand, and David; meth- 
ods of Baillot and De Beriot. Number of pupils, 41. 

35. Class for violoncello : From the beginning, to the practice of the works of 
Romberg, Molique, Servais, <fec.; methods of Romberg, Baudiot, Dotzauer, &c. 
Number of pupils, 7. 

36. Class for double bass : From the beginning, to the practice of the concerti- 
nos by Labro ; methods of Labro, Bernier, and Wencelas Hause. Number of pu- 
pils, 5. 

37. Class for the organ : From elementary playing to the practice of the fugues 
of Bach ; sonatas, by Mendelssohn ; study of the accompaniment of the plain 
chant. Number of pupils, 8. 

38 and 39. Classes for declamation : Exercises in articulation ; reading aloud 
from select works ; dramatic exercises. Number of pupils, 22. 

40. Class for the flute system of Walkiers. Number of pupils, 11. 

41. Hautboy class : Methods of Sellner and Brod. Number of pupils, 5. 

42. Clarinet class : Methods of Lefevre, Beer, and Muller. Number of pu- 
pils, 8. 

43. Bassoon class : Methods of Ozi and De Willent. Number of pupils, 6. 

44. French-horn class : Method of Gallay. Number of pupils, 7. 

45 and 46. Classes for the trumpet and cornet-a-piston : Methods of Schiltz and 
Forestier. Number of pupils, 21. 

47 and 48. Classes for the trombone and yuba : Method of Schiltz. Number of 
pupils, 14. 

Total number of pupils, 743. In the classes from No. 40 elementary instruction 
is included as well as the most advanced. 

m.-CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC AT GHENT. 

The Conservatory of Music at Ghent, which does not receive aid from the gov- 
ernment, numbered, in 1865, 308 pupils^ of whom 84 Avcre females. 



PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN MUSIC IN BELGIUM. 



689 



rv— COMPETITION FOR PRIZES FOR MUSICAL COMPOSITION. 

ThJs takes place at Brussels every two years, and is open only to natives of Bel- 
gium, who have completed their thirtieth year at least, and have been admitted 
to compete after a preliminary examination by the jury of award. The jury is 
composed of seven members, four of whom are appointed by the King on the 
nomination of the Minister of the Interior, and the rest by the fine arts section of 
the Royal Academy, from the members of the department of music. 

The competitors compose a dramatic scene upon a given subject. , 

The first prize is an annuity of 2,500 francs during four years, which time is to 
be spent in studying music in France, Germany and Italy. 

There is a second prize, a gold medal of 500 francs, and aa honorable mention. 
Both can be divided. 

Government also institutes a prize competition for those poems which it requires. 

V.-SCHOOLS AND SOCIETIES OF MUSIC IN BELGIUM. 

Besides the three superior conservatories, there are in Belgium a great number 
of public and private societies and schools, having for their aim the cultivation 
of music, besides the constant attention which is paid to vocal and instrumental 
music in the primary schools and other educational establishments. 

At Antwerp there is an academy of music, under three professors, paid from the 
public funds, providing for the instruction of forty children selected from the pub- 
lic schools. 

The courses are divided into three parts, in each of which instruction is given 
in elementary singing, the violin, the piano, the organ, and in harmony. Similar 
institutions have been established at Malines, Brussels, Bruges, Spres, Oudenarde, 
Alost, &c. Each regiment in the army has its band, and several possess societies 
of choral music in addition. To sum up, we find in a recent statement (August, 
1851) of the Department of the Interior, that there are in the kingdom 461 
societies of instrumental music, counting 1 2,39*7 performers, and 258 societies of 
vocal music, with 7,062 performers? Of these societies 165 were organized before 
1830.; 116 between 1831 and 1840 ; 193 between 1841 and 184t ; and 245 between 
1848 and 1851. Many of the societies of instrumental music are either wholly or 
in part societies of vocal music also. We subjoin a table of these societies : 





Societies of In- 
strum'l Music. 


Societies of Cho- 
ral Music. 


Periods of formation of 
Societies. 


Provinces. 


i 

S 

s 


i 
1 


1 

c 
3 


s 

.5 







n 


2 
00 




00 

2 


Antwerp .... .. 


39 
72 
59 
95 
95 
23 
25 
15 
38 


1.115 
2: 176 
i;545 

2,542 
2,415 
614 
729 
377 
884 


16 
42 
17 
64 
70 
23 
3 
3 
23 


541 

1,170 

483 

1,853 

1,855 

592 

67 

67 

501 


19 

21 

30 

39 

29 

7 

6 

6 

8 


9 

21 

17 

32 

17 

7 

1 

2 

10 

116 


16 
34 
13 
46 
49 
10 
7 
3 
15 


11 




38 


Ea^t Flanders 


16 


West Flanders 


42 


Hainfiult 


70 


Liege 


22 




14 


Luxemburg 

Namur 


4 

28 


Total in the kingdom . . 


461 


12,397 


258 


7,062 


165 


193 


245 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HOLLAND. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of the territory of the. 
ancient seven United Provinces and a portion of the province of 
Limburg, and comprises about 12,000 square miles, with a popula- 
tion in 1868 of 3,628,229, of which the protestant population is about 
60.6, and the catholic 37.3. 

The industries of Holland are diversified — agriculture, commerce, 
fishing, the trades, and manufactures, each employ large portions of the 
population and give everywhere occupation, and concentrate the 
inhabitants into villages and towns, which admit of the principle of 
cooperation for educational as well as other purposes. • 

The system of public instruction has for more than a half century 
attracted the attention of her own statesmen and educators, and is 
now organized and administered with great efficiency, under the min- 
ister of the interior, who acts through an inspector-general and 
seventy assistants. The system embraces : 

1. Primary Schools. Of these there were in 1865, 2,565 public primary schools, 
under 6,678 teachers, with 343,005 pupils; 152 aided private primary schools, 
under 310 teachers, with 5,996 pupils; 906 unaided private primary schools, un- 
der 3,243 teachers, with 83,412 pupils; making a total of 3,623 schools, with 
10,230 teachers, and 432,383 pupils. Of the whole number of primary schools, 
991 were of a superior grade, more than one for every large town. There were 
also 784 infant schools; 152 repetition schools for adults; 118 secondary schools 
for apprentices ; 127 singing schools; and 23 schools for gymnasts. 

2. Secondary Schools. Under the new organization of 1865, there are 20 higher 
burgher schools, with 219 teachers, and 1,466 scholars ; 61 gymnasia, including 
33 Latin Schools, with 101 teachers, and 1,214 scholars. 

3. Superior Schools. There are 3 universities, with an aggregate of 1,297 stu- 
dents, under 75 professors ; besides institutions at Amsterdam, Deventer, Maas- 
trict, and Roermond, which are not classed with the universities, but give lectures 
and courses of instruction beyond our American colleges, to upwards of 500 
pupils. 

4. Special Schools. These are abundant, but have only been brought into sys- 
tematic organization by the law of 1865. There were in 1868 : 

3 Teachers' seminaries, with 187 students; 27 schools of the highest grade 
with a normal course, in which 998 pupil teachers were acting as assist- 
ants ; 57 schools with a normal course, and 706 pupil teachers for primary 
schools acting as assistants ; and 7 girls* schools, with 76 female pupil 
teachers acting as assistants. 

(691) 



692 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HOLLAND. 

1 Polytechnic school, at Delft, with 104 pupils. 
1 Military school, at Breda, with 320 pupils. 
1 Naval school, at Williamsoord, with 53 pupils. 
1 Cadet school for the marine corps, at Amsterdam. 
1 School for boatswains at Williamsoord, with 48 pupils. - 
1 School for pilots and helmsmen on guard-ship, at Amsterdam, with 255 
pupils. 
10 Schools of navigation, with 690 pupils. 
1 School for steam engineers, with 10 pupils. 

1 School for the sanitary corps of array and navy. 

2 Schools of commerce and trade, with 120 pupils. / 
1 Agricultural academy, with 14 students. 

1 School of veterinary surgery. 

1 School of midwifery, with 26 pupils. 

2 Chemical schools, besides the five faculties of medicine in the universities 

and athenaeums. 

2 Oriental languages, geography, &c., with 71 students. 

3 Institutions for deaf mutes, vnth 350 pupils. 
1 Institution for the blind, with 96 pupils. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HOLLAND. QQ^ 



SYSTEM AND INSTITUTIONS OF SPECIAL INSTRUCTION. 

Although institutions of a special practical aim liave existed for many years 
in Holland, there was no general legislation reaching them until 1863, when 
the law on secondary instruction was framed and passed. By this law provision 
is made for — 

1. Burgher-schools, which are divided into — 

(a) day or evening schools, and 

(b) higher schools of three or four classes. 

2. Agricultural schools. 

3. A Polytechnic school, for civil engineers, architects, ship-builders, and 
mechanicians. 

BURGHER DAY ANT) EVENING SCHOOLS. 

The lowest degree of industrial instruction is given in connection with the 
"burgher day or evening schools." Originally these existed as schools for 
drawing, designing, and modeling, but theoretical and general courses have 
been combined with them, producing the present establishments. They receive 
pupils on leaving the primary school. The course lasts two years, the studies 
pursued being mathematics, theoretical and practical mechanics and machinery, 
physics, chemistry, natural history, technology, or agriculture, or both ; geog- 
raphy, history, Dutch, political economy, ordinary and geometrical drawing, and 
gymnastics. It rests with the local authorities whether technology or agricul- 
ture or both shall be taught. Modeling and French, English or German may 
be added. 

The maximum fee for tuition is $5,00 per annum, the remaining expenses 
being borne by the communes. 

HIGHER BURGHER-SCHOOLS. 

For that degree of industrial instruction required by masters, overseers, mer- 
chants, and all those not intended for the army or navy or one of the learned or 
high technical professions, provision is made in the curriculum of the Higher 
Burgher-schools with three and five-year courses, especially in the latter. The 
course pursued in them includes good general as well as technical instruction. 

These schools are subsidized by the government, those with three classes re- 
ceiving about 2,100 dollars per annum, those with five classes about 2,850. 
The maximum annual fee is $25,00. 

In the schools with a three years' course are taught mathemi^tics, physics, 
chemistry, botany, zoology, political economy, book-keeping, geogniphy, his- 
tory, Dutch, French, English, and German, calligraphy, ordinary and geomet- 
rical drawing, and gymnastics. Those with five years' course add mechanics, 
machinery, and technology, mineralogy, geology, cosmography, the principles 
of the municipal, provincial and central government of tlie Netherlands, political 
economy and statistics, especially of the Netherlands and its colonies, the liter- 
atures of the languages studied, the rudiments of commerce, and the knowledge 
of raw and wrought materials. The sciences, only pursued in an elementary 
manner during the three years' course, are in the five years' course carried 
farther. 



694 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HOLLAND. 



AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. 

The law provides for the foundation of one government agricultural school, 
if desirable. Private agricultural schools may be subsidized by the govern- 
ment. In them are taught political economy, practical mathematics, such as 
surveying and measuring, mechanical science and instruction in agricultural 
machines, the construction and arrangement of farm-buildings, physics, chem- 
istry, meteorology, mineralogy, geology, all applied to agriculture, agricultural 
technology, botany, zoology, domestic animals, their races and diseases, with 
the treatment of the latter, agriculture in all its branches at home and in the 
colonies, cattle and poultry, bees, and farm book-keeping. 

There is an agricultural school at Groningen, originally projected by an asso- 
ciation of agriculturists, but subsidized by the government. The entire course 
embraces three years, but single courses may be attended on the payment of 
certain fees. 

POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. 

The highest technical instruction is to be obtained at the Polytechnic School, 
which forms young men for various industrial and technical pursuits requiring a 
more advanced degree of training than is afforded at the burgher-schools. It 
bestows diplomas in technology, civil engineering, architecture, naval engi- 
neering, mechanics, and mining. 

The technical studies are thrown upon the last two years. The students 
accompany the teachers on visits to the neighboring manufactories and indus- 
trial establishments. The final examination is conducted by a commission com- 
posed of the director and teachers, the teacher of gymnastics not being 
included. The pupil can choose to be examined in either agriculture or tech- 
nology. 

The school receives from the government a subsidy of about 4,250 dollars 
per annum, and the maximum fee of a scholar is about 25 dollars, in addition 
to which he furnishes his own books and school necessaries. 

HIGHER BURGHER-SCHOOL AT MAASTRICHT. 

The higher burgher-school at Maastricht is intended. to give a fair degree of 
general and industrial instruction to all not intending to pursue the higher tech- 
nical professions. It is subject to the inspection of a local board, who report 
to tlie magistrates, by whom they are appointed, and to certain inspectors com- 
missioned by the crown, who report to the Minister of the Interior. It admits 
boys about the age of twelve or thirteen, no special qualification for admission 
being required. The staff of instructors consists of a director and eleven 
teachers, who are appointed after a general examination, and with special ref- 
erence to the branches which they are to teach ; they hold a diploma in those 
branches from a university. 

The course extends through five years, with eight weeks' holidays every 
year, and embraces German, history, geography, mathematics, geometrical 
drawing, gymnastics, and the manual drill ; from the second to the fifth, draw- 
ing and English ; from the third, physics ; from the fourth, chemistry, political 
economy, and cosmography; during the first year only, calligraphy; during the 
first and second, natural history ; during the fourth, mineralogy ; during the 
fifth, mechanics, technology, and commercial science. 



SPECIAL LNSTRUCTION IN HOLLAND. §95 



INSTRUCTION IN AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY. 
The law of 1863 provides for the foundation of one State agricultural school 
and the extension of government aid and inspection to private estabhshments. 
The subjects of study prescribed for this class of schools, whether public or 
private, are: 

a. Political economy. 

b. Practical mathematics, such as surveying, leveling, and mensuration. 

c. Mechanical science, as applied to agriculture, and instruction in agricultural 
machiues. 

d. The construction and arrangement of farm buildings. 

e. Geometrical drawing as applicable to agricultural science and machinery. 
/. Natural science, (physics,) chemistry, and meteorology, in then- application 

to agriculture. 

g. Agricultural technology. 

h. Mineralogy and geology in their application to agriculture. 

?. General and special botany and zoology. 

Jc. Tlie anatomy and physiology of plants and animals. 

I The distinguishing characteristics of the various races, diseases, and me- 
dicinal treatment of domestic animals. 

m. General and special agriculture, arable land, meadow land, vegetable and 
fruit gardening, and rearing of timber and fruit trees. 

n. Rearing of cattle, including domestic poultry, bees, and dairy produce. 

0. Farm book-keeping. 

p. Practical farming, including cultivation of woods and forests, and treat- 
ment of domestic animals. 

q. Farming in the colonies. 

AGRTCULTUEAL SCHOOL AT GRONINGEN. 

The agricultural school at Groningen was founded by "The Society for the 
Advancement of Agriculture," and aided by private individuals interested in 
the enterprise. It was opened November 1, 1842, with 8 scholars. The at- 
tendance has never been large, but has always been steady, and scholars have 
come from all parts of Holland and even from the Dutch colonies. Since the 
opening of the school, [till 1867,] 322 scholars have attended it. The number 
of students in June, 1867, was 14, and the number of professors 10. The num- 
ber of books and pamphlets on agricultural subjects published by former pupils 
of the school amounted in 1867 to 167. 

The course of studies extends through four years and embraces the following 
subjects : 

First year. — Geometry, book-keeping, physics, zoology, botany, algebra, social 
and agricultural economy, knowledge of agricultural implements, hnear and 
free-hand drawing, colonial agriculture, chemistry, French. Second year : The 
same subjects, and in addition, geography, horticulture, special agriculture and 
management of dairies. 

During the third and fourth years the same subjects are continued. There is 
a winter and a summer course. During the summer, practical studies are gone 
through on land bought for this object in the neighborhood of Groningen. 

The affairs of the school are managed by a board appointed by the " Society 
for the Advancement of Agriculture," from among the more prominent landed 
proprietors. The general government gives the annual sum of 1,000 florins, 
and permanent contributions are hkewise received from the provincial govern- 
ments and private persons. . 

There is a small museum and a library attached to the school. 



696^ 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HOLLAND. 



The instruction-fee, which must be paid annually in advance by every pupil, 
is 40 florins for the first year and 20 florins for every succeeding yeafc 



PROGRAMME OF STUDIES AT THE AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL OP GRONINGEK. 

First Year^ ( Winter Course,) 



A. M, 
9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 



P. M 
1. 



Monday. 



Geometry. 
Chemistry. 
BoolirkeeptDg. 



Knowledge of 
agricultural 
implements. 

Social Econo- 
my. 

Apfilied cheia- 
istry. 



Tuesday. 



Botany. 



Zeiilogy. 



Applied chem- 
istry. 



Wednesday. 



Chemistry. 



Rectilinear 
drawing. 

Rectilinear 
drawing. 

Natural philos- 
ophy. 



Thursday. 



Social econ- 
omy. 

AgricuHuTal 
economy. 

Agfieultiiral 
economy. 

Drawing. 



Drawins 



at 4 o'clk, '. 



Friday. 



Chemistry. 
Algebra. 



Natural phi- 
losophy. 



Colonial agri- 
culture. 

Domestic an- 
imals. 



Saturday. 



Geometry. 
French. 



Natural phi- 
losophy. 



Zoology. 



Second Year. 





Monday. 


Tuesday. 


Wednesday. 


Thursday. 


Friday. 


Saturday, 


A.M 
9. 


Chemistry. 


Botany 


Chemistry. 


Geography. 


Chemistry. 


Horticulture. 


10. 


Chemistry. 


Book-keeping. 


Zoology 


Agricultural 
economy. 


Chemistry. 


Practical 
chemistry. 


11. 


Natural philos- 
ophy. 


Knowledge of 

agricultural 
implements. 


Special agricul- 
ture. 


Agricnlt.ural 
economy. 


Natural phir 
losophy. 


Practical 
chemistry. 


12. 


Social econo- 
my. 


Knowledge of 
agricultural 
implements. 


Special agricul- 
ture. 


Drawing ... . 


Management 
of dairies. 




P. M 
1. 


Horticulture. 


Geography. 


Agricultural 
implements. 


ISfothemstics. 


Colonial ^ri- 
culture. 


Implements. 


6. 


Applied chem- 
istry. 


Applied chem- 




4 o'clock, \ 


Domestic an- 
imals. 











Third and Fourth Year. 



9. 
10. 
11. 

12. 

P. M 

1. 



Chemistry. 



Monday. 



Geography. 



Applied zool- 
ogy- 
Applied chem- 
istry. 



Tuesday. 



Botany 

Book-keeping 



Agricultural 
implements. 

Agricultural 
implements. 

Geography. 



Applied chem 
istry. 



Wednesday. 



Applied mathe- 
matics. 



Special agricul- 
ture. 

Special agricul- 



Botany. 



Thursday. 



Geography. 

Agricultural 
economy. 

Agricultural 
economy. 

Drawing. 



Agricultural 
chemistry. 



5 o'clock, 



Friday. 



Agricultural 
implements. 

Chemistry. 



Agricultural 
practice. 

Management 
of dairies. 

Colonial agri- 
culture. 

Domestic an- 
imals. 



Saturday. 



Practical 
chemistry. 

Practical 
chemistry. 

Practical 
chemistry^ 



Agricultural 
chemistry. 



SP£CJAL INSTRUCTION IN HOLLAND. QjOff^ 



THE ROYAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT DELFT. 

The Royal Polytechnic School at Delft is intended to train those who require 
"a higher degree of technical and theoretical knowledge than is obtainable at 
the higher burglier-schools, and for the education of civil engineers, (from whom 
the governmeut engineers are selected after competitive examination,) arch- 
itects, naval engineers, ship-builders, mechanicians, and engineers for the 
mines." 

It will be observed that the training of good civil engineers is of vital im- 
portance to this country. Many acres have been rescued from the ocean and 
are kept from its ravages only by untiring watchfulness, while the inundations 
of the Rhine and Mouse annually threaten large districts with destruction. 

Pupils are admitted after a previous examination, from which, however, those 
are exempted who bring diplomas from the burgher-school of five classes. 

The studies pursued are the following : algebra, spherical trigonometry, ana- 
lytical geometry, descriptive geometry and its applications, differential and 
integral calculus, surveying, leveling and surface measurements, theoretical and 
applied mechanics, machinery, mechanical technology and agricultural ma- 
chines, apphcations of natural science; applied, practical, and analytical chem- 
istry, chemical technology, modern manufactures, mineralogy, geology, metal- 
lurgy, applied geology and working of mines, hydraulics ; road, railroad, and 
bridge building, civil architecture, ship-building, geometrical drawing, practical 
instruction in the use of tools, instruments, and the turning lathe, construction 
of models, pohtical economy, commercial law, and laws relating to engineering, 
public works, mining, and all industrial works. 

Diplomas are granted after three examinations before a board of commissioners 
appointed by the Minister of the Interior, in technology, civil engineering, 
architecture, naval engineering, mechanics, and mining engineering. 

These examinations are thorough and special. The first is common to all, and 
proves that those who pass it successfully have attainments superior to the 
graduates of the Higher Burgher Schools. The second is in the main common 
to all, and covers algebra, trigonometry, geometry, and the calculus, and the 
first principles of chemistry, mechanics, and drawing, both free-hand and geo- 
metrical. The third is special, and searching, and turns on the practical appli- 
cations of the principles of science to the special career on which the candidate 
proposes to enter. 

The number of students was 104 in 1865. The fees are about 80 dollars per 
annum, the cost of books and instruments being additional. Students are ad- 
mitted, at regular rates, tq.attend single courses. 

The Times correspondent, in describing the educational section of the recent 
(1869) Amsterdam Art Exhibition, remarks: 

A large aisle of the building is filled with plans, sections, drawings, models, 
straw-plaiting of the different trade schools organized under the law of 1863. 
Nearly every trade is represented : Zaandam with clay models for house deco- 
rations; Deventer with wood-carving; Breda with excellent work in wood and 
straw from an industrial school for girls; Rotterdam with sections and eleva- 
tions of building plans. Here too were some curious and suggestive works by 
little children trained on Frobel's system. And all this great system of general 
and special education has grown out of the Public Good Society, started by a 
few clergymen in 1784, which has now 200 branches and 14,000 members. 



698 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN HOLLAND. 



NAVIGATION SCHOOLS FOR THE MERCANTILE MARINE. 

There are ten special Navigation Schools (besides a nautical division in the 
Academy at Groningen) located in the principal commercial ports, and among 
the sea-going population. They are generally under the management of local 
mercantile societies, but subject to government inspection, and final examina- 
tion, on which the rank of the graduates as first, second, and third mate, de- 
pends. 

The pupils are admitted on examination in the elementary studies, physical 
ability, and aptitude for sea-service. 

The course in the best schools embraces, besides a review of the elementary 
branches, a knowledge of geography, especially of the climate and products of 
different countries ; mathematics, including trigonometry, nautical astronomy, 
practical use of instruments at sea, and the calculation of latitude and longi- 
tude, a knowledge of the code of signals, the laws of storms and tides, mer- 
cantile laws and usages, and practice in letter- writing, keeping the ship's books, 
and chart-drawing. 

Opportunities of practice are secured on vessels in port, in coasters, and even 
long voyages to the West and East Indies. 

Ability to hold the rank of mates depends on the results of the final exam- 
ination, and promotion from one position to a higher depends on successive 
examinations, after leaving the schools. 

The statistics of attendance at these schools in 1867 were as follow: 

Rotterdam, 133 pupils ; Leyden, 87 ; Amsterdam, 87 ; Amsterdam, 18 ; Har- 
lingen, 59 ; Nes, 19 ; Schiermonnikoog, 84 ; Yundam, 37 ; Groningen, 85 
Delfzye, 68 ; Nautical section of the Groningen Academy, 39. 



PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN DENMARK. 



INTRODUCTION". 

The kingdom of Denmark, on an area of 14,533 English square 
miles, [exclusive of Iceland and the Faeroer, which have an area of 
upwards of 40,000 English square miles] in 1869 had a population 
of about 1,800,000. Out of an average of 1,000 people, 395 hve 
exclusively by agriculture, 228 by manufactures and trades, 187 are 
day-laborers, 53 are commercial men, 29 mariners, 20 paupers, 16 
ministers and schoolmasters, 15 pensioners, 13 servants, between 11 
and 12 hold appointments in the civil offices, 9 are commissioned 
and non-commissioned officers, 9 capitalists, 7 follow scientific find 
literary pursuits, about 5 have no fixed means of living, and a little 
over 1 are in prison for crimes and misdemeanors. 

The total annual expenditure of the government of Denmark for 
the financial period 1866-67 amounted to 23,529,021 rix-dollars (1 
rix-doIlar=54 cents.) 

The institutions of public instruction, with the exception of the 
military and naval schools, are administered by the Minister of 
Public Education and Ecclesiastical Afiiiirs, and include : 

1. Primary Schools. — There are 2,520 primary country schools, with 2,630 
teachers and 162,000 pupils, and 120 town-schools, (with elementary and hifjher 
classes) with 294 teachers and 16,120 pupils. In the city of Copenhagen there 
were about 160 (public and private) primary and primary superior schools, with 
24,684 pupils (in 1867.) There is, besides, at Copenhagen a royal school of 
reward (for children of the royal servants) Avith 40 pupils; and in all the large 
villages, infant and primary schools, under private teachers and family auspices. 
The total number of elementary schools is reported to be 2,940, with 202,800 
pupils, under 3,080 teachers. 

2. Secondary Schools. — There are, including Iceland, 17 gymnasia, some clas- 
sical and some with real-classes, with 2.190 pupils. 

3. Superior Schools. — The university at Copenhagen, founded in the year 
1478, has four faculties, viz., theology, law, medicine, philosophy, mathematics 
and natural sciences; 52 professors, and about 1,200 students (in 1868.) Con- 
nected with the university are a chemical laboratory, a botanical and a zoolog- 
ical garden, a museum of natural history, an astronomical observatory, and a 
library of 230,000 volumes and 4,000 manuscripts. The Royal library contains 
500,000 volumes and 20,000 manuscripts. Tliere are at Copenhagen a large 
ethnographical museum, a constantly-increasing collection of Northern anti- 
quities, forming already now the largest museum of the kind in the world ; 2 
galleries of art, and the Thorvaldsen museum, containing all the works and col- 
lections of the great sculptor. 



1^00 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN DENMARK. 

4. Special and Professional Schools. — Of these there are the following: 

1 Royal academy of agriculture, forestry, horticulture and veterinary 
surgery {Ben Kongelige Vtterinair-og Landbo-hoiskole,) with 16 pro- 
fessors and 284 students. 
1 Polytechnic institute, with 15 professors and 214 students. 
1 Technical institute, with 5 professors and upwards of 600 pupils. 

1 Royal academy of the line arts, with 10 professors, 8 assistants, and 

600 pupils. 

2 Commercial academies (prrrate) at Copenhagen. 
5 Teachers' seminaries, with 31 teachers. 

1 Institute for the blind, with 8 teachers. 

1 Institute for deaf-mutes, with 10 teachers. 

1 Naval cadet-academy, with 16 professors and 25 pupils. 

8 Navigation schools (private.) 

I Military academy, with 13 professors and 30 pupils. 

1 Mihtary school of gymnastics. 

1 Military riding and horse-shoemg school. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN DENMARK. ^QJ 

SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF DENMARK. 

' The scientific schools of a special character exist in Denmark as follows : 

1. Agriculture and allied branches : 

The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural School near Copenhagen. 

2. Architecture, the mechanic arts, &c. : 

(1.) Polytechnic Listitute at Copenhagen 

(2.) Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Copenhagen. 

(3.) Technical Institute at Copenhagen. 

(4.) Sunday Improvement Schools at Copenhagen. 

3. Navigation and Commerce : 

(1.) Schools (8) of Navigation, at various places. 
(2.) Academies (2) of Commerce at Copenhagen. 

ROYAL VETERINARY AND AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL AT COPENHAGEN. 

The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural School, at Copenhagen, w^as founded 
by a laAV of March 8th, 1856, for the purpose of educating veterinary surgeons, 
land inspectors, surveyors, foresters, gardeners, and farmers. 

Pupils ai*e admitted after a preparatory examination, from which, however, 
those who have graduated from a real school, gymnasium, teachers' seminary or 
military school, are excused. Auditors also are admitted without being obliged 
to be examined. 

The academical year begins August 23d. The school is divided into five de- 
partments, for veterinary surgeons, farmers, land inspectors, gardeners, and for- 
esters, each pupil pursuing only those studies pertaining to his own department. 

I. VETERINARY ART. 

The course extends over two years and a half, with a fundamental or general 
section, a special technical section, and a practical section. 

General section. Physics; mechanics, equilibrium and pressure of solids, liquid 
and gaseous bodies, motion, heat, nrngnetism, electricity ; optics, reflection and 
refraction, optical instruments, polarization and interference Meteorology ap- 
plied to the phenomena of daily life Chemistry ; general and applied inorganic 
and organic chemistry Botany ; vegetable anatomy and physiology ; natural 
and Linnaean methods, with practical exercises in determining plants by both 
Applied botany ; nutritious plants for man and the domestic animals, medicinal 
plants , weeds ; trees ; weekly botanical excursions in summer, beginning in 
May Zoology ; organic system ; natund history and breeding of domestic ani- 
mals , zootomy. 

Technical section. Anatomy ; special anatomy and organization of animals, 
especially of the domesticated races. Physiology ; physiology of domestic ani- 
mals in a state of health, and the functions of their various organs, in develop- 
ment, preservation of life and reproduction. Breeding, care, and use. Dietetics. 
Pharmacology and pharmaceutics. Diseases ; pathology and therapeutics, sur- 
gery, obstetrics, exterior diseases, duties of State veterinary surgeons. 

Practical section. Theory and practice of horse-shoeing ; diseases of the hoof; 
dissections , obstetrical operations ; clinique ; cleaning, breaking, and manage- 
ment of horses ; equipment of the horse, reports on health, &c. 

II. AGRICULTURE. 

The course covers twenty-one months. 

General section. The same as for the veterinary course. 

Technical section. Agriculture ; history of the art in Denmark ; agricultural 
implements ; farm ; dairy ; general treatment of plants ; pasture and wild land ; 
cultivation of the most important plants. Analytical chemistry, with manipula- 
tions in the laboratory ; qualitative and quantitative analysis ; salts, earth, 
manures, feed, &c. Theory of farming ; formation of soil ; minerals, stones, &c.. 



702 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN DENMARK. 



adaptation of soil to the growth of plants ; general and chemical qualities ; scien- 
tific improvement of the soil ; drainage ; periods of planting ; care, use, and dis- 
eases of domestic animals ; farming accounts. Surveying and leveling ; draught- 
ing and mapping ; use of instruments. 

Practical section. Practice in farm, dairy, and laboratory. 

III. LAND INSPECTION AND SURVEYING, 

The course embraces twenty-one months, and besides certain branches in- 
cluded in the preceding course, instruction is given in mathematics, geometry, 
geometrical drawing, surveying and use of instruments, mapping, legal division 
of land, laws on agriculture, principles of agriculture, soils, filling, and drainage. 

IV. GARDENING. 

The course lasts twenty-one months. In common wnth the other departments 
the following studies are pursued : physics, meteorology, chemistry, botany, agri- 
culture, surveying, leveling, and draughting. The special branches arc the theory 
and practice of horticulture, plans of garden tools, principles of geometrical con- 
struction and projection. 

V. FORESTRY. 

The course in forestry embraces two and three-quarter years. The students 
participate in the general course for farmers, veterinary surgeons, and surveyors, 
but carry botany and zoology farther, investigating forest trees, birds, insects, &c. 
The technical part of the course embraces technical, economical, political, and 
practical forestry with hunting. 



Table of Attendance in 1866-7. 



Nativities. 


Veteri- 
nary. 


Farm- 
ing 


Land 
inspect- 
ing. 


For- 
estry. 


Gar- 
den- 
ing. 


Other 
Stu- 
dents 


Totals. 


Course in 
Black- 
smithing. 


Kingdom of Denmark, - 
Duchy of Sclileswig, - 
Duchy of Holistein, 
Kingdom of Sweden, 
Kingdom of Norway, 
Province of Finland, - 


127 

15 

3 

14 


42 

7 

2 

1 


17 
1 

1 


5 


31 

1 


16 

1 


238 

25 

3 

2 

15 

1 


14 


Total, 


159 


52 


19 


5 


32 


17 


284 


14 



Of the 238 pupils from Denmark, in the above table, 46 were graduated. 
Those of the graduates in veterinary art receiving certificate No. I Avere 11, No. 

II 16, No. Ill 4 , in agriculture No. I 2, No. II 3 ; in inspecting. No. II 2, No. 

III 2 ; in gardening, No. I 1, No. II 1 ; in forestry, No. I 1, and No. II 3. 
The fees are two dollars (Danish) at matriculation and seven for examination, 

the lectures being charged as follows : Semi-annually, two lectures a week, two 
dollars ; semi-annually, three lectures a week, three dollars. For materials in 
laboratory six dollars for first half year and ten for each subsequent half year, 
for honorary pupils fifteen. Surgical operations three dollars per half year, am- 
bulatory clinique six dollars. Surveying practice two dollars per half year, five 
for surveyors and foresters. General cards of admission to lectures five dollars. 
The annual expenses of the institution are about $27,000, most of which is 
met by the State. The original appropriation for the buildings was about 
$170,000. Among the ordinary annual charges maybe noticed about $1,000 for 
the experimental kitchen garden, nearly $1,100 for the scientific or botanical gar- 
den, and $700 for the chemical laboratory. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN DENMARK. 7()3 



THE MASSMANN SUNDAY SCHOOLS AT COPENHAGEN. 

The Massmann Sunday schools were established May 4, 1800, by the efforts 
of Rev. J. Massmann. Their aim is, to procure for neglected boys and adults, 
instruction in arithmetic, writing, orthography, book-keeping, and correspond- 
ence, and for apprentices instniction in drawing and other practical branches. 

The entire number of persons who have obtained instruction in these schools 
since their establishments, down to 1 854, was as follows : Master mechanics and 
artisans, 1 1 8 ; Avorkmen, 2,300; apprentices, 10,529 ; other persons, 260 ; young 
criminals in the house of correction, 827 ; total, 14,034. 

The schools are under the management of a society, whose members oblige 
themselves to do such service as they are appointed to in superintendence of the 
instruction, in the annual examinations, and in collecting subscriptions for the 
maintenance of the schools. 

The society has one chief director and five sub-directors, chosen from among 
their number for three successive years. The directors appoint teachers, who 
are paid by the society, at the rate of four Danish dollars per month, for two or 
three hours' instruction every Sunday, with the exception of church-holidays, 
from 6 to 9 A. M. in the summer, and from 4 to 7 P. M. in the winter. 

TECHNICAL INSTITUTE AT COPENHAGEN. 

The Technical Institute, at Copenhagen, was founded in 1843, by private zeal ; 
its purpose is to give instruction in drawing as applied to various industrial 
branches. It is managed by an Executive Committee of five members, three of 
whom are appointed by the metal worker's society, of which the school forms a 
pari, and two by the State. The general school manager appoints the teachers. 
The Committee publishes an annual report. There are about fifteen teachers. 

It is open to all males who can read, write and spell decently, and perform a 
sum in the rule of three. Those who have not been confirmed form separate 
classes. This rite is performed at siS:teen. 

The instruction is, for the most part, given in the night, and comprises thirty 
classes in eight departments. These are as follows : 

I. Preparatory Drawing. 

A. Copying outlines ; for two quarters ; two classes, 6 hours weekly for young 
persons ; two, 8 and 12 hours, for older persons. 

B. Geometrical drawing on plane and rectangular projection ; two quarters ; 
two classes for the young, 6 hours, one for older persons, 8 hours. 

Those passing through classes A. and B., or passing an examination in their 
subjects, may join the next class or any of the special classes. 

BB. Preparatory to drawing ornaments, sketching from large plain outlines, 
two quarters; one class, 12 hours 

II. Ornamental Draimng and Modeling. 

C. First ornamental for workmen wishing to cultivate a feeling for art 
Drawing fi'om shaded copies of ornaments, and in outline from plaster casts ; tw 
quarters ; one class, 12 hours. Pupils proceed, at option, to D or F. 

D. 12 hours; 1. Perspective and sketching from solid geometrical figures 
and vessels with shading; 2. Perspective and ornamental. These lead into 

E. Second ornamental. Shaded drawings from plaster ornaments, 12 hours; 
leads at option to elementary class of the Academy of Arts. 

F. Clay modehng from drawings, models and natural objects, 12 hours. From 
this class pupils who have passed an examination in drawing from casts, in per- 
spective and sketching from models, may join the Academy of Arts or class G. 

G. Wax modeling, seven months, three hours. 



704 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN DENMARK. 



•- III. Architecture. 
H. Daily, from December 1 to March 31, from 9 to 2. 1. Day drawing 
class of geometrical projection and tlieory of shadows. 2. Preparatory for tech- 
nical architectural drawing. Pupils must be able to di'aw in geometrical projec- 
tion and attend the mathematical classes R (1) and (2) or be examined in their 
subjects. 3. Technical construction of buildings. Practical execution of parts 
of detail in buildings with calculation of dimensions and forces. Elementary 
mechanics, strength of materials, calculation of centre of gravity, with applica- 
tions. Pupils must have passed H (2) or been examined, and also show compe- 
tence in arithmetic and elementary geometry. They must further follow H (4) 
and (.5 lor be examined in their subjects. 4. Mathematics. Equations of the 
first and second order, logarithms, progressions. Pupils must understand ele- 
mentary arithmetic and geometry. 5. Trigonometry, stereometry, and conic 
sections. Limitations as in the last, with necessity of knowing its subjects. 6. 
8 hours. Evening drawing class for carpenters, masons, stone-cutters, &c. 

IV. Various Technical Drawing, 
I. Joiners, turners, chair-makers, &c., 8 hours. 

K (1) and (2). Smiths, mechanicians, coach-makers, gun and instrument 
makers, ship-wrights, &c., two quarters, 6 hours. 

L. Tin and. copper-smiths, braziers, and gold-smiths, 8 hours. 

V. Technical, Metal Work. 
Practice, one evening a week, from October to May. 
N. Turning; there are 12 lathes. 
P. Engraving. 
Q. Embossing and chiseling. 
Metal-workers may follow the wax classes. 

VI. Mathematics. (Evening). 

R. Two quarters, three days weekly, 2 hours each. 1. Elementary arithme- 
tic. 2. Elementary planimetry and stereometry, with applications. 

Eor pupils wishing to join the architectural school of the Academy of Arts, 
the classes are preparatory for H (4) and ^5). [See above]. 

VII. Scientific Lectures. 
From December 1 to March 31, twice a week. Series 1. Principles of me- 
chanical physics. 2. Theory of magnetism, and electricity. 

VIII. Supplementary for Drawing. 

From April 1 to June 30, two hours each evening. One upper and two lower 
classes. 

In recent years, the average attendance has been about 500, of which about 
one-sixth are under sixteen, and almost all the rest Avorkmen or apprentices, very 
few masters or overseers joining the school. In 1865-6, there were 618, of which 
79 received free admissions, 19 entered the Academy of Fine Arts, and 15 passed 
the mathematical examinations of that mstitution. A mechanic and gold-smith 
were each presented with about $100 (Danish) for traveling money. 

The fees for instruction are as follows : In departments I and II about two 
dollars, three marks for the winter. In class G, however, two dollars for the 
winter. In classes H (1) (2) and (3) ten dollars for four months, five dollars in 
H (4) and (5). In H (6), I and K two dollai-s, three marks the quarter. In N, 
P and Q, for one evening, weekly, (two hours), one dollar per class, during the 
winter, two marks for each additional class. An apprentice, master, or other, 
pays half as much again. In R two dollars for three months. 

The budget of the institution is about $8,000, of which Government contributes 
about $2,000 annually, $2,800 come from fees paid by pupils, and $1,100 from a 
fund called the " Reiersen Fund," part of which gives pecuniary assistance to 
workmen wishing to study their trades abroad. About $240 are subscribed by- 
tradesmen of the capital, the class for whose benefit the institution is directed. 



SPECIAL INSTEUCTION IN NORWAY. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The kingdom of Norway, on an area of 123,386 English square 
miles, in 1865, had a population of 1,700,245. 

Norway is essentially an agricultural and pastoral country. At 
the census of 1865, the inhabitants of towns numbered 272,531. A 
large number of the population are engaged in the lumber-trade, 
and next in importance to this are the fisheries, which give employ- 
ment and support to the bulk of the population from the Naze to 
the White Sea. The commercial marine of Norway at the end of 
1863 consisted of 6,109 vessels, of a collective tonnage of 578,722 
tons, manned by 34,817 sailors. Considering its population, Nor- 
way has the largest commercial navy in the world. Norway, al- 
though dynastically united with Sweden, has an entirely separate 
constitution and government, her own ministry, her own parliament, 
her own army and navy, &c. The constitution of Norway, pro- 
claimed Nov. 4, 1814, is one of the most democratic in Europe. 

The annual expenditure in 1866 amounted to 25,728,000 francs, 
(15,145,600,) of which sum 1,050,787 francs were appropriated for 
educational purposes, whilst the total expense for public instruction 
was 4,005,812 francs. The system is administered by the Depart- 
ment of Church and Education, and includes : 

1. Primary Schools.— The rural communes are divided into 6,344 school dis- 
tricts; of these, 1,478 owned a house for the residence of the teacher, and the 
school-house, and 2,345 had no school-house or permanent teacher, but em- 
ployed an itinerant schoolmaster. The number of children of an age to attend 
school was 212,136, of whom 206,622 actually attended school. The number 
of teachers was 3,118. Of higher primary schools there were 20, with 439 
scholars. In the cities there were 116 elementary schools, with 42,892 
scholars and 467 teachers, and 35. higher primary schools, with 159 teachers 
and 2,531 scholars. Besides these, there were 92 private higher primary 
schools, with 4,727 scholars. The number of infant schools was 27, with 2,876 
pupils, and of Sunday-schools 20, with 1,526 pupils, thus making a total of 6,654 
primary schools of all kinds, with 261,523 scholars and 3,744 teachers. The 
expenses for the rural elementary schools were 2,321,246 francs, whilst the 
income amounted to 2,219,654 francs. The expenses of the rural higher pri- 

45 



^06 SPECIAL INSTRUCTIOM IN NORWAY. 

mary schools were 34,532 francs, of which sum the government paid 18,553. 
In the cities the expenses were the following : For elementary schools, 593,375 
francs, of which the government paid 13,339 ; for the higher primary schools, 
234,949 francs, of which the government paid 26,244; for infant schools and 
Sunday-schools the sum of 91,524 francs — making the total annual expenditure 
for primary education 3,275,626 francs, of which 58,136 were paid by the gov- 
ernment, whilst the remainder was raised either by school-fees, income from 
property and funds, private contributions, &c. 

2. Secondary Schools. — Of these there were 16, 13 of which had a real-school 
connected with the school. The number of teachers was 197, and of scholars 
2,105. The total expense was 593,570 francs, of which sum the government 
paid 184,889. The number of private secondary schools was three, with 1,161 
scholars — making the total of secondary schools 19, with 3,266 scholars. 

3. Superior Schools. — There is one university at Christiania, founded in 1811, 
with (in 1867) 36 ordinary professors, 6 ordinary professors, and 850 students. 
The total annual expense was 463,836 francs, of which sum the government 
paid 395,721. The university possesses a library of 150,000 volumes, a mu- 
seum of natural history, a botanical garden, and an astronomical observatory. 

4. Special Schools. — Besides the professional schools of Theology, Law, and 
Medicine, in the University at Christiania, there wer^: 

5 Teachers' seminaries, with 286 students, (expense: 141,918 francs, of 
which sura the government pays 133,373.) 
15 Smaller teachers' seminaries, (Normal courses or Institutes,) with 21*? 
students, (expense: 26,657 francs, all paid by the government.) 
1 Royal Norwegian school of drawing and arts at Christiania. 
9 Provincial drawing-schools. 
1 Technical school of construction at Horten. 
1 Elementary school of mining at Kongsberg. 

1 Model agricultural school near Trondhjera. 

2 Institutions for the deaf and dumb at Christiania and Trondhjem. 
1 Institution for the blind at Christiania. 

5. Supplementary Schools and Agencies. — The work of elementary instruction 
in respect to orphans and infants, is aided by several asylums in the populous 
towns, and for girls by evening and other classes for instruction in needle-work. 

6. Societies for the Promotion of Science^ &c. — At Trondhjem tliere is a Royal 
Norwegian Society of Science-; at Bergen, di Museum of Art, and at Christiania, a 
Society of Norwegian Antiquities^ the Royal Society for the Prosperity of Norvjay, 
and other associations for special scientific purposes. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN NORWAY. 7o7 



SPECIAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. 
A plan for a general system of technical instruction for Norway, reported by 
a special commissioner, M, Christie, in 1868, after visiting the technical schools 
of Sweden and Denmark, is now under the consideration of the Storthing. 
Special schools of art, and particular!}^ of drawing, have been in operation in 
the capital and provincial towns, and more recently several schools of agricul- 
ture and navigation have been established. 

THE ROYAL NORWEGIAN SCHOOL OP ARTS AND DESIGN. 

According to the regulation of January 12th, 1841, this school is intended: 
1, to further the education of mechanics by instruction in drawing, modeling, 
the elements of mathematics, &c., and to give to those who intend to become 
artists an opportunity of perfecting tliemselves in drawing; 2, to form, through 
its governing board, a society of arts, which is to spread an artistic taste through- 
out the country. This school gives also instruction in drawing to those students 
of the university who study mining and technics. 

The course of instruction embraces drawing, mathematics, architecture, and 
according to circumstances, also modeling, mythology, and anatomy. Drawing 
has been taught in six classes, viz. : 1. The elementary class ; pupils go through 
the first exercises for hand and eye partly after copies, partly after models of 
parts of the body by lamplight. 2. The class of free-hand drawing ; pupils go 
through a complete course of free-hand drawing after copies, models of human 
figures, basso-relievo, vases, ornaments, &c.; by lamplight. 3. The architecture 
class ; pupils are first practiced in the drawing of constructions generally, and 
then in their application to architecture. 4. The ornament class ; pupils are 
first instructed in the general drawing of constructions, then in their application 
to all sorts of work, with the exclusion of architecture and mechanics. 5. The 
machinery and mining class ; pupils are instructed first in descriptive geometry 
and its application to the drawing of constructions after copies and after ma- 
chines and models ; secondly, in the drawing of mining-maps ; thirdly, in the 
construction of timber-work and in surveying. 6. The higher artistic class; 
fi:ee-hand drawing is taught with special regard to a purely artistic education ; 
pupils are instructed in drawing, after living models and plaster-casts. 

The oral instruction comprises: 1. G-eometrical drawing and perspective — 4 
hours a week ; 2. Elements of geometry and stereometry — 4 hours a week ; 3. 
Theory of architecture — 2 hours a week ; 4. Lectures on mining ; 5. Lectures 
on. mythology and anatomy. 

All instruction is gratuitous, the pupils only providing the necessary drawing 
material. 

The only condition of admission is: the pupil must have completed the four- 
teenth year, and the preference is always given to mechanics. Puj^^ils advance 
regularly from one class to the other, after having drawn some set object. The 
faculty consists of teachers and assistant-teachers, who are appointed by the 
Ministry of Public Instruction. There are also appointed a secretary, who is 
likewise treasurer and librarian, and a watchman. 

The museum consists of a library and a collection of drawings and plaster- 
casts. The general superintendence of the school is in the hands of the Min- 



708 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN NORWAY. 

istrj of Public Instruction, which appoints a governing board consisting of 
teachers and at least three other members, who must be artists. This board 
makes an annual report to the Ministry. 

Tlie school has an annual subsidy from the State, amounting during the 
fiuancial period 1866-69 to 3,200 Norwegian dollars. Besides this sum the 
city of Christiania makes an annual grant of 500 dollars. The annual appropri- 
ation for a national gallery is 1,500 dollars. 

PROVINCIAL DRAWING-SCHOOLS. 

The State grants assistance to various drawing-schools in provincial towns, 
on condition that the town contributes a sum equally large ; that it provides a 
suitable room or rooms and submits the plan of iostruction to the Ministry for 
its approbation. During the financial period 1866-69, the government grant to 
these schools amounted to 1,779 dollars, 60 shillings. At present the number 
of these schools is nine, located in the following towns : Drammen, Fredericks- 
hald, Skien, Christiansand, Stavanger, Bergen, Christiansund, Trondhjem, 
Tromso. 

THE TECHNICAL SCHOOL AT HORTEN. 

This school, which is attached to the royal navy-yard, was opened in the 
year 1853, according to a plan drawn up by the navy department. This school 
is intended principally to give to those who wish to become practical mechan- 
icians an opportunity of laying a theoretical foundation. Most of the pupils 
are men working in the navy-yard at Horten ; but the school is likewise open 
to others, and it is intended to enlarge it considerably, so that all classes of 
mechanics may be admitted. 

The course of instruction embraces: 1. Pure mathematics; arithmetic and 
algebra, including equations of the second degree and logarithms ; geometry, 
elementary geometrical constructions, proportions, simple trigonometry. 2. 
Applied mathematics ; elements of surveying, principles of equilibrium and mo- 
tion, developed mathematically. 3. Physics ; warmth with special regard to 
heating-apparatuses and steam-engines, elements of electricity of friction and 
its practical application. 4. Drawing; practical application of the sciences 
mentioned Under No. 1 ; perspective and shading, drawing after models and 
machines. 5. English ; intended to enable the pupil to read and understand 
English technical works. 6. Theory of machines, as far as time allows. 7. 
Chemistry (sfnce 1860.) 

The schoolf is divided into two classes, one for beginners and one for more 
advanced scholars. The whole course may be gone through in two years. In- 
struction is imparted gratuitously, and pupils have only to. furnish their own 
drawing material. 

The conditions for admission are : Pupils are admitted every year at the end 
of August; candidates for admission must be confirmed, must be able to read 
fluently, to write legibly or orthographically, and know arithmetic as far as the 
rule of three. Since 1857 the school possesses a building where 30 scholars 
can be accommodated; hitherto the number has rarely exceeded 20, and will 
scarcely exceed that number, unless the number of teachers is considerably 
increased. 

Every half-year an oral and written examination takes place. On leaving 



SPECXAL INSTRUoTION IN NORWAY. 709 

the school, pupils receive a certificate showing hovr far they have been suc- 
cessful or not. The directing board must make an annual report to the uavy 
department. 

The teachers are appointed by the navy department, and number at present 
6, viz. : 1 of mathematics, physics, chemistry ; 1 of drawing ; 1 of machine- 
drawing ; 1 of English, and 1 assistant-teacher, who is taken from among the 
older pupils of the school. 

The sciiool possesses a library and physical and chemical apparatus. 

The navy department has the general superintendence; the governing board 
consists of the director of the Horten navy-yard, one of the teachers, and an- 
other man of science appointed by the navy department. 

In 1866 the Storthing appropriated the annual sum of 300 dollars for an ex- 
amination to be held annually at Horten, where any machinist in the country 
may obtain a certificate of ability. 

It deserves to be mentioned, in speaking of this school, that the navy-yard at 
Horten takes pupils for working in the navy-yard and for drawing. These are 
of two kinds: 1. Technical pupils, to a number not exceeding ten, who must 
pledge themselves to remain at the navy-yard for five years. The first two 
years they receive no salary. 2. "Working pupils, mostly children of workmen ; 
they receive a small daily salary. 

SCHOOL OF MIXES AT KONGSBERG. 

The school connected with the silver mines at Kongsberg, opened in 1861, is 
intended to give free elementary instruction in certain special branches useful 
in mining pursuits. The number of the pupils is limited to eight, the qualifi- 
cations being that they shall be over eighteen, and shall have proved them- 
selves able miners there or in some other place. They must be able to read 
and write, and must be acquainted with the first four rules of arithmetic. 

Instruction is given in the elements of mineralogy, geology, mechanics, and 
physics ; in mathematics, elementary arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, stere- 
ometry, geometrical drawing, and land and mining surveying, with practical 
exercises in the mines. The course covers two or three years, with two days' 
instruction per week. 

The pupils provide themselves with writing and drawing materials. They 
work in the mines and receive pay for the same. 

Examinations are held at the end of the course in the presence of at least 
one member of the board of mines; at this examination the drawings of the 
pupils are hkewise exliibited. After having satisfactorily finished the course, 
pupils receive a certificate of ability. 

The superintendence of this school is intrusted to the Kongsberg board of 
mines, which appoints the teachers and manages the aftairs of the school. The 
government has granted an annual subsidy of 300 dollars. 

SCHOOL ATTEXDAXCE AXD FACTORY SCHOOLS. 

The new school law of 1860 makes it obhgatory on parents and guardians of 
children to secure their attendance at school from the completion of their eighth 
year till their confirmation, or until they have attained their 14th or 15th year, 
on the penalty of a fine or even imprisonment for each absence unaccounted 
for. The owners of all industrial establishments must see that children within 



710 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN NORWAY. 

the school age attend school for at least sixteen weeks in the year, in the school 
of the district, or in a special school. Any child, who has attained the age of 
14, who is deficient in the knowledge of the elementary school, must receive 
separate instruction up to that point, the expense of which must be refunded 
by the parent or guardian. : 

PLAN FOR A COMPLETE SYSTEM OP TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION IN NORWAY. 

Mr. H. Christie of Christiania, after having by order of the Norwegian govern- 
ment visited the technical institutions of Sweden and Denmark during the 
summer of 1867, submitted the following plan for a system of technical instruc- 
tion in Norway to the Storthing. He recommends the establishment of the 
following institutions : 

1. Technical Sunday and evening schools, intended for the further technical 
education of mechanics. Such schools should be founded wherever a town is 
willing to grant a certain annual sum for this purpose. 

2. Technical elementary school at Bergen and Trondhjera, intended to provide 
young men who wish to follow technical pursuits with the necessary elementary 
knowledge. The course of studies is to embrace mathematics, mechanics, me- 
chanical technology, drawing, physics, chemistry,, modeling, Norwegian, Ger- 
man, English, book-keeping, gymnastics, singing. The instruction is to be more 
of a practical then a purely theoretical character. The course is to cover three 
years and the school is to have three classes. Such schools would each require 
8 teachers, and the number of rooms should not be less than 19 ; a laboratory, 
physical cabinet and library ought to be attached to each school. 

3. A Polytechnic Institute at Christiania. — This establishment should be on 
the general plan of similar institutions in other European countries. The aim 
would be to become a higher educational establishment for young men who 
wish to study the technical sciences. As a general rule the instruction is to be 
of a practical more than of a theoretical character. The course of instruction 
is to embrace mathematics, mechanics and theory of machinery, mechanical 
technology and construction of machinery, general architecture, construction 
of roads, bridges and canals, surveying, chemistry and chemical technology, 
physics, (general and applied,) mineralogy and geology, drawing, and descriptive 
geometry. The course is to cover three years. Instruction is to be imparted 
gratis, with the exception of a small fee for the use of the chemical laboratory. 
In order to be admitted, a candidate would have to pass a satisfactory 
examination in elementary mathematics and all those subjects which are gen- 
erally taught at school ; the age must be no less than 1 6 years. The school is 
to consist of a one year's preparatory school for aU the students, and three par- 
allel schools, each of two years, viz., a school of civil engineering, a school for 
machine-construction, a chemical school. The average number of instruction 
hours should be 32 per week, throughout the whole of the three years' course. 
At the end of every year, class and final examinations are to be held, and after 
having satisfactorily absolved the last-mentioned one, the student receives a 
certificate as "technical candidate." The institution would require 8 teachers 
and 5 assistants, the number of rooms could not well be less than from 20 to 
23, and the estimated annual expense would be 8,200 dollars,, (Norwegian.) 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN SWEDEN, 



INTRODUCTION. 

The kingdom of Sweden, on an area of 168,042 English square 
miles, on Jan. 1, 1866 Lad a population of 4,114,141. 

Four-fifths of the population of Sweden are devoted to agricul- 
tural pursuits, but only a very small fraction of the rural population 
are owners of the land which they are cultivating. Mining is the 
most important department of Swedish industry, and the working 
of iron mines in particular is making constant progress by the in- 
troduction of new machinery. It is only within recent years that 
Sweden has become a manufacturing country. 

The annual expenses are 31,250,000 rix-dollars (1 rix-dollar==54 
cents,) of which sum 4,032,000 are applied for educational purposes. 
Public instruction is administered by the Minister of Education and 
Ecclesiastical Affairs, and embraces : 

1. Primarij Schools. — There were 5,497 schools of this grade in 1866, with 
368,129 children on the books, and 192,231 present at the inspection. 

2. Secondary Schools. — Instead of the former gymnasia, there are so-called 
"higher elementary schools," i. e. gymnasia and real-schools combined. In 
1859 there were the following: 23 complete schools of 7 or 8 classes, with 335 
teachers and 4,829 scholars ; 7 real-schools and 3 schools for classical education, 
with 56 teachers and 836 scholars; 12 schools, with 72 teachers and 1,359 
scholars; 11 schools of 3 to 5 classes, with 34 teachers and 461 scholars; 16 
schools of 2 classes, with 32 teachers and 600 scholars; 31 ptdagogien, (be- 
tween the superior and the elementary schools,) with 41 teachers and 1,169 
scholars — making- 103 secondary schools, with 570 teachers and 9,254 scholars. 

3. Superior Schools. — There are in Sweden two universities, one at Upsala 
with 29 ordinary professors, 20 assistant professors, and 33 private professors, 
{privat docenten,) and 939 students. There is a library of 160,000 volumes and 
8,000 manuscripts, a large collection of coins, a magnificent mineralogical and' 
botanical museum, and a zoological museum, a botanical garden and an astro- 
nomical observatory. The other university is at Lund, with 21 ordinary pro- 
fessors, 15 assistant professors, and 24 private professors, (privat docenten,) and 
360 students. There is a library of 100,000 volumes and several thousand 
manuscripts, a zoological museum, an anatomical museum, a historical and 
archaeological museum, a chemical laboratory, a botanical garden, and an astro- 
nomical observatory. 

4. Specicd Schools. — 1 Technological Institute in Stockholm ; 2 Mining" Schools 
at Falun and Filipstad ; 1 Technical School at Gothenburg, 107 scliolars; 4 
Elementary Technical Schools: at Malmi, Oerebro, Norrkoping, Boras; 1 Tech- 
nical Sundaj^ and Evening School at Eskilstuna; 1 School of Ship-building at 
Carlscrona: 9 Navigation Schools ; 5 Teachers' Seminaries: 1 Military Academy 
atMarieberg; 1 Artillery School at Carlsberg; 6 Military Schools; 1 School of 
Surgery at Stockholm ; 1 Forest Academy ; 2 Institutes for Deaf and Dumb ; 
1 Institute for the Blind. 



I 
712 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN SWEDEN. 

GEl^fERAL AXD SPECIAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. 

The technical schools of Sweden are divided into, general and 
special. Those giving general industrial instruction are :. — 

1. Sunday o/ad evening schools, for workmen ; such exist at Eskil- 
stuna, Norkoping, Malmo, Orebro, and Boras, containing together 
634 pupils. These are preparatory for the 

2. Elementary technical schools, for foremen ; of these are five, 
one in each of the above tow^ns, with 192 pupils. 

Combining the characteristics of this and of the last class are the 
Industrial School at Stockholm, and the School of the Industrial 
Society at Gothenburg, with 1,646 pupils. These are preparatory 
for the next class. 

3. High technical Institutes ; the Technological Institute or Poly- 
technic School at Stockholm, founded in 1825, and the parallel es- 
tablishment, Chalmers' Industrial School at Gothenburg, instituted 
in 1829, containing together 207 pupils. 

To the class giving instruction in special industries belong — 

1. The Elementary Mining School at Filipstad, and the Mining 
School at Fahlun, with 40 pupils together. 

2. The ship-building institution at Carlscrona; 25 pupils. 

3. Navio-ation schools, of which there are nine, with an ao-o-refyate 
attendance of about 180 pupils. 

Although these schools are so arranged that those giving general 
instruction are in series, yet the course in each is complete and in- 
dependent. They are open to all persons connected with industries, 
and with some few exceptions, the instruction is gratuitous. In 
these cases, the poor are exempted from payment. 

Instruction is given by lectures, illustrated by drawings, models 
and specimens, examinations, working of problems, and practical 
work. 

The teachers are appointed by the respective corps of directors, 
with certain exceptions referred to in the individual cases. They 
must possess a certain knowledge of their specialties and ability to 
teach them, these qualifications being proved by certificates, and by 
public proof in the schools. Generally they have studied at the 
University or at one of the higher technical schools, and have sub- 
sequently obtained practical experience. 

There are no special privileges attached to graduates, except to 
those from the mining schools, who are promoted to vacancies in 
the Government Mining: Bureau. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN SWEDEN. 7l3 

SUNDAY AKD EVENING SCHOOL AT ESKILSTUNA. 

The Eskilstuna school, which we take as an example of its class, gives in- 
struction chiefly adapted for working mechanics; it receives pupils over twelve 
years of age who can read and write, and who have some rehgious knowledge. 
The superintendent, who is head-master, is appointed by the Board of Commerce. 

The studies are arithmetic, geometry, geometrical and free-hand drawing 
mechanics, physics, chemistry, modeling, book-keeping, and orthography. The 
scientific studies pursued in this class of schools, with special reference to the 
industries of the locality, are, in Eskilstuna, directed to the encouragement of 
the iron and steel manufactories of the town. The term varies in length, but 
must extend over one year at least, in order to secure a certificate of examina- 
tion. This institution receives from the government 5,000 rigs-dollars annually, 
and is the only one of its class not supported by the communes. 

ELEMENTARY TECHNICAL SCHOOL AT NORKOPING. 

The elementary technical school at Norkoping gives the necessary theoretical 
instruction to those wishing to be foremen, admitting pupils above fourteen, 
able to read and write, and acquainted with the, elementary grammar of the 
Swedish and German or English, history and geography, especially of Sweden, 
arithmetic, through decimals and elementary geometry. 

The branches taught, during the course of three years, are as follows : — 1. 
Mathematics, comprehending arithmetic, elementary geometry, algebra, with 
the theory of logarithms and series, and of plane trigonometry. 2. Geomet- 
rical drawing, in plane and in elevation, and perspective drawings of tools, ma- 
chines, buildings, &c., chiefly from models. 3. Eree-hand drawing, chiefly of 
ornaments, utensils, and other objects applicable in industries, mechanical 
trades, and architecture ; modeling in clay and wax of such ornaments, figures, 
&c., as are adapted to develop taste and artistic skill in the practice of partic- 
ular industries. 4. Mechanics, both theoretical and applied to machinery, &c., 
connected with manufactures, agriculture, and other industries, comprehending 
also the elements of architecture and mechanical technology, with a knowledge 
of the most important raw materials connected therewith, and manufactured 
products of such raw materials in different stages of completion. 5. Experi- 
mental practice in the laboratory of the school. 6. Physics, both general and 
applied to industries, elucidated by experiments. 1. Chemistry, general and 
applied to industries, elucidated by experiments and materials, and by practical 
experiments in the laboratory of the school. 8. Botany and zoology, with ref- 
erence particularly to plants and animals useful in a technical point of view, 
together with such parts of the same as occur in commerce and industry. 9. 
Languages. 10. Book-keeping. 

For this school (as for others of its class) the building and school premises are 
at the charge of the commune, while teachers' salaries, the cost of instruments, 
and other necessary expenses, are met by the State, the annual grant being 
12,000 rigs-dollars. There is an entrance-fee of from four to ten rigs-dollars. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS AT STOCKHOLM AND GOTHENBURG. 

The two industrial schools at Stockholm and Gothenburg are peculiar as uni- 
ting the characters of the elementary and the Sunday and evening schools, and 
require the same previous preparation, the former however receiving pupils at 



714 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN SWEDEN. 

thirteen. That at Stockholm has also a course for female pupils, given at hours 
separate from those of the others. The superintendents are appointed by the 
crown. The terms vary in length, but must be at least one year long to secure 
a certificate of examination. 

The Stockholm institution has a new building, erected with the aid of grants 
from the State and from the city, and is supported by an annual grant from the 
former of 79,000 rigs-dollars, together with contributions from the city and the 
Swedish Industrial Society, and bequests from private individuals. There is an 
entrance-fee of four to ten rigs-dollars, and a term-fee of eighteen rigs-dollars 
and seventy-five oere. It has (1866) 1,346 pupils, of which 856 are male. 

That at Gothenburg, founded by the Polytechnic Union, is maintained by the 
commune and by private contributions. It numbers (1866) 300 pupils. The 
course of instruction is more limited than at Stockholm, owing to want of 
resources. 

MINING SCHOOLS AT FILIPSTAD AND FAHLUN. 

The mining schools at Filipstad and Fahlun have for their object the training 
of skilled mining mechanics and engineers and managers of iron-works. They 
are open to pupils above the age of eighteen who ha vie passed the mining ex- 
amination at the university or are prepared in. the following branches : religion, 
histor}" and geography, especially of Sweden, arithmetic, six books of Euclid, 
stereometry, algebra as far as equations of the second .degree, the first elements 
of plane trigonometry and the use of logarithms, with physics, chemistry, and 
mechanics. They must be able to write plain and tolerably correct Swedish 
compositions, and to translate easy German authors with facility. These are 
the same qualifications as are demanded for the Polytechnic, except that phys- 
ics, chemistry and mechanics are carried farther than for that school. 

The curriculum of the school at Fahlun comprises analytical chemistry, min- 
eralogy, surveying of mines, the art of smelting, practical geometry and metal- 
lurgy; mechanics, especially the theorj^ of mining machines ; geology, mining, 
comprising the study of the manner in which useful minerals occur and of their 
discovery ; and of the opening and measurement of mines ; besides which the 
pupils spend a certain time, under the superintendence of the teacher, in prac- 
tical operations at iron-works and mines, and also in traveling to different parts 
of the country, in order to inspect such works, plans being drawn of the mines 
surveyed during these journeys. 

At Filipstad, the studies are theoretical and practical geometry, plane trigo- 
nometry, physics, mechanics, geometrical drawing, leveling, chemistry, geology, 
mineralogy, and the metallurgy of iron, with practical studies of iron-working 
in mines, foundries, or iron-works. 

The superintendent and second master of the Fahlun school is appointed by 
the king ; the superintendent of that at Filipstad, by the delegates to the iron 
office. The latter is also head-master. The Fahlun establishment has (1866) 
25 pupils, and is free, being supported partly by the Association of Iron -masters, 
and partly by the State, which gives it an annual grant of 9,700 rigs-dollars. 
It is intended to consolidate it with the Polytechnic School. The Filipstad in- 
stitution has 20 pupils (1866,) paying 50 rigs-dollars per annum. It is sup- 
ported by the Association of Iron-masters. 

None but graduates of these establishments can fill the post of clerks and 
stipendiaries at the iron office. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN SWEDEN. ^^5 



THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT STOCKHOLM. 

The Technological Institution (Slogd^-kolan) or Polytechnic School at Stock- 
holm, (an entirely distinct institution from the industrial school at the same 
place, sometimes referred to as a polytechnic school,) has for its object to impart 
the highest grade of scientific and technical instruction. 

There are three sections ; one of machine construction and mechanical tech- 
nology; one of chemical technology; one of civil engineering. The contem- 
plated union with it of the Mining School at Fahlun will add a fourth, with 
three subdivisions; of mining mechanics, of foundry, and of mining engineering. 

It is open to boys at sixteen who possess the following q.ualifications : a fair 
degree of religious instruction, history, and geography, especially of Sweden ; 
arithmetic, six books of Euclid, stereometry, algebra as far as equations of the 
second degree, the first elements of plane trigonometry and the use of loga- 
rithms, with physics, chemistry, and mechanics. He must be able to write a 
plain and tolerably correct Swedish composition, and to translate easy German 
authors with facility. 

The superintendent, who is not obliged to instruct, and the professors, fifteen 
in number, are appointed by the king. The course of instruction covers three 
years, and consists of-^1. Pure mathematics, comprising principally analytical 
geometry, the elements of the theory of equations, and differential and integral 
arithmetic. 2. Practical geometry, comprising surveying and leveling for engi- 
neering and other technical purposes. 3. Descriptive geometry, both general 
and applied to structures of stone and wood, and to perspective and shading. 
4. Theoretical mechanics, or the theory of the equilibrium and motion of bodies, 
in which are also comprised the theories for the construction of arches, the 
pressure of loose masses of earth, and of iron and wooden structures connected 
with the erection of edifices. 5. Applied mechanics, comprising the knowledge 
of machinery intended to gather ai^d communicate natural motive-power, or 
otherwise adapted for general application. 6. Mechanical technology, com- 
prising a knowledge of tlie arts of producing those manufactures, the produc- 
tion of which solely or chiefly depends on mechanical appliances ; and also 
including an acquaintance with the raw material employed, and the qualities of 
the manufactures produced. 7. General physics. 8. Applied physics, with 
reference more especially to the technical application of heat, light, electricity, 
and magnetism. 9. General chemistry. 10. Chemical technology, compre- 
hending a knowledge of the manner in which those manufactures are produced 
which are chiefly dependent on chemical agency ; and also an acquaintance with 
the raw materials employed, and the qualities of the manufactures when com- 
pleted. 11. Mineralogy and geognosy, so far as these sciences possess a prac- 
tical application. 12. General architecture, and the construction of houses. 13. 
Civil engineering. 14. Drawing, viz., geometrical and free-hand drawing and 
touching with Indian ink. 15. Modeling ornaments and bas-reliefs. In addi- 
tion to the above, instruction is given, in the workshops of the schools, in the 
use of tools, and machines employed in working metals and wood. 

Instruction is given in the following manner: — 1. Lectures delivered by the 
teachers, in which the subject, when requisite, is elucidated by models, draw- 
ings, samples, and experiments. ' 2. Eepetitions, by means of questions ad- 
dressed to the pupils, and by the solution of problems given to them to perform. 



7l6 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN SWEDEN. 

3. The execution of drawings (with descriptions) of machines, apparatus, edi- 
fices, and other objects on which instruction is given, and also of plans of 
industrial establishments, all under the guidance and superintendence of those 
teachers whose subjects of instruction comprise the works or establisliments 
delineated. 4. Practical exercises, under the superintendence and guidance of 
the respective masters in surveying and leveling, in practical mechanics, general 
chemistry, chemical technology, the art of drawing, and the working of metals 
and wood. 

The number of pupils (1866) is 100. It is maintained by the State, the 
present annual expenditure being about 55,500 rix-dollars. 

CHALMERS' INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT GOTHENBURG. 

Chalmers' Industrial School is adapted for those persons intending to pursue 
high technical professions. The superintendents are appointed by the king. 
Pupils are admitted at fourteen. The requirements for admission, the curric- 
ulum, and the mode of instruction, correspond with those of the Polytechnic 
School at Stockholm. One branch, not taught at the Polytechnic School, but 
here entered upon, is the modeling of free-standing figures in wax, clay, and 
gypsum. There are (1866) 107 pupils. The institution was founded and de- 
rives its chief support from a private bequest, but enjoys a State grant also of 
21,500 rix-dollars. 

SCHOOL OFNAYAL ARCHITECTURE AT CARLSCRONA. 

The purpose of the School of Naval Architecture at Carlscrona is to train 
competent workmen and foremen for the ship-building yards. Candidates must 
be fourteen years of age, possess a fair degree of religious knowledge, an ele- 
mentary knowledge of Swedish and English grammar, history and geography, 
especially with regard to Sweden ; arithmetic as far as the rule of three, and 
elementary geometry. 

The subjects of instruction are mathematics, including planimetry, stereom- 
etry, algebra, plane trigonometiy, the theory of conic lines, mechanics, hydro- 
mechanics, descriptive geometry, differential and integral calculations ; ship- 
drawing and the construction of mercantile vessels ; theoretical and practical 
ship-building, mast-building, the study of the materials employed in ship- 
building ; the guaging of ships ; the art of constructing steam-engines ; geo- 
metrical drawing ; free-hand drawing; English ; practical work in ship-building, 
each pupil being obliged to work at least one hundred days annually in the 
ship-yards, for which he receives daily pay. 

The number of pupils is (1866) about 25. The school is supported by a State 
grant of 7,000 rix-dollars per annum. 

EVENING SCHOOLS OF ART. 

Mr. Brace, in his "Visit to the Homes of Norway and Sweden," describes the 
"Evening School of Art" in Stockholm, estabhshed by Prof Siljestrom. thus: 

All this, with beautiful plaster models of Greek sculpture, bas-reliefs of Italian 
statuary, the orders and ornaments of architecture, with lessons and teachers, 
lectures on chemistry and other sciences, is open every evening for the laboring 
men and women. All are made artistic artisans, and women are provided with 
a new and beautiful means of living. Such schools exist all over Sweden. 
Except the Schools of Design for Women in Boston and New York, I know of 
nothing of the kind in the United States. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN EUSSIA. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Russia in Europe has an area of J., 992, 574 Englisli square miles, 
exclusive of Finland (140,800 English square miles) and Poland 
(51,040 English square miles.) Russia in Asia has an area of 
5,428,460 English square miles. The area of the whole Russian 
empire is therefore 7,612,874 Enghsh square miles. 

The population of Russia in Europe was, according to the census 
of 1864: 61,061,801; of Finland, 1,798,909; and of Poland, 
5,336,210; of Russia in Asia (Siberia and Transcaucasia,) 8,074,704 
— thus making the population of the whole Russian empire 76,271,- 
624. 

The government is an absolute hereditary monarchy, the whole 
legislative, executive, and judicial power centering in the emperor, 
whose will alone is law, although exerted through councils and min- 
isters of his appointment. 

The majority of the population are engaged in agriculture ; a 
considerable foreign commerce is carried on, employing near 2,000 
vessels of Russian construction ; and more than 500,000 hands are 
employed in manufacturing establishments. 

The general superintendence of all the educational establishments 
of the empire is intrusted to the Ministry of Public Instruction, al- 
though even more extensively than in other countries there are spe- 
cial schools not only for the public service, but of particular classes, 
which are under the superintendence of other Ministries. The Min- 
istry of Public Instruction is composed of the minister, several 
counselors, a commission on elementary and one on higher educa- 
tion, and a publication committee. In the estimated expenditure 
for 1869 this Ministry is credited for ordinary service with 9,281,- 
220 rubles. 

The educational system, as revised in recent codes, comprises 
primary, secondary, superior, and special schools, of which we gather 
the following statistics from recent authorized statements. 

*For history and details ef the present organization, see Special Report on National Education 
— Russia, 



718 STATISTICS OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA, 

I. PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 

In Russia in Europe there were, in 1865: 1,760 public elementary schools, 
with 78,999 scliolars. The number of private elementary schools under gov- 
ernment inspection v^as 799, v^ith 22,814 scholars. Under the superintendence 
of the Ministry of Imperial Domains there were 7,137 schools, with 226.996 
scholars. The Ministry of the "Apanages" had 294 village- scliools, 1,046 pa- 
rochial and private schools, 721 private borough-schools, and 111 schools in con- 
nection with the Mohammedan mosques. The ecclesiastical authorities of the 
Orthodox Greek Church have 8,587 elementary schools, with 320",350 scliolars. 
The number of public elementary schools in Siberia was 86, with 2,494 schol- 
ars. In Poland the number of public elementary schools (in 1861) was 1,381, 
with 80,378 scholars. In Caucasia there were (in 1856) 74 schools, with 5,505 
scholars. In Finland there v/ere 14 upper and 57 higher elementary public 
schools, with about 9,000 scholars. 

The number of district-schools (burgher-schools) in Russia in Europe (exclu- 
sive of Finland and Poland) and Siberia was (in 1865) 416, with 23,952 scholars 
and 2,743 teacliers ; and in Poland, 195 district schools. 

The grand total is 61,000 elementary schools, exclusive of schools of the 
same grade specified below, with 1,500,000 pupils. 

II. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 

In Russia in Europe (exclusive of Poland and Finland) there were, in 1865 : 
101 gymnasia, with 26,789 scholars and 2,312 teachers. In Finland there were 
6 gymnasia; and in Poland 7 gymnasia, with 122 teachers and 2,172 scholars; 
and 17 philological schools, with 169 teachers and 2,856 scholars — making a 
total of 500 institutions of secondary instruction, with 100,000 pupils. 

III. SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION, 

There are in Russia in Europe, 6 universities (St. Petersburg, Moscow, TChar- 
kow, Kasan, Dorpat, Kiew, Odessa.) with 5,314 students and 455 professors. 
In Fiidand there is one university at Helsingfors. Besides the university pro- 
fessorships, there are special theological seminaries belonging to the several 
religious bodies, and lyceums at Jaroslawl and at Njeschin, both preparatory 
for the civil service. 

IV. SPECIAL AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS. 

6 Teachers' seminaries (at St. Petersburg, Dorpat, Kiew, Kharkow, Molo- 
datschno, and "Wilna) ; 3 schools with a pedagogical course ; and a special 
course for gymnasium teachers. 

The following special institutions are under special ministries: 

A. RUSSIA. 

/ Institutions for Daughters of Nobles, Military Officers and Officials, under tJie 
immediate protection of the Imperial Family. 
1 Smalnoa training estabhshment at St. Petersburg, 83 teachers, 392 scholars. 
1 School of Order of St. Catherine at St. Petersburg, 56 " 357 " 

1 " " " " " Moscow, 59 " 288 " 

1 Patriotic institute for girls, 36 " 244 " 

12 Other institutes for noble young ladies, 356 " 1,589 " 

13 Second-class establishments, 426 " 1,533 " 

12 Thurd-class establishments for girls of lower rank, 207 " 953 ". 

Estahlishm.ents for Special Glasses. 

1 Nicholas orphan institute at St. Petersburg, 166 teachers, 7 93scholars. 

1 Nicholas orphan institute at Moscow, 108 " 725 " 

1 Deaf and dumb school at St. Petersburg, 23 " 65 " 

1 School of midwifery at St. Petersburg, 14 " 131 " 

1 School of midwifery at Moscow, 16 " 82 '' 

1 Foundling liospital at Moscow 40 " 125 " 

5 Public gymnasia for young ladies. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. Yl9 

The following institutions are for males : 

1 Alexander lyceura at St. Petersburg-, 33 teachers, 126 scholars. 

1 Deaf and dumb school at St. Petersburg, 13 " 101 '• 

1 Commercial school " " 35 " 299 " 

2 Hospital-assistants' schools " " 11 " 85 " 

1 Nicholas orphans' institute at Gatchina, -44 " 67 1 " 

1 Section of the foundling hospital at Moscow, .... 21 " 96 " 

1 Commercial school at Moscow, 24 " 121 " 

1 Hospital-assistants' school at Moscow, 15 " 251 " 

1 Mechanics' institute " " 18 " 290 " 

1 School for masters for instructing in trade-schools, 14 " 

11. Special Schools under the Ministry of War. 

1 Medico-chirurgical academy, 35 teachers, 9*78 scholars. 

5 Surgeon-barbers' schools at the different military 

hospitals 17 " 1,020 « 

1 Topographers' school, 13 " 140 " 

22 Military schools, 10,000 " 

3 Artillery schools, 22 " 166 " 

1 Nicholas staff-academy, 22 " 250 " 

1 Nicholas higher engineer-school, 50 " 126 " 

1 Michael artillery school, 32 " 117 " 

1 Page-corps or college, 41 " 159 " 

1 Ensigns' school of the guards, 31 " 206 " 

22 Cadet corps, or military colleges for the guards 

and line, 723 » 7,440 " 

///. Naval Schools under the Ministry of Marine. 

1 Naval cadet-college, 92 teachers, 631 scholars 

1 Practical naval school for seamen, 15 " 553 " 

1 Commercial navigation school at Croustadt, 12 " 45 " 

1 Pilots' school at Cronstadt, 32 " 355- " 

1 Lower engineer and artillery school at St. Peters- 
burg 38 " 265 " 

1 Black Sea pilots' school at Nicholaieff, 18 " 415 " 

1 Naval school " " 18 " 415 " 

1 Girls' institute " " ' 7 " 100 " 

JV. Schools under the Ministry of the Interior. 

19 Orphan houses, 754 pupils. 

6 Foundling hospitals, ' 2,410 " 

19 Schools for the children of chancery servants, 953 " 

3 Hospital-assistants' schools, 199 " 

1 School for hospital-servants' children, 42 " 

V. Schools under the Ministry of Finance. 

1 Mining institute, 37 teachers, 242 scholars. 

1 Mining technical schcol, 36 " 21 " 

1 Assaying school at St. Petersburg, 8 " 14 " 

7 District foundry schools, 41 " 361 " 

44 Lower foundry schools for the mint and mining, . 131 " 3,957 " 

1 Technological institute, 36 " 257 " 

Sund;iy drawing-school connected with it, 3 " 72 " 

1 Drawing-school at St. Petersburg, 11 " 646 " 

1 Female division of the same, 7 " 215 " 

3 Drawing-schools at Moscow, 24 ** 667 " 

Sundry primary schools for children employed in factory labor, 

Sundry private manufactory schools, . . , 12 teachers, 478 " 

1 Practical commercial academy at Moscow, 30 " 174 " 

1 School of commercial navigation at Cherson, ... 9 " 48 " 

1 " " " . " " Riga, 1 " 10 " 

1 School for masters of merchantmen at Archangel, 1 " 12 " 

1 « " " " " " Eemi, 1 " 9 " 



720 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. 

VI. ScJwols under the Ministry of Public Works. 

1 Institute of the roads' engineer corps, 50 teachers, 270 scholars. 

1 Master-builders' school, 32 " 164 " 

1 Signal and telegraph school. 

VII. Schools under the Ministry of Justice. 

1 School of jurisprudence, 43 teachers, 231 scholars. 

1 Preparatory class for the above school, 20 ' " 167 " 

1 Constantine surveyors' school, 36 " 250 " 

1 Writing school for copyists in government offices, 7 " 60 " 

1 Surveying topographers' school, ." 23 " 200 " 

VIII. Schools under the Ministry of the Imperial Domains. 

1 Forest-academy at St. Petersburg, ^ 

1 Course of forestry at Lissina, L^g ^^^^^^^^^ 

. 2 ocliools for huntsmen, | 

2 Scliools for game-keepers, J 

1 -Academy of agriculture at Gorygoretsk, ^ g^^ ^^^^^ 

1 Academy of agriculture near Moscow, ) 

1 Academy of horticulture. 
18 Agricultural and horticultural schools, 

IX. Schools under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 
Institute of Oriental Languages at St. Petersburg. 
Lazareff Institute, for do. at Moscow. 

X. Academies, Museums and Agencies of Art, Science, &c. 
Academy of the Fine Arts at St. Petersburg. 
Hermitage Gallery and Museum. 

Taurida Palace Museum of Sculpture. 
Roumiantstoff Museum. 
Academy of Sciences. 

Imperial Library at St. Petersburg (900,000 volumes.) 
Yablonoff Cabinet of Art Curiosities. 
Observatory at Poolkova. 
Botanical Garden. 
Museum of Russian Antiquities. 
Museum of Technological Institute. 
Museum of Rural Economy. 
Museum of Mines and Metallurgy. 
Museum of Natural History. 
The above list includes only the most prominent institutions of this class. 

B. POLAND. 

1 Medico-chirurgical academy. 

1 Nobility institute. 

1 Government Ladies' boarding-school. 

1 School of arts. 

2 Technological high-schools. 

1 Scliool of agriculture and forestry. 

1 Sunday commercial school. 

1 Normal school for primary teachers. 

C. FINLAND- 

1 Cadet corps at Friedrichshamm. 

3 Navigation schools. 

3 Technological schools. 
3 Commercial schools. 
1 Institute for rural economy at Mustiala. 
10 Agricultural schools. 
6 Girls' schools (industrial.) 



SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF SCIENCE AND THE ARTS 

IN RUSSIA. 



The Special Schools of Science, as applied to the great industries of 
the Empire, and the service of the government, have been liberally en- 
dowed, and many of them have attained a high degree of development. 

POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT ST. PETERSBURG. 

The Polytechnic Institute at St. Petersburg was founded in 1829 ; 
some of the students live at the institute and pay 15 rubles per month 
for their board, &c. ; others live in town and pay an annual school-fee 
of 30 rubles ; with an addition of 40 rubles, if they take any part in the 
practical exercises in the workshops or laboratories connected with the 
Institute. The conditions of admission are : Sacred history, history of 
the Christian Church, Russian language and literature, general and Rus- 
sian history, geography, elements of physics, mathematics, and algebra, 
up to equations of the second degree ; geometry, trigonometry, French 
and German. The whole organization of the Institute is very similar to 
that of the higher technical schools of Germany. For practical instruc- 
tion there are in connection with the Institute a chemical laboratory, 
workshops for turners, carpenters, and engravers ; besides these, there 
are a forge, dyery, foundry, and a steam-engine. The course in both 
sections, the chemical and mechanical, has been fixed at 4 years ; and 
on leaving the Institute the students receive the degree of technologist 
of the 1st and 2d class. We give below in detail the course of instruc- 
tion at the Polytechnic Institute for the first and fourth year, the second 
and third being an extension of the first : 

FIRST YEAR. 

Theology, (1 recitation per week.) — Detailed Commentaries on the Articles 
of Faith, on the mysteries of the resurrection and eternal life ; The leading idea 
of the Christian's hope and the Christian's prayer; The union of love, faith, and 
the Ten Commaudraents; Lectures on the Catechism, showing in what manner 
cue ought to profit by the teachings of rehgion and piety. * 

Chemistry, (inorganic.) (4 recitations per week.) — The phenomena of contact, 
and the mutual influence of substances on each other; The properties and com- 
bitiations of metalloids; Metals, their properties, tlieir natural state ; Extraction 
and preparation of these substances ; Chemical combinations. 

Physics, (2 recitations per week.) — Law of statics ; Simple machines ; Me- 
chanics; Attractive power; Centre of gravity; Mathematical pendulum; Hy- 
drostatics; Principle of Archimedes; Density and volume ; Laws of capillary 
tubes; Equilibrium of gases; Barometer; Application of Mariotte's law; Sound. 

Higher Analysis, (5 recitations per week.) — Analytical geometry ; Solution of 
geometrical problems by means of algebra; Properties of curves; Surfaces of 
the second order ; Differential and integral calculus. 

46 



^22 SPECIAL IXSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. 

Higher Algebra. — Application of algebra to imaginary quantities ; Solution 
of equations of the higher degrees ; lleduction of rational fractions. 

Eitmentary Statics, (2 recitations per week.) — Construction and reduction of 
forces ; Conditions of equilibrium ; Simple machines. 

Descriptive Geometry, (1 recitation per week.) — Method of projections ; Pro- 
jections of points, straight lines, curves, even surfaces, and curved surfaces; 
Yarious problems, (done by the aid of ruler and compasses.) 

Architecture and Land, Surveying, (2 recitations per week.)^General prm- 
ciples ; Study of the surface of the earth ; Sounding ; Preparation of materials 
of construction ; Construction of embankments ; Ventilation, &c. ; Draining of 
swamps ; Draining and irrigation ; Surveying operations ; Description of instru- 
ments used in these operations, the way of using them and examining them. 

Metallurgy and Mining, (2 recitations per week.) — Short geological description 
of tlie globe ; Layers, metallic veins ; Way of extracting metals ; Works with 
gunpowder under water ; Making of tunnels, acqueducts ; Wells ; Various sys- 
tems of natural and artificial ventilation; Rollers, capstans, machines for drain- 
ing water fi-om mines ; Signals. 

German, (2 recitations per week.)^ Analysis of the best works of Grerman 
literature. 

French,- {2 recitations per week.) — Translations from the work "Exercises et 
Narrations," by Levrier and Demini; French grammar. 

English, (2 recitations per week.)— Enghsh after the method of Robertson.* 

Drawing, (4 recitations per week.) — Linear drawing: India ink sketching; 
Drawing up of projections (designs) on a certain number of given quantities. 

Practical Exercises in the Physical Cabinet, (2 recitations per week.) — Deter- 
mination of specific weights ; Exercises with the areometer ; Weighing {jpesees.) 

FOURTH TEAR. 

Physics, (1 recitation per week.) — Distilling; Theory and construction of dis- 
tilling apparatus ; Vaporization ; Ventilation ; Electric telegraph ; Degrees of 
swiftness of the electric spark ; Influence of the atmospheric electricity ; Con- 
ductors ; Various telegraphs ; Electric movers {moteurs) and leaders of electricity 
{electro-aimants ;) Electric clockworks. 

Technology of Metals and Woods, (3 recitations per week.) — ^Importance of 
wood in constructions; Resistance, qualities, and imperfections, (defects;) Va- 
rious constructions ; Tools ; Brass ; Iron ; Steel ; Copper ; Zinc ; Lead ; Tin ; 
Preparing, refining, and working of metals; Molding; Materials used in the 
manufacture of molds and crucibles ; Casting ; Construction of ovens and the 
way to use them ; Reflecting ovens ; Leakage ; Farriery ; Locksmith's work ; 
Tools used, and the most practical way for working iron and steel; Theory of 
the action of instruments on the worked surface; Manufacture of steam-boilers; 
Arrangement of workshops; Division of labor; Testing of steam-boilers. 

Analytical Chemistry, (1 recitation per week.) — Alcoholmeter ; Analysis of 
vegetable substances ; Study of sediments, (/ecwZa;) Analysis of gases; Study 
of the various materials used for fuel 

Anatomy and P/iysiology of Rants, (2 recitations per week.) — Vegetable 
structure; Cellular tissue: Functions of the root, trunk, and leaves: Circu- 
lation of the sap ; Respiration of plants; Temperature; Budding; Assimilation 
of nutritive substances; Reproduction of phanerogamic plants ; Reproduction 
of agamic and crj-ptogamic plants; Maladies of plants; Examination of the 
different systems of botanical classification ; Scientific description of plants. 

Liclustrial Statistics, (1 recitation per week.) — Social laws; Theory of the 
development of population; General considerations; Productive forces of Rus- 
sia; Mining industry ; Agriculture; Arboriculture; Beet-culture: Flax; Hemp; 
Cotton; Cattle-raising; Skinner's trade; Wools; Fats; Minerals; Metals; 
Vegetable substances ; Tar, resin, &c. ; Ways of communication ; Internal com* 
merce; International commerce ; Influence of tariffs. 

Technology of Textile Materials, (3 recitations per week.) — Cotton; Flax; 

* The instruction in foreign Innfriia^es takes place at different hours, nnH in the intervals be- 
tween the otiier lessons, in order to facilitnte the study of these three langiiajres ; but in order to 
obtain the title of "technologist," it is sufficient to kuow one of these languages thoroughly. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. ^23 

Hemp ; Wool ; Silk, &c. ; Preparing and gathering of these materials ; Des- 
cription of machines used in transforming tissues; Manufacture of thread, 
cloths, ribbons, &c. 

Technology of Alimentary Substances, (2 recitations per week.) — Starch ; Al- 
cOi'.ol; Beer; Beet-sugar; Refining of sugar, &c. 

Dyeing, (1 recitation per week.)— Study of colors; Preparing cloths, &c., for 
dyeing ; Theory of fixing the coloring substances ; Mixing and combining of 
colors. 

Ajyplied Mechanics and Construction of Machines, (7 recitations per week.) — 
Mechanism of machines ; Valves ; Pistons ; Ropes ; Chains ; Hasps ; Pumps ; 
Draining-wheels ; Chain-pumps ; Archimedes' screw ; Spiral pumps ; Suction- 
pumps; Forcing-pumps; Hydraulic press; Accumulator; Cornwall draining 
machines; Blowing machines ; Cj-lindrical bellows ; Apparatus for heating air; 
Regulators of atmospheric machines; Blowing machines, with turning pistons; 
Centrifugal and otlier ventilators. 

Theory of the Application of Mechanics to Heat — Apparatus for the formation 
of steam ; Apparatus for distributing steam ; Movable mechanisms for steam- 
engines ; Locomotives ; Diliereut systems of boilers for steamships ; General 
observations on the progressive motion of steam-engines, and the way of di- 
recting them ; Mills. 

Practical Exercises in ike Physical Cabinet, (1 recitation of two hours per 
week.) — Rectification of thermometers; Barometrical observations; Testing 
and rectification of barometers, areometers, alcoholmeters, &c. ; Determining 
the weight, volume, and mass of bodies (substances;) Testing of guaged vessels 
and sized instruments ; Hygrometric observations ; Photometry ; Strength of 
galvanic fluids; Determining the quantity of carbonic acid contained in the 
air, &c. 

Ttchnical Projections, (1 recitation per week.) — Drawing up of projections and 
plans for manufactories of various kinds, &c. 

The mechanical section devotes 4 lessons a week, (3 hours each,) and besides 
this, one whole day for practical exercises in the workshops, which are well 
supplied with all the necessary materials, tools, steam-engines, &c. The chem- 
ical section devotes the same amount of time to analytical exercises or the prep- 
aration of various products used in arts and industry. 

The Institute has, besides the various workshops, forges, a magnificent chem- 
ical laboratory, and very complete physical and mineralogical cabinets. 

A library (constantly increasing) T)f 15,000 volumes, referring to arts and 
industry, is daily open for the use of the students. 

It is a noteworthy fact, that the models of machines, most of the instruments, 
the reproduction of works of industrial art on a reduced scale, which form the 
very large and interesting collection of the technological museum at St. Peters- 
burg, have been made in the Institute by the pupils themselves. 

POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL AT RIGA. 

The Polytechnicum at Riga has a preparatory and a special course. 
The former is to give instruction in the elements of mathematics and 
natural history, and will be discontinued, as soon as the secondary- 
schools in the Baltic provinces, especially the real-gymna.s'a, have 
reached a higher standard. On the preparatory course follo.v in two 
groups, combined special courses, which aim at a general techi-ical edu- 
cation ; and only during the last year there are special coui ,^cs for the 
various branches of manufactures. The first group comprises various 
mechanical and technical manufactures, agriculture and surveying. The 
combined course lasts one year. The second group comprises machinery, 
architecture, and engineering. The combined course lasts two years. 

In order to be admitted to the preparatory course, the age of 16 years 
is required, and to enter any of the special courses, the age of 17. Can- 



724 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. 

didates for admission must subject themselves to an examination; those, 
however, excepted who have, on leaving a gymnasium, satisfactorily- 
passed an examination. The following are the subjects required at the 
examination for admission to the preparatory course : SuflBcient knowl- 
edge of German to follow the instruction given in that language ; gen- 
eral knowledge of history and geography ; a fair knowledge of modern 
mathematics, especially practical arithmetic ; some practice of free-hand 
and linear drawing. Those who afterwards wish to attend the school of 
commerce, (business-college,) have, besides, to show a satisfactory knowl- 
edge of Russian, French, and English. In order to be admitted to the 
special courses, complete acquaintance with all the subjects taught in the 
preparatory course are required. The school fees are 120 rubles per an- 
num ; " casual students " {Hospitanten) must pay 4 silver rubles annually 
for every weekly recitation. 

The preparatory course embraces: Elementary arithmetic and mathe- 
matics, 10 hours per week ; physics and elementary mechanics, 6 hours; 
free-hand drawing, 6 hours ; zoology and botany, 4 hours. Those who 
afterwards wish to attend the school of commerce, ("business college,") 
have only 4 hours mathematics and 6 hours drawing per week, but 
instead, 2 hours each for French, English, Russian, and German, and one 
hour for calligraphy. The special course for merchants (business col- 
lege) is as follows, with the number of hours per week for each subject : 

I Course. II Course. 

German, 2 — 

English, 2 4 

Russian, 2 4 

French, 2 4 

Commercial Arithmetic, 4 2 

Commercial Correspondence, 2 3 

Science of Commerce, 2 2 

Commercial Geography and History, 3 . . — 

Book-keeping, 2 2 

General Cliemistry, 4 — 

Popular Mechanics, 4 — 

Mineralogy and Geology, — 3 

Technology, &c., — 4 

National Economy, — 2 

Laws of Commerce, Exchange, &c., — 4 

Total, 29 34 

The course of manufactures, agriculture, and surveying, comprises the 
following subjects, with the number of hours per week : 

General Chemistry, 4 

Popular Mechanics, &c., 4 

General Architecture, 4 

Practical Geometry, (Winter half-year,) 3 

Drawing of Plans and Maps, (Summer half-year,) 8 

Drawing of Machinery, 6 

, Architectural Drawing, 4 

Physics, 4 

Total, 3t 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. 726 

The special course for manufactures, mechanics, and chemistry, em- 
braces the following subjects and hours per week : 

Mineralogy, (Winter half-year,) 4 

Geology, (Summer half-year) 8 

Chemical Technology, I Course, 3 

Mechanical Technology, I Course, 5 

Drawing of Plans of Buildings for Manufacturing Purposes, 10 

National Economy, 2 

Book-keeping, 2 

Practical Course in Chemical Laboratory, 6 

Besides this in the supplementary course : Chemical technology, II 
Course, 4 hours ; practical course in the physical laboratory (during the 
winter half-year,) 4 hours ; practical course in the chemical laboratory, 
22 to 26 hours. 

The special course for agriculturists comprises the following subjects : 

Mineralogy, ("Winter half-year,) 4 

Geology, (Summer half-year.) 8 

Chemical Technology, I Course, 3 

Mechanical Technology, I Course, 5 

Physiology of Animals and Plants, 5 

Architectural and Machine Drawing, 4 

National Economy, 2 

Book-keeping, 2 

Practical Course in the Laboratory, 6 

The agricultural course is not intended to be a special school in the 
proper sense of the word, but is limited to imparting a preparatory 
knowledge of those branches of natural sciences and technolog}'^, which 
are most essential for the agriculturist. A proposition is therefore now 
under consideration to organize a» special course, in which the following 
subjects are to be taught : Agriculture, culture of meadows, forest- 
culture, agricultural chemistry, breeding of cattle, veterinary surgery, 
agricultural architecture, and knowledge of agricultural machines. 

The special course for surveyors embraces the following subjects : 
Mineralogy, geology, chemical technology, practical- geometry, surveying, 
drawing of plans and maps, national economy, and book-keeping. 

The course common to machinists, architects, engineers, and surveyors, 
embraces the following subjects and hours per week : 



I Year. 


1st 
Halfyear. 


2d 
Halfyear. 


II Year. 


Higher Mathematics, 


.. 6 .. 


.. 6 .. 

'.'. 8 '.'. 
.. 4 .. 
.. -8 .. 
.. 5 .. 
.. 5 .. 




.. 5 






Theoretical Geometry, 


.. 3 
.. 6 


Mineralogy, (Winter half-year,) 4 

Ceologv, (Summer half-year,) 8 




.. 3 


Drawing of Plans and Maps, 


'.'. 4 


Construction of Mnchiiiery, (1st course,) S 


Theoretical Mechanics,. . . . 




Architectural Drawing, 4-Q 






Physics, 


.. 4 





726 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. 

The special course for the construction of machinery embraces the fol- 
lowing subjects, and the hours per week for each : 

1st Half-year. 2d Half year. 

Mechanical Technology, (1st course,) 5 5 

Construction of Machinery, (Maschinen-bau,) 2d. course,. 5 3 

Architectural Constructions, 4 4 

Construction of Machinery, 16 20 

National Economy, 2 2 

Book-keeping, 2 2 

In the supplementary course the following subjects are taught : Ana- 
lytical mechanics ; construction of machinery, (maschinen-dau^) 3d 
course ; mechanical technology, 2d course ; mathematical physics ; 
drawing of plans for machinery ; construction of roads, bridges, canals, 
&c. ; drawing of plans and maps, modeling in wood. 

The special division for architects has the following course : 

Summer Half-year. Winter Half-year. 

Civil Architecture, 5 5 

Arcliitectural Statics, 4 — 

History of Arcliitecture, 2 2 

Lithotomy and Perspective, 3 — 

Architectural Constructions, 10 10 

Ornamentics, 2 2 

Modeling in "Wood, Clay, and Plaster of Paris,. ... 6 6 

National Economy, 2 2 

Book-keeping, 2 2 

In the supplementary course are taught : Civil architecture, 6 hours 
in the summer half-year, none in the Winter ; mechanical technology, 5 
in Summer and 6 in Winter ; construction of roads, bridges, and canals, 
5 in Summer and 5 in Winter ; drawing of plans for buildings, 12 in 
Summer, 20 in Winter ; drawing of maps and plans, none in Summer and 
8 in Winter ; modeling, 8 in Summer and none in Winter. 

The special school for engineers has the following course : 

Summer Half-year. Winter Half-year. 

Construction of Roads, Bridges, Canals, &c., (1st course,) 5 5 

Civil Architecture, (1st course,) 4 4 

Architectural Statics, , 4 — 

Mechanical Technology (1st course,) 5 5 

Mathematical Physics, 2 — 

Construction of Roads, Bridges, Canals, &c., (2d course,) 10 16 

National Economy, •. . 2 2 

Book-keeping, 2 2 

The supplementary course embraces : 

Summer HalfyeaTc Winter Halfyeai^ 

Construction of Roads, Bridges, Canals, 6 — 

Drawing of Maps for Roads. Bridges, &c., 16 20 

Lithotomy and Perspective, 3 — 

Surveying, 4 — 

Drawing of Maps and Plans, — . . „ 8 

Ornamentics, 2 — 

Modeling, — 6 

Method of the smallest squares, ... — 3 

The special course for surveyors embraces the following subjects : 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. ^27 

Summer Half-year. Winter Half-year. 

Astronomy, 4 4 

Method of the smallest squares, (Meihode der 

Kleisten Quadrate^) — 3 

Surveying, 4 — 

Mathematical Physics, 2 — 

Drawing of Maps and Plans, 16 20 

National Economy, 2 2 

Book-keeping, 2 2 

There are also winter courses at the technical institute for young 
tradesmen and mechanics. The former aims at giving the clerks in the 
various business establishments of the city a chance of acquiring a 
knowledge of the elements of special instruction. The winter course 
for mechanics comprises the following subjects : 

Higher Division. Lower Division. 

Arithmetic, 4 4 

Construction of Buildings, 4 4 

Drawing and Modeling, 12 12 

Business Composition, ' 2 — 

Book-keeping, — 2 

The scholars may only take instruction in one or in all of the subjects, 
but after having once chosen their subjects, they are bound to attend 
the recitations of the same. The school-fee is 6 rubles per annum. 

MINING SCHOOLS. 

The mining-schools are classified : lower, middle, and higher. Those 
of the first class are intended for the elementary instruction of children of 
mechanics and lower oflBcials, and are, therefore, properly speaking, pri- 
mary-schools, with the only difference that in these schools drawing is 
likewise taught. The schools of the second class aim at preparing young 
men for lower oflBcials in the administrative and economical departments 
of mining, and there is one in every mining district. 

The higher "Institution for Mining Engineers," at St. Petersburg, 
will compare favorably with the German mining-schools or the Ecole 
des Mines in France. This institution was founded by Catharine II 
in 1773, and M^as reorganized in 1834. It is composed of 2 divisions, 
each of 4 classes. The first division is a preparatory course, and the 
second a special one. Some of the students study at the expense of the 
government ; others at their own, and some at that of various private 
mining companies. After having finished the theoretical course, the 
pupils are sent to the mines for two years. The museum in connection 
with this institution is very extensive and well arranged. The technical 
school of mining at the Technological Institute of St. Petersburg, 
(founded 1834,) aims at educating the mechanics, who are wanted in 
mining. 

Besides these public institutions, under the Ministry of Finance, there 
are some private ones founded by the wealthier proprietors of mines, 
such as a mining-school with 5 classes at Nichni-Taglisk, founded in 1806 
by privy-councilor Demidow. 



728 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. 

Under the control of the Ministry of Finance there are, altogether, 64 
institutions of learning, with 5,752 scholars. We have information only 
concerning the Commercial Academy. 

COMMERCIAL ACADEMY. 

The Commercial Academy at Moscow, through the efforts of privy- 
councilor Walujew, was founded in 1810, chiefly by voluntary contri- 
butions. The course of study embraces the following subjects : Religion, 
history, statistics, natural history, geometrj-, algebra, physics, chemistry, 
commercial arithmetic, book-keeping, technical mechanics, technology, 
Russian, German, French, modern Greek, Latin, calligraphy, and drawing. 

The number of pupils was 30 in 1810, and now, (1865,) 289. 

SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AXD FORESTRY. 

The Agricultural and Forest Academies are subordinate to the Ministry 
of the Imperial Domains. There are schools for viniculture, horticulture, 
culture of bees, sheep, &c. A higher agricultural academy is on the 
imperial domain Gorygoretsk, in the government of Mohilew, and re- 
cently a second one has been founded near Moscow. The academy at 
Gorygoretsk has two divisions for theoretical study, and a model-farm 
for practical studies. The course in the first division embraces : Religion, 
grammar, drawing, planimetry, surveying, breeding of cattle, horticul- 
ture, forest-culture, &c. ; and in the second : Phj'sics, chemistry, botany, 
veterinary surgerj'-, history, and agricultural statistics. The total num- 
ber of agricultural schools in Russia is 20, with 857 students. 

Since the year 1800, the government has devoted some attention to 
instruction in forest-culture. In 1803 and 1804, Forest-academies were 
founded in Gzarsko-Selo and Kozelsk, which were united in 1813, and 
transferred to St. Petersburg. The Forest-institute consists of 6 classes. 
The forest-school at Lissina, (more for practical studies,) some special 
courses of forest-culture at the gymnasiums, and four lower forest- 
schools, complete the list. All these schools were attended by 599 
scholars, and are under the jurisdiction of the Department of Forests, in 
the Ministry of the Imperial Domains. 

SCHOOLS OF LAW, SURVEYING, A^T) tOPOGRAPHY. 

The Ministry of Public Justice has the superintendence of the Impe- 
rial Law-school^ the Constantinian School of Surtieying^ and the School 
of Topograjyhy. The course at the Law-school embraces the following 
subjects : Religion, sacred history, general and Russian history, mathe- 
matics, natural history, physics, Russian, Latin, French, German, logic, 
psja-hology, cyclopedia of jurisprudence, Russian law, Roman law, 
drawing, calligraphy, singing, dancing, and gymnastics. Students on 
leaving are obliged to serve 6 years in the Ministry of Public Justice. 

The Constantinian School of Surveying \s intended to furnish surveyors 
for the government. There are at present in this institution 266 scholars, 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. 729 

who, after having finished their studies, are obliged to serve the govern- 
ment as surveyors for 6 years. 

Besides the above school, under the same ministry, there is a Training 
School for copyists in government offices, with 7 teachers. 

SCHOOLS FOR THE CIVIL AND DIPLOMATIC SERVICE. 

The School of Oriental Languages^ under the superintendence of the 
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, vk^as established by Nesselrode in 1829, to 
educate interpreters for the Russian embassies in the East. The number 
of pupils is at present 7, who have an annual salary of 1,000 rubles, and 
live in the institution. No one is admitted who is not a native Russian, 
of noble family, and has completed the course at a Russian university. 
The course of instruction embraces : Arabic, Turkish, Persian, history, 
geography, literature of the Oriental countries, French, and Italian. The 
course occupies 4 years, after w-hich the students are sent to Constanti- 
nople for one year, to gain more practice in the Turkish language. There 
is a very large collection of valuable Arabic, Persian, and Turkish manu- 
scripts in connection with this institution. 

Under the superintendence of the Ministry of Public Instruction there 
are, besides the universities, two other higher institutions of learning, 
viz., the Davidow Lyceum at Jaroslawl, and the Lyceum of Prince Bes- 
borodko at Njeschin. The object of these institutions is chiefly to edu- 
cate suitable men for the civil service. In a three years' course the fol- 
lowing subjects are taught : History, philology, physics, mathematics, 
jurisprudence. The number of professors is too small, and the funds 
and apparatus insufficient. The separate subjects taught at Jaroslawl 
are : Religion, physics, chemistry, technology, agriculture, forest economy, 
surveying, zoology, botany, mi»eralogy, cyclopedia of jurisprudence, 
laws of the empire and of special administration, laws of finance, polit- 
ical economy, statistics, commercial science, civil and criminal laws, 
German, Russian, and French. Quite a number of professorships were 
vacant in the year 1864. In the same 3''ear the number of students was 
33, and the expense for 1865 estimated at 13,828 rubles. 

The lyceum at Njeschin is in a somewhat better condition. It w^as 
sanctioned by a statute of 1840. The course of studies embraces religion, 
criminal law, Russian history and statistics, civil law^s, cyclopedia of ju- 
risprudence, Russian literature. The number of students in 1861 was 
72, and 12,973 rubles were granted for the expenses of 1865. ' 

SCHOOLS OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTURE, AND TELEGRAPHS. 

Under the superintendence of the Department of Public Roads, 
Bridges, Canals, and Public Buildings, there are three schools : (1,) the 
School for Civil Engineers; (2,) School of Architecture, and (3,) the 
Signal-School in connection with the administration of the telegraphs. 
Unfortunately no recent statistics have been obtained concerning any of 
these schools. 



Y30 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. 



AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. 

• Since the brief notice of the Special Schools of Agriculture was drawn up 
from such material as we had at hand, we have received the Report of the Jury 
of the Paris International Exhibition of 1867 on Agricultural Instruction, from 
which we make the following extracts: 

As Russia is above every thing an agricultural country, she stands in special 
need of institutions designed to spread among the masses of the population a 
rational knowledge of agriculture and the sciences relating to it. And it is but 
just to add, it is one of the European countries where the greatest efforts for 
the foundation of special schools of this class have been made in the last half 
century. 

Besides the estabhshment of the magnificent School Strogonof, for arts and 
design, and of the industrial schools, the Russian government has organized, 
or encouraged the establishment of a large number of agricultural schools. la 
the year 1824 an intermediate school was opened at Marjino, where agriculture, 
forest-culture and surveying were taught. In 1828 a special school was created 
for bee-culture. In 1 833 St. Petersburg received a superior agronomic school, 
which served as a model for the one subsequently founded at Moscow. In 1836 
an establishment was opened at Gorigonetz, comprising the primary, secondary 
and superior degrees of agricultural instruction. Later schools of horticulture, 
farming-schools, a large number of model farms, special schools for flax-culture, 
were created at all points of the vast empire, in accordance with the nature of 
the soil, and the habits and wants of the population. 

The emancipation of the serfs has recently necessitated a radical change in 
agriculture ; there could be no longer any question of antiquated proceedings ; 
it had become necessary to enter the road of progress freely, or run the risk 
of letting agriculture, tlie basis of the Russian national wealth, dwindle away. 
For this reason, besides the establishment of an agricultural academy aJk 
Moscow and a superior school of agriculture at St. Petersburg, Russia has 
completely reorganized all her secondary agricultural schools, and increased her 
model farms in every direction. 

The creation of a remarkable agricultural museum at St, Petersburg, which 
is daily open to the public, has doubtless contributed much by visitors to the 
capitol to spread throughout the whole country useful knowledge in various 
branches of the science of agriculture. Secondary museums have been estab- 
lished in various parts of the empire, and these institutions will doubtless help 
in realizing the happy idea conceived by the Ministry of Domains. 

This administration has exhibited in different classes of the Russian section, 
documents on the secondary schools of agriculture, the agronomic schools in the 
Caucasus, the agricultural institution of Lesnoy, near St. Petersburg, and on 
the academy of Petroskae, near Moscow, "We will endeavor to give an idea of 
these different establishments by entering into some details, which will show 
with what liberality and success agricultural instruction is organized in the 
empire. 

There are secondary schools of agriculture at Moscow, Kasan, Saratow, 
Kharkow, and Gorky, (Government of Mohilew;) besides these there are 
schools of horticulture at Ouraan, Kiew, Voronesch, and Orel. There are 
schools of vineculture at Kischinew, (Bsssarabia,) and at Magalatsch, in the 



SPECIAL LNSJRUCTION IN RUSSIA. ^31 

centre of Russia. Every agricultural establishment numbers 100 to 150 pupils. 
Conuected with these institutions there are workshops for cabinet-makers, car- 
penters and locksmiths ; a forge, a chemical laboratory, a physical cabinet, and 
a small museum of agricultural machines, mostly manufactured by the pupils 
themselves. Near every school there is a model farm provided with a complete 
collection of rural constructions, agricultural implements, cattle, and the land 
required for experiments. The programme of instruction in these schools com- 
prises religion and morals, natural sciences, arithmetic, Russian language, geog- 
raphy, history, and drawing. The course lasts live years, and according to the 
locality every secondary school is allowed an annual sum of 40,000 to 60,000 
francs by the Ministry of Domains and Agriculture. 

After the conquest of Caucasia, Russia and the agronomic society of the an- 
nexed country founded agricultural establishments, which have produced very 
satisfactory results, partly owing to their favorable location, partly to the en- 
lightened zeal of their professors. We shall briefly mention some of these 
establishments. 

The "school-farm " of Latschino, near Tiflis, located on the property of Baron 
Nicolai, numbers 22 pupils. The course of instruction embraces practical agri- 
culture, geometry, surveying, .horticulture, arboriculture, bee-culture, vinecul- 
ture, the raising of cattle, &c. Every thing in this establishment is gratuitous, 
board, clothing, instruction. Moreover, every pupil receives 200 francs the first 
year, 320 the second, 360 the third, 400 the fourth. The agronomic society of 
Caucasia pays aU the expenses. 

At the school of horticulture at Tiflis, instruction is given in all the subjects 
relating to this specialty. The duration of the studies, which are entirely gra- 
tuitous, depends entirely on the parents. 

At Kachetie there is a school of vineculture, which is organized exactly on 
the same plan as the school at Tiflis. At Routais and at Stawropol, there are 
schools of horticulture and arboriculture, and at Weadikarkas there is a free 
school of agriculture, which is not supported by the State, and which is never- 
theless in a very satisfactory condition. 

The superior agricultural institute of Lesnoy has existed for thirty-five years 
at Gorky, (Government of Mohilew,) and only since 1863 it has been transferred 
to its present locality, near St. Petersburg. Its object is to train professors for 
the secondary schools of agriculture. Only such are admitted as students who 
have finished their studies at a gymnasium and a secondary agricultural school. 
There is a three years' course, and every student is obhged to attend the theo- 
retical courses and to work in the chemical, physical, technological, and botan- 
ical laboratories. The programme of studies is very complete, and comprises 
chemistry, physics, mineralogy, botany, zoology, mathematics, surveying, me- 
chanics, architecture, technology, agriculture, zootechnics, forest-culture, rural 
economy, political economy and statistics. 

The Agronomic Institute possesses land to the amount of 30 hectares, (1 hec- 
tare =2.47 acres,) destined for nurseries and experiments. The administration 
of the government domains allows an annual sum of 250,000 francs for the in- 
stitute of Lesnoy. During the three summer months, (June till September,) the* 
students, accompanied by a special professor, make botanical, mineralogical, 
and agricultural excursions. The number of professors is 15, that of the stu- 
dents 90. Every student pays annually 120 francs for the privilege of working 
in the laboratories. 



732 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. 

The Academy of Agriculture and Forest-culture at Petroskae was founded in 
1865, at a short distance from Moscow. It is a superior institution designed for 
theoretical and practical instruction in the agricultural sciences. The course in 
each faculty is fixed at three years. Every one who pays for each term (three 
terras during the year) the sum of 50 francs is admitted to the course. The 
students can rent a lurnished room in buildings specially erected for that pur- 
pose by the government. The price of a furnished room is 16 francs per 
month. There is also a restaurant, whose very moderate charges are fixed by 
the administration, which also controls the quality of the food. There are 18 
professors. The programme of studies comprises agriculture, zootechnics, vete- 
rinary surgery, rural constructions, civil engineering, political economy, forest- 
culture, agricultural and forest technology, general and applied chemistry, 
physics, meteorology, botany, surveying, zoolog}^, mineralogy, geognosy, and 
industrial drawing. Connected with tiiis school are a special library, an agri- 
cultural museum, a technological and phj'-sical cabinet, a collection of 
models; mineralogical, botanical, zoological, dendrological collections, and a 
vast laboratory. Finally, in order to join practice to theory, the academy pos- 
sesses a model-farm of 400 hectares, comprising a dairy, barns, stables, a large 
number of cattle, every variety of agricultural implements, a forest of 150 hec- 
tares, a fruit-garden, a nursery, a kitchen-garden, a botanical garden, conserv- 
atories and hot-houses. At the end of these theoretical and practical studies, 
the academy confers two degrees. In order to get the diploma as bachelor, the 
student is obliged to undergo an examination in all the sciences relating to 
agriculture and forest-culture ; he must moreover hand in to the council a sci- 
entific essay on some given subject. In order to obtain the diploma as "master 
of sciences," the student must present his diploma as bachelor, undergo a second 
examination, and publicly defend some thesis. 

In 1866 the number of students was 450, 85 of whom, on account of -their 
limited means, received a stipend of 100 francs. The total annual budget of 
this magnificent establishment exceeds 500,000 francs. 

In consideration of the powerful and complete organization which Eussia has 
given to her agricultural institutions, the International Jury has accorded a 
silver medal to the various ministers who have been instrumental in the estab- 
lishment of special schools of agriculture. This reward would have been still 
greater if the Russian government had exhibited specimens and documents 
which would have enabled the jury to judge of the primary and secondary in- 
struction given to children and adults in the vast empire. 

Agricultural Schools in Finland. 
The administration of the Grand Duchy of Finland has recently established 
ten agricultural schools in the different provinces, besides a higher academj'- at 
Mustiala, in the province of Wasa. It has two courses : the first is practical, 
and receives 40 pupils, who receive instruction in veterinary surgery, cattle- 
breeding, and the management of a farm, as well as board and lodging free of 
expenses. One-fourth of the number are admitted by promotion from the local 
schools. The second course includes geometry, surveying, mineralogy, zoology, 
and other sciences ; to which 24 students are admitted, who pay an annual fee 
of $125. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. 733 



PUBLIC MUSEUMS AVAILABLE IN TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. 

I. ST. PETERSBURG. 

The most important public museums in Russia, which are directly avail- 
able or indirectly serviceable in technical instruction, are at St. Petersburg and 
Moscow. Those in St. Petersburg are as follows : 1. The Hermitage. 2. The 
Museum of the School of Mines. 3. The Museum of Natural History. 4. The 
Museum at the Agricultural College. 5. The Industrial Museum. 6. The 
Technological Institute. 7. The Museums of the Ministry of Crown Domains. 
The gallery of the Imperial Academy of Pine Arts is not included. 

1. Collections at the Hermitage. This edifice, once a palace, is now the recep- 
tacle of the Imperial art treasures. It contains in its large, beautiful and well 
lighted apartments, a number of collections of objects of art and antiquity. 
The most interesting of the latter is the "Kertch Antiquities," consisting of an 
assemblage of articles of Greek, Scythian Greek, and Roman work found in the 
neigliborhood of Kertch, where was anciently situated Panticapseum, the 
capital of the Cimmerian Bosphorus. Among these are many articles of delicate 
and beautiful workmanship in gold, enamel, and glass. There is also a collec- 
tion of Scythian antiquities from those parts of the Scythia of Herodotus not 
included in the Crimea. One very interesting feature in these is the illustration 
of the union of Scythian with Greek art. 

The other collections in the building are a choice, though small collection of 
ancient sculpture, of fictile vases, of paintings, of gems, a rich collection of 
coins, and of art treasures of historical interest, among which are very many 
interesting relics of Peter the Great. The collections of vases and of gems are 
among the finest in the world. The whole collection is one of the finest in the 
world for instruction in art, and is freely open to visitors and students. The 
collection of paintings has been fully described by Dr. Waagen. 

2. Museum of the Imperial School of Mines. In the museum is a very large 
collection of minerals, many of them splendid specimens, and models of mines 
and mining tools and machinery. In one large room, the distinctive minerals 
and fossils from each department of the empire are arranged together, affording 
great facilities for the study of each separately. The products of the Russian 
mines and modes of working are well illustrated. The entire collection is used 
In the instruction of the corps of mihtary cadets, who are trained in this school 
to inspect and direct the imperial mines. 

3. The Museum of Natural History is in the Academy of Sciences. It is of 
considerable extent and admirably arranged. Especially interesting is its large 
series of foss'l remains of mammoths. This and the other museums are very- 
much visited ; at the time of Prof. Archer's visit there were upwards of 400 
present in the different rooms. 

4. Museum at the Agricultural College. This institution is situated a little out 
of the city, in the midst of an experimental farm of eighty acres. There is an 
agricultural library connected with it, and special museums for each branch 
taught, each in the class-room of the professors of that branch. These are. 

* Report of Professor T. C. Ardier, of the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art, to the 
Department of Science and Art of the Committee of Council on Education, London, 1866, 



734 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN RUSSIA. 

Uotany, zoology, geology, natural philosophy, and agricultural produce and 
implements. The botanical museum contains a large herbarium of plants 
having special relations to husbandry; the zoological museum, well stufled 
specimens of animals, useful or obnoxious to the farmer; that of natural 
philosophy, apparatus illustrating the various phenomena, of meteorology, 
hydrostatics, &c. That of chemistry contains the results of analyses of various 
products, showing their relative value as food. The buildings form a quad- 
rangle upwards of 500 feet in length, and altogether cover two acres and a half. 
The school with which it is connected is one of the best organized and admin- 
istered in Europe. 

The Industrial Museum or Museum of Rural Economy forms part of an 
institution intended to diffuse a knowledge of the sciences connected with the 
production and utilization of substances required for food, and contains a col- 
lection of various articles of food, animal and vegetable, for man and the 
domestic animals. There is also a department for mechanical and engineering 
draining and farming appliances, and an agricultural library. Free lectures 
are given in this museum. 

5. Museum at the Technological Institute. The technological institute contains, 
besides a large technological library, a large number of models, &c., illustrating 
mechanical and civil engineering, made by the pupils in the extensive work- 
shops. The general arrangement is the same as that of the Museum of the 
Conservatoire Imperial des Arts et Metiers at Paris. Like that, it is well sup- 
plied with steam-power to work the extensive assortment of engineering tools 
and machines which it contains. 

n. MOSCOW. 
Moscow contains several very interesting Museums, among which we will 
mention the following : 

1. The Treasury of the Kremlin. In this is the richest collection of works in 
metal, such as regalia, chalices, ornamental table work, enamels, jewelry, 
embroidery, leather-work, &c., in the world. Among these, besides specimens 
of Russian work, are some of English work of the beginning of the seven- 
teenth century, and some remarkable pieces of Benvenuto Cellini's workman- 
ship. There is a curious and extensive collection of Russian banners and 
ensigns. The arrangement of the Museum is chronological, and there is an 
excellent illustrated catalogue. As an appendage to this collection, which has 
a national character, may be mentioned the curiosities in the house of the Tzar 
Romanoff, the founder of the reigning dynasty. 

2. The Roumiantsoff Museum or Public Museum of Moscow, contains a 
picture gallery, library, zoological and ethnological collections, a small but very 
interesting cabinet of Christian antiquities, and a mineralogical department of 
considerable extent. It is held in a large and magnificent palace. 

3. A School of Art is now forming in Moscow, with a large collection of 
drawings from ancient Russian art and architecture, as well as models, casts 
and drawings in detail of the choicest specimens of art in different countries, 
on a plan similar to that of the Museum at South Kensington, in London. 

All of the collections are scientifically arranged, and can be consulted with 
carefully prepared catalogues. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN SWITZERLAND. 



INTRODTJCnOSr. 

The Republic of Switzerland, on an area of 15,233 English square 
miles, had, according to the last census (I860,) a population of 2,- 
510,494 inhabitants. Out of this number there are 1,900,000 indi- 
viduals supported by agriculture, 180,000 persons by manufactories, 
and 150,000 by handicrafts. In the Canton of Basle the manufac- 
ture of silk ribbons to the value of about $7,000,000 occupies 6,000 
persons ; in the Canton of Zurich, silk stuffs to the value of 8,000,- 
000 are made by 12,000 operatives. The manufacture of watches 
and jewelry in the Cantons of Neuchatel, Geneva, Yaud, Berne, and 
Soleure, occupies 36,000 workmen, who produce annually 500,000 
watches, valued at $9,000,000. In the Cantons of St. Gall and Ap- 
penzell, 6,000 workers make $2,000,000 worth of embroidery annu- 
ally ; the printing and dyeing factories of Glaris turn out goods to 
the value of $30,000 per annum. The manufacture of cotton goods 
occupies upwards of 1,000,000 spindles, 4,000 looms, and 20,000 
operatives, besides 38,000 hand-loom weavers. Straw-plaiting in 
the Cantons of Argovia, Lucerne and Basle employs 30,000 persons, 
and machine-building, principally at Zurich, 6,000. In many of 
these occupations, agricultural labor is combined with factory work. 
Out of 485,000 heads of families, not less than 465,000 possess 
landed property. 

Switzerland, formerly a league of semi-independent states, became 
a united confederacy under the constitution of 1 848. The present 
constitution, the product of a short civil war, bears date September 
12, 1848. It vests the supreme legislative and executive authority 
in a parliament of two chambers, viz., the State-council (Stdnderatk) 
of 44 members, and the National Council {JVationalratk) of 128 
members. The chief executive authority is deputed to a Federal 
Council (Bundesrath,) consisting of seven members, elected for three 
years by the Federal Assembly. 

Public instruction in Switzerland is, with the exception of the 
Federal Polytechnic School and the military courses, regulated by 
cantonal legislation, of which the following are the general results ; 



736 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN SWITZERLAND. 

L PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. 

There are 7,149 elementary schools, with 363,682 scholars and 7,190 
teacliers. In most of the Cantons there are repetition schools, infant schools, 
and female industrial schools; in some also adult courses. There are 59 higher 
elementary schools (district-schools,) with 2,148 scholars. 

II. SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. 

There are 177 real-schools of different grades, with 7,039 scholars; 7 pro- 
ffymnasia, with 328 scholars; 12 gj^mnasia, with 1,619 scholars; 17 cantonal 
schools (the highest grade of secondary schools, each comprising a gymnasium 
and a real-school,) with 3,794 scholars; making a total of 213 secondary 
schools, with 12,780 scholars. 

in. SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION. 

There are 3 complete universities (each with 4 faculties, viz., theology, law, 
medicine, philosophy) — Basle, Berne, and Zurich, with a total of 631 students 
and 126 professors; 2 academies (with 3 faculties each, viz., theology, law and 
philosophy,) with a total of 405 students; 2 faculties of theology, with 24 stu- 
dents (at Soleure and Lucerne,) and 2 law-faculties (at Fribourg and Sion,) with 
36 students ; making the total number of 234 theological students, 225 law 
students, 255 medical students, and 370 students of philosophy. 

IV. SPECIAL AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS. 

The Federal Polytechnic School at Zurich, in a building erected at the sole 
expense of the Canton of Zurich (over $500,000), with extensive laboratories, 
and collections for illustrating every department of instruction, employs 57 
professors, masters and teachers, in seven schools, viz., of architecture and con- 
struction, civil engineering, mechanics and machinery, industrial chemistry, 
forestry and rural economy, moral and political science, and the fine arts. The 
Federal Assembly makes an annual appropriation of $40,000 towards the ex- 
penses of this school, on account of its benefits to the industrial interests of 
Switzerland. Besides this Industrial university, there are; 

1 Military institute at Biere. 

1 Technical institute at Lausanne. 
90 Industrial schools for girls. 

1 School for watchmakers at St. Imier. 

1 School for weavers at Trogen. 

1 School of drawing and wood-carving at Brienz. 
7 Agricultural and industrial schools for boys. 

15 Seminaries for male primary teachers. 

7 Male normal primary courses. 

3 Seminaries for female primary school teachers. 
20 Orphan schools, 
10 Infant schools or kindergarten. 
34 Rescue institutions for neglected children, with 1,543 pupils. 

2 Institutions for deaf-mutes. 
1 Institute for the Wind. 

1 Institute for feeble-minded children. 



SPECIAL S€HOOLS AND CLASSES IN SWiTZERLAm 



TECHNICAL INSTITUTE AT LAUSANNE. 

The Technical Institution at Lausanne was established in 1853, 
for the education of engineers, mechanicians, chemists, and architects, 
in the French cantons of Switzerland. It was established by an asso- 
ciation of public spirited citizens, but receives an annual subsidy from 
the government of Vaud, and from the commune of Lausanne. 

The direction is vested in an administrative council, consisting of 
a president, vice-president, secretary, and four other members. 

The studies and internal management are under the immediate 
charge of a council composed of the director and the heads of each 
department of instruction. 

Candidates must be seventeen years of age, and pass an examina- 
tion in arithmetic, algebra, descriptive geometry, physics, chemistry, 
and geometrical drawing, or have the diploma of a secondary school 
in which these studies are taught. The examination is both oral and 
written. 

Several scholarships are estabjished by the municipality of Lau- 
sanne, and free places are provided for by the subsidy from the Can- 
ton, in aid of poor but capable pupils ; but these scholarships and 
places are obtained only on competitive examination. 

The course of instruction extends over three years, and is pursued 
according to the following programme : 

COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 
FiKST Year. 

Geometrical Analysis and Lifinitesimal Calcuhis. — Recapitulation of rectilinear 
trigonometiy, and application of it to the resolution of problems. Reduction of 
the angle to the horizon. Reduction of the angle to the centre of the station. 
The most important formulas of spherical trigonometry. Their application to 
the resolution of divers cases of the trihedral angle (I'angle triedre). Projection 
of polygonal outlines on an axis. Plane and solid coordinates. 

Representation of geometric points (/ieux) hy equations. Geometric point of 
one equation with two variables. Equation of the straight line. Lines of the 
second degree. Properties of the ellipse, the hyperbola, and the parabola. Simp- 
son's formulas for calculating the areas of plane surftices. 

Differentiation of the explicit and implicit fimctions of a single variable. Re- 
lations of the increase of two functions of the same variable. Finding of the 

47 



738 TECHNICAL SCHOOL AT LAUSANNE. 

true values of unknown quantities. Maxima and' minima of the functions of a 
single yariable. 

Immediate integration. Integration by decomposition. Integration by sub- 
stitution. Definite integrals. Quadrature of surfaces. Rectification of curves. 
Curves of revolution of solids. 

The pupils must be well practised in calculation. 

Theoretical Mechanics. — Movement of a geometric point. 

Graphic representation of the general equations of this movement. Motion 
of invariable systems. Composition of motions and velocities. Relative motion. 
Measure of forces. Impulsion of forces. Application of forces (travail des for- 
ces). Mass of bodies. Movement of a material point. Composition and de- 
composition of forces applied to a material point. Motion of a material point 
moving with initial velocity, and subjected to the action of some force or other. 
Tangential and centripetal forces. Apparent forces in the relative movement of 
a material point. Composition of forces applied to a rigid system. Couples 
(couples). Motion of forces. Centre of gravity. Geometric and mechr.nical 
properties of this point. Equilibrium of forces applied to a rigid system. Fric- 
tion. Calculation of amount of friction in some simple machines. Resistance 
of the air to the movement of a body. 

Descriptive Geometry. — Revision of the straight line and the plane by the 
method of orthogonal projections. The straight line and the plane by the 
method of numbered plans. 

Surfaces in general ; regulated surfaces ; developable surfaces or left surfaces ; 
surfaces of revolution. Of the plane tangent to divers surfaces Avhen the point 
of contact is given. Intersection of surfaces and delineation of the tangents to 
the curves. 

Of left surfaces in general. Of planes tangent to surfaces when the point of 
contact is not given. 

General Physics. — This course comprises special elucidation of subjects bearing 
upon industry, such as barometry, thermometry, calculations relative to dilata- 
tion, elastic forces, and the total amounts of caloric in steam (chaleurs totales des 
vapeurs). Formulas of radiation. Mechanical equivalents of heat, of electricity, 
of chemical action, 'fee, &c. Meteorology, &c. 

General Chemistry. — Study of the principal simple substances useful in arts 
and industry, and of their principal inorganic and organic constituents. Course 
of analytical chemistry. 

The pupils should be frequently exercised in chemical operations under the 
direction of the professor. 

Industrial Mechanics. — Diverse materials employed in the construction of ma« 
chinery. Principal component parts (organes) and joints. Cinimatique. Or- 
ganization of workshops for machine building. Mechanical tools. Spinning 
machines. Accessories of generators, &c. Instruction in making plans of ma- 
chines and of buildings. 

Building. — Of the materials used in building. Of their preservation. Manu- 
facture of bricks and tiles, of mortar, of hydraulic and non-hydraulic mortars, 
and of cements. Plastering. Details of masonry in general. Making plans 
and leveling. 

Graphic Studies. — Ornamental designs done with the pen. Architectural 
drawing. Exercises in washing in colors. Conventional tints. Machine de- 
signing. Diagrams (epures) in descriptive geometry. Topography. 

Work during the Vacations. — The pupils must execute plans of buildings, of 
machines, and of industrial structures, and write a description of them. 

These obligatory exercises must bo delivered in on the day when the school 
again reassembles," or they will be considered as not finished. 

'Second Year. 
Special Course. 

Analytical Geometry and Infinitesimal Calculus. — Recapitulation of the studies 
of .the first year, with numerous exercises in calculation. 

Straight lines and planes. Surfaces of the second degree. Principal proper- 
ties of these surfaces, deducted from their equations. 

Differentiation of the functions of several independent variables. Taylor's 



TECHNICAL SCHOOL AT LAUSANNE. 739 

series foi* the functions of a shij^le variable. Equations of the tangents and nor- 
mals of curved planes. Length of the tangent, of the sub-tangent, of the nor- 
mal, and of the sub-normal. Asymptotes. Concavity and convexity of curved 
planes. Single points. Curves of plain lines. Osculatory curves. 

Elements of the differential calculus and its applications to interpolation. 

Theorptlc Mechanics. — General theorems relative to the quantity of momenta, 
velocities, and masses. The point of inertia and the radius of gyration. The 
shock of bodies. 

Theory of the resistance of materials. 

Hifdrostat.ics. — Calculation of the pressure of liquids and of gases. 

Hydraulics. —MoxemQnts of liquids and of gases. Calculation of the princi- 
pal hydraulic receivers. 

Calculation of the power of steam engines. 

Descriptive Geometrt/. — Rapid recapitulation of the course of the preceding 
year. Delineation of shadows and perspectives. Cuttmg of stones and of tim- 
ber for building purposes. 

Industrial Mechanics. — Metallurgy of iron. Machines and apparatus used in 
metallurgic works. 

Calculation of the proportions of the parts of machines. 

Iron bridges and frame work. Roofings (combles). 

Industrial Physics. — Manufacture of gas for lighting, from coal, from peat, 
from oils, from water, &c. • 

Purification. Tubes. Burners. 

Measure of the lighting power. 

Oil lamps, petroleum lamps. 

Electric light, Drummond's light, magnesium light, &c. 

Applied Chemistry. — Work in the laboratory, bearing on the analysis and study 
of various questions. 

Architecture. — I. History of the art of building : Egyptian, Greek, and Roman 
Art, Latin, Byzantine, and Moorish Architecture of the 11th and the 16th cen 
turies. 

Architecture of the Renaissance in Italy, France, and Germany. 

II. Elements of Edifices : Structures in stone — walls, buttresses, orders of 
architecture and arcades, vaults, doors and windows, staircases. 

Structures in wood — roofings, floors, panneling, joiners' work, &c. 

Constructions in iron — locksmiths' work of a coarser and finer kind. 

Diverse constructions. On the different modes of covering in buildings, on 
the distribution of water, &c. Graphic exercises in composition. 

Hydraulic Works. 

1st Part. Agricultural Hydraulics. — General considerations as to agriculture, 
elements of vegetable physiology. Arable lands. Cultivation and fallows. 
Manures and improvements. The management of water from an agricultural 
point of view. 

Examination of torrents. Works proposed for the prevention of inundations. 
Embankment of watercourses, and improvement of the beds of rivers. Drain- 
age, irrigation. 

Search for springs. Artesian wells. Conduits for supplying water in towns. 
Filters and reservoirs. Fountains, &c. 

2d Part. Internal Navigation. — Navigable watercourses, and sucli as are suit- 
able for floatage. Works necessary for the establishment and the improvement 
of navigation. 

Artificial navigation, lateral and other canals, reservoirs, trenches for convey- 
ing water, sluices, t&c. 

Roads. — Ordinary roads and railways. Delineations. Building, and keeping 
in repair those means of communication. 

Geology. — Physical geography. 

Graphic Studies. — Geometrical plans. Mechanical and architectural drawing. 
Tinting. Graduated plans. 

Work during the Vacations. — The pupils should visit workshops, finished build- 
ings, or buildings in course of construction, and should closely observe the pro- 
gress of the work. When the school meets again, they are bound to deliver in a 



7^Q TECHNICAL SCHOOL AT LAUSANNE. 

written account of what they have seen, accompanied by exact drawings or 
sketches, and by all the notes on which their account is based. These notes 
should be regularly classified, and be neatly written. 

Third Yeab. 

Special Course. 

Architecture. — I. On Composition : Distribution, salubrity, solidity. 

Beauty of proportions, of decorations, and of style. 

II. Study of various modern monuments, halls, market buildings, workshops, 
divers industrial buildings. 

Bridges, aqueducts, viaducts, lighthouses, railway buildings. 

Town and country houses. 

Prisons, hospitals, public baths, &c. 

Schools, libraries, and museums. 

Theatres, concert-rooms, and circusses. 

Religious structures and funeral monuments. 

On the laying out and enlargement of towns. 

Graphic exercises in composition. 

Construction. — Foundation works of all kinds, and in all sorts of ground. 
Description of the various systems in use. Calculation of the supporting walls 
and the vaults. Stone and wooden bridges. Suspension bridges. 

Htdraulic Works. 

Harbors. — Harbors on rivers, lakes, and sea. Conditions of the establishment 
of a good harbor. Outer works and inner works, such as roads, bars, break- 
waters, piers, jetties, quays, &c. Floating basins, docks, tfec. 

Maintenance of harbors : cleansing, works for building and repairing ships ; 
careening docks, &c. Lighting of coasts and ports. Lighthouses, harbor 
lights. 

Discussion of divers plans of ports. 

A Course of Law. — (In so far as it is required by the engineer.) General prin- 
ciples of civil law and administration. More extensive development of certain 
parts, such as distinction between various kinds of property ; administration of 
public domains ; the rights of property and their limits ; dangerous industrial 
establishments ; expropriation for public use ; mining legislation ; increase of 
property by accession ; usufruct ; legislation as to roads and railways, water 
supply, draiiiagc, watercourses, irrigation, workshops, manufactoi'ies ; bounda- 
rieo, plans, and registers of lands ; general rules of contracts ; sales, rentings, 
hirings, workmen, and carters ; estimates and bargains ; undertaking of public 
works ; civil and commercial associations ; loans and commercial effects ; agents 
and brokers ; transactions ; privileges and hypothecation ; prescription, &c., &c. 

Second and Third Years. 

These cours, divided into two sections, under the designations A and B, are 
delivered to the united pupils of the second and third years. 

Each section is given alternately every second year. 

Industrial Mechanics. Section A. — Means used for the transport and lifting of 
heavy burdens : rollers, winches, cranes, &c. Management of mines : means 
and processes adopted. 

Hydraulics : construction and placing of wheels and turbines. Machines for 
raising water. Study of pumps. Raising of water, exhaustion (epuisements). 
Hydraulic presses. Apparatus for ventilation. Windmills. Agricultural ma- 
chines. Mechanical saw works, &c. 

Section B. — Steam engines. Thorough study of these machines— calculations, 
construction, fixing. Steam boilers. Attempts to introduce improvements in 
steam engines ; divers inventions. 

Use of steam in industry. Railways : locomotives and rolhng stock. Steam 
navigation : types of marine engines and boilers. Recent progress in naval 
architecture, &c. 

Industrial Physics. Section A. — Combustion : reduced heat, radiated heat. 

Combustibles: quality, extraction, purification, carbonization. Caloric power, 
volumes of air, temperature, cost price. Testing of combustibles. 



TECHNICAL SCHOOL AT LAUSANNE. 741 

Furnaces : smoke consuming furnaces ; furnaces of particular construction ; 
gas furnaces. 

Moveiiieuts of the air : formulas of draught (formules de tirage) for the chim- 
neys of forges, &c. ; chimneys common to several furnaces. Construction of 
chimneys. Mechanical attraction (appel niecanique) of the air. Resistance of 
the conduits. 

Transmission of heat : laws of transmission in diverse cases. Laws of re- 
frigeration. Application of these to heating in general. 

Heating and ventilation of public buildings and private dwelling houses. 

Production of cold : fabrication and conservation of ice. Glaciers. 

Section B. — Distillation : simple, composite, under divers degrees of pressure, 
with multiple use of heat. 

Evaporation -spontaneous in dry air by means of direct heat, by means of 
steam heating. 

Drying : in cold air, in hot air, by radiation by mechanical means. Drying 
apparatus for combustibles, for pulverescent materials, for textile fabrics, &c. 
Useful effects of the heat in respect of these various apparatus, and at divers 
temperatures. 

Heating of air : chimneys in dwelling-houses, stoves, hot air, hot water, and 
steam pipes. 

Heating of liquids : baths, washhouses, machines for domestic purposes. 

Heating of solid substances : machines for continuous heat, machines for over- 
heated steam, machines for high temperatures. 

Industrial Che»iistrt. 

Section A. — Fabrication or extraction of sulphuric, chlorohydric, and azotic 
acids, of marine salts, of soda, potassium and saltpetre. Glass manufactories 
and potteries. 

Metallurgy of iron, and of the other most important metals. 

Section £'. — Manufacture of sugar, beer, alcohol, soaps, and fatty acids. 
Conservation of alimentary substances and of woods. Bleaching and prepara- 
tion of linens, cottons, wools, and silks. Manufacture of paper. Principles 
of dyeing. Tanning and dressing skins. Chemical operations. 

Geology and Mineralogy. " 

Section A. Geology. — General structure of the globe. Phenomena of the 
surface. Volcanoes. 

Sedimentary rocks : stratification. Epochs. Characteristic fossils. Coal 
fields. Lignites. Gypsums. Mineral salts. 

Igneous rocks : form, age, and composition of these rocks. General classifi- 
cation. Metamorphic rocks. 

Building materials of these different formations. Chalks and clays. 

Section B. Mineralogy. — Physical properties of minerals. Crystallography. 
Study of the most important minerals. Mineralogical study of rocks. 

Distribution of metals. Veins of different formations. General laws. Metals 
in alluvium. 

Explorations of mines, and general principles of working and management. 

Plans. — The pupils of the third year shall execute, from programmes prepared 
by the professors, and within a certain period, numerous plans for undertakings 
in connection with the special branch of science which they have selected. 

These plans are examined, and their merits determined, in a conference pi'e- 
sided over by the professor of the special branch in question. 

Examinations. — During the three years of attendance at school, the pupils are 
subjected to partial examinations, and, at the end of the first two years, to gen- 
eral examinations. 

All the cours are equally obligatory on the pupils, whatever may be the special 
. branch which they have selected as their future vocation. 

Competitive Examinations. — At the end of the third year, the pupils pass a 
competitive examination for the purpose of obtaining a diploma of engineer. 



742 SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN SWITZERLAND. 



INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOB GIRLS AT NEUCHATEL. 

The Industrial School for Girls at Neuchatel, provides for such pupils as have 
completed the course of the primary school, with a desire to prepare for a com- 
mercial, or teaching career, the requisite knowledge. Among^ the subjects taught 
are : the Gennan and French languages, geography and history, drawing (geo- 
metrical and artistic), bookkeeping, and business forms and coiTcspondcnce, nat- 
ural histoiy and science, needle work and domestic economy, and the art of school 
organization and management. The course occupies three years, and the can- 
tonal and municipal authorities make an appropriation to reduce the tuition 
fees. 

SPECIAL SCHOOLS OF GENEVA, 

1. The Industrial School. 

This school has 3 divisions, with a preparatory course of arithmetic. The 
course of instruction embraces ; in the first division, -physics, geometry, drawing, 
ornamentation ; in the second dinsion : algebra, chemistry, industrial drawing, 
bookkeeping ; in the third division : natural history, political economy, mechan- 
ics, perspective, chemical experiments. 

The instruction hours are in the evening, from 6 to 9. The fees are, per half 
year in the preparatory course, 5 francs; in the 1st div. 10 fr. ; in the 2d div. 15 
fr. ; in the 3d div. 20 fr. ; day scholars pay somewhat less. The state pays an- 
nually 10,664 francs, (one-third of this sumis paid by the City of Geneva.) There 
is an annual examination. 

2. School of Watchmaking. 

Formerly females were also admitted to this school, but this is no longer the 
case. The conditions of admission as to age are ; 14 years. The fees are 10 
francs per month for Swiss, 20 francs for foreigners. If after three months a 
pupil shows no aptitude whatever, he is dismissed. The school furnishes all the 
necessary tools, but pupils are made responsible for them. The instruction 
hours average 10 hours per day ; there is one a month's vacation in summer. No 
one is admitted into a higher class before he has thoroughly mastered the subjects 
taught in the preceding class. There are four classes, viz : 1, pinions; 2, finish- 
ing ; 3, wheel work ; 4, escapement, etc. The annual expenses of the establish- 
ment amounted to 13,000 francs. There are 4 professors, each with a salary of 
2,400 francs. 

3. Schools of the Fine Arts. 

These schools are entirely free ; they are divided in the following manner: 1, 
one class for figure drawing ; 2, one class for ornamental drawing and the study 
of architecture for young men; 3, one class for modeling of figures and orna- 
ments ; 4, one class of drawing for young ladies. Every class has five lessons a 
week, each of two hours. Inhabitants of other cantons and foreigners are only 
admitted if there are home vacancies ; young men are admitted at the age of 14, 
young ladies at the age of 13. Pupils must find their own drawing materials. 
At the end of the year prizes are distributed to the best scholars- There are 4 
professors, each with a salary of 2,392 francs. The annual expenses of this school 
amount to 14,428 francs, borne entirely by the city of Geneva. 



THE SWISS FEDERAL POLYTECHNICUM. ^43 



FEDERAL POLYTECFINICUM AT ZURICH. 

The Swiss Polytechnic School at Zurich originated in a desire to perpet- 
uate the consohdatiou of the federal union in 18-48 by an institution Avhich 
should at once cultivate the national spirit, and advance the industrial interests 
of all the Cantons. 

Mr. Russell, in his elaborate treatise on Systematic Ttdinical Education for 
the Englii-h People, already largely quoted from, remarks : 

It is the great extent, completeness, and symmetry every where apparent in 
the organization of this great technical university, which make it preeminently 
a model for us; not to copy or imitate merely, but to excel and go beyond. We 
must determine, as they did, not merely to copy some local inb>titution in an- 
other country, whicli had to be titted into the existing institutions of an entirely 
local character, but to supply, in a symmetrical and complete manner, every 
existing deficiency in the whole national sj'stem of higher education. The 
founders of the Swiss Polytechnicum did not therefore ask themselves the ques- 
tion : What is the smallest and least costly scale on whicli we can begin to 
make good a few technical deficiencies ? — but they asked themselves this other 
question : What is there in the science, the philosophy, the learning, tlie art, 
and the pr.ictical skill of modern times, which can be learned and taught, or 
which has been taught or learned in an}' other scliool of knowledge, but for 
which there is no adequate provision already made for teaching to our own 
students in the universities of the land? — and those things we will see to having 
thoroughly taught. They soon found that the German universities had long 
been in the habit of teaching far deeper science, f\ir larger philosophy, and far 
profo under art, than the Swiss in the isolation of their mountains had ever 
dreampt of 

They found in the manufactories of Prussia, Belgium, France, and England, 
structures, macliinery, and manufacturing processes utterly unknown to the 
skilled men of Switzerland. What the Swiss did not alread}^ know, it was 
quite plain they would be unable to teach to the young generation ; and so the 
Zurich Polytechnicum had to become, and is a cosmopolitan establishment. 
The founders and governors of that institution discarded at once the vulgar and 
pestilent notion of patronage. 

Tliere were no places in that university to be given away. What they did, 
on the contrary, was to search the annals of pure philosophy and applied sci- 
ence, for the names of those men who were best known for science, skill, and 
love of teaching; and these men from every country they selected, and in- 
treated to come and teach their children, considering only how they could best 
make it agreeable and convenient to them to become the teachers and patterns 
of Swiss youth. 

When I say that the Swiss Avere profuse of their wealth for the foundation 
of this cosmopolitan university, I say a great deal more than these words will 
seem to imply, when they are read in England. We are a wealthy, profuse, 
and even, as some think, a wasteful people. The Swiss, on the contrary, lead 
a hard-working but sparing life — frugal even to the extreme — we might call 
them niggardly or penurious ; but though their personal wants are so easily 
satisfied, such is their patriotism, and such their love for the Avell-being of the 
community in which they live, that to a stranger's eye they might seem ex- 
travagant or wasteful. Their common schools are mansions; their academies 
have tiie air of town-halls. The Polytechnicum at Zurich is larger than Buck- 
ingham Palace; the apartments of students and professors, the lecture-halls 
and museums, are large, lofty, well aired, well lighted. The building itself is 
the chef-d-oe-ivre of a German architect : and certainly, if we judge it by its fit- 
ness for its purpose, rather than by profuse decoration or lavish embellishment, 
it is an admirable structure. Even physically, therefore, or materially, it is a 
model institution, while morally it teaches us this lesson: that there is one na- 
tion in the world sufficiently disinterested and patriotic to save money by 
extreme self-denial, in order to lavish it with profusion upon the intellectual 
training of the rising generation for the practical duties of citizenship. This 



744 "^H^ SWISS FEDERAL POLYTECHNICUM. 

self-denial, generosity, and large wisdom, have been fully rewarded by the issue.* 
The youth of the country have flocked with avidity to Zurich, and the young- 
men thus trained are, with equal avidity, taken out into the public works and 
manufacturing institutions of Switzerland ; and whether it arise from this cause 
or some other, it is an astonishing fact that the Swiss, remote from the sea, that 
highway of merchandise; remote from coal and iron, those staples of our man- 
ufacturing industry; the Swiss in their far vallies are rapidly growing a dex- 
terous and successful manufacturing people. 

From us they have taken away our Coventry ribbon manufacture ; from 
Lyons they have appropriated a large portion of their famous silk weaving ; in 
watches and clocks they have long kept the rest of the world going; and tlieir 
intelligent, educated, skilled men are prized all over Europe. Two hundred 
and fiftj' Swiss avail themselves of the advantages of their technical imiversity. 
But it will be thought a far higher proof of the value of such an institution 
when I add, that it has attracted students from nearly every civilized country 
in Europe; and that, of the 589 students who frequent its halls, 250 are Swiss, 
and the other 339, English, Americans, French, Germans. Poles, Hungarians, 
Russians, Italians, Dutch, and Belgians. 

This technical university is governed by a permanent council, consisting of 
a president, vice-president, three councilors, three substitutes, and a secretary; 
and they have immediately under them an executive chosen from among the 
professors. The president, Kappeler, is the real governor of the institution. 
He represents also the central government of Switzerland, by whom he is 
named ; and it is on his tirmness as a ruler, on his wisdom in the selection of 
professors and teachers, and on his tact in the management of professors and 
students, that much of the success of this institution has depended. He hap- 
pens, fortunately, to have a rare instinct for the discovery of ability in men, 
especially in young men ; and he is continually making search in foreign uni- 
versities for the rising professor who has not yet obtained adequate distinction 
at home. He has accordingly surrounded himself with teachers who unite the 
enthusiasm of youth in teaching, to full knowledge fresh from the fountain of 
learning. It is one of the evils, however, of this system, that the school be- 
comes a sort of nursery for professors, and that other technical universities are 
much given to filching away from this, its 3'oung and rising men. The system, 
however, on the whole, works admirably, for there is by this means a continual 
infusion of young blood to maintain the circulation of fresh thought, and the 
attractions of the university itself are strong enough to retain in the list of pro- 
fessors men whom the well informed among ourselves will at once recognize as 
the most distinguished men of their profession. 

The vice-president of this institution is Dr. Alfred Escher, a statesman of 
large views and unquestioned patriotism, who may be regarded as, more than 
any other individual, the founder of this national institution; while the others 
are men who have attained the highest distinction in the Canton they represent, 
some of them well known in England. 

* Another competent English observer, Prof. Arnold, in the chapter on the schools of Switzer- 
land, in his Report on Schools and Universities on the Continent, speaks as follows of the liber- 
ality of another town in this Canton : 

The town of VVinterthur has established higher schools for boys and girls, which, though not 
cantontil but municipal, emulate the h'glier schools of Zurich in their organiziition, and far excel 
them in tlieir school buildings. It is the most remarkable place for its school establishments in 
Europe. It is the second town fnr imp(;rtance in the Canton Zurich, and thrives by its manufac- 
tures of muslins, but it has not more than 8,000 inhabitants. The schools of tliis small place 
recall the municipal palaces of Flanders and Italy. Tiiey are objects of the first importance, and 
would be admirable any where. Besides the e'ementnry schools there is a JilitttLchalc, un In- 
duftrie-sc/ivle, and a gymnasium, all built within the hist twenty-five years, and which have cn.st 
the t.iwn not less than JeiOO.OOO, (.$.500,000.) I fi)und eighty scholars in the gymnasium. I lieard 
a class in Livy — the performance was as good as that which I remember in the fifth form of Win- 
chester or Ri'.gby. 

The grant from the Canton to the schools of Winterthur is £80 (S400,) and the town spends 
$10,000 a year. The balance of the annual expense is raised by school-fees, which are fixed by 
law at from 3 francs to 5 francs a year in the primary -schools, and in the higher 24 francs, which 
constitutes an inducement to punctual attendance. One-half of the avails of the tuition-fees is 
paid to the teacher, which operates to quicken his zeal to secure the attendance of pupils. 



FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL LAW. ^45 



LAW CONCERNING A FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL, 1851. 

The Federal Assembly of the Swiss Confederation in confunnity with Article 
29 of the Federal Constitution, and after having examined the proposition of 
the Federal Council decrees : 

L GENERAL REGULATIONS. 

§ 1 . A Federal Polytechnic School is erected. 

§ 2. The object of the Federal Polytechnic School is to prepare young men 
theoretically, and as far as possible also practically wnth a constant view to the 
special industries, and the public service of Switzerland, viz : 1. Construction 
of roads, railroads, canals, and bridges. 2. Industrial mechanics. 3. Industrial 
chemistry. 

The Polytechnic School may also be used for the partial education of teachers 
for technical institutions. 

§ 3. Instruction at the Polytechnic School commences with that grade which 
pupils of the Cantonal and City industrial schools reach. 

§ 4. The Polyreclmic School is to have three divisions, viz: 1. Civil engineer- 
ing. 2. Industrial mechanics. 3. Industrial chemistry. 

Instruction in two or all three divisions may he given in common, in so far 
as the special ol)ject of each division is not thereby injured. 

§ 5. In the_;z/-.3-^ division of the Polytechnic School, instruction is imparted 
in the following branches: 

1. Topography and geodesy, with practical exercises and topographical 
drawing. 2. Building of roads, railroads, bridges and canals, likewise with the 
necessary practicid and graphic exercises. 3. Theory of machines, (" maschin- 
enlehre.") 4. Analytical mechanics. 5. Architecture, principally of construc- 
tion, ("constructionslehre.") 6. Mechanical technology. 7. Technical physics. 
8. Higher matliematical analysis. 9. Spheric trigonometry and analytical 
geometry. 10. Descriptive geometry. 11. Elements of astronomy. 12. 
Geognosy. 13. Free hand drawing. 

§ 6. In the szcond division of the Federal Polytechnic School, instruction is 
imparted in the following branches: 

1. Theory of machines. 2. Construction of machines, exercises in making 
projects and drawing of machinery. 3. Elements of topography with practical 
and drawing exercises, and elements of geodesy. 4. Elements of road, rail- 
road, bridge, and canal building. 5.-14. The same subjects as those enumera- 
ted under No. 4.-13 of the first division. 

§ 7. In the third division of the Polytechnic School, instruction is imparted 
in the following branches : 

1. Analytical chemistry, with practical exercises in the laboratory. 2. Tech- 
nical chemistry, with practical exercises in the laboratory. 3. Technical 
pliysics. 4. Elementary theory of machines. 5. Mechanical technology. 6. 
G-eognosy. 7. Phyisology of plants. 8. Free hand drawing. 

§ 8. In the order of the various subjects enumerated in the preceding para- 
graphs, change may be made if occasion should demand it. 

§ 9. Instruction in all divisions of the Polytechnic School is subdivided into 
courses. 

The first and second divisions have each three, and the third two courses. 
Each course lasts one year. They commence in spring. 

§ 10. All the courses of all the divisions are held every year. 

§ 11. The distribution of the different subjects of the various divisions in the 
annual courses, will be settled in a way previously regulated. . 

§ 12. All subjects of instruction at the Polytechnic School are taught only 
in one lany:uage. either French or German, according to the choice of the 
teacher appointed for each subject. 

§ 13. A fund is created for the Federal Polytechnic School, y 

§ 14. The sum of four thou.^and francs is annually paid into this fund. 
Besides this there is annually paid into this fund, a sum corresponding to the 
estimate of income and expenditure made at the beginning of the year, from 



'^46 FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL LAW. 

the Federal Treasury. Donations and legacies made to the Polytechnic School 
are always. added to this fund. Donations and legacies made for special 
purposes, and not for the Polytechnic School in general, are managed separate 
from tlie Federal Polytechnic School fund. 

§15. The interest of the Polytechnic School fund is to be added to the 
capital, until the latter has reached the sum of two hundred thousand francs. 
As soon as this is the case, the interest is used to meet the current expenses of 
the Polytechnic School. 

^ § 16. When the Polytechnic School fund has reached the sura of two million 
francs, no more shall be paid into it Irom the Federal Treasury. 

II. THE STUDENTS. 

§ 17. Students to the Polytechnic School are always admitted in spring, at 
the commencement of the annual course. Only in exceptional cases can 
students be admitted in the middle of the course. 

§ 18. Students can be admitted to the lower as well as to the higher annual 
courses of the different divisions. 

§19. Candidates for admission to the Polytechnic School must be able to 
produce: — 1. A certificate of good moral conduct. 2. To show a sufficient 
knowledge of the French and German languages, to be able to attend lectures 
in both these languages. 3. To show a sufficient knowledge of the subjects 
which is presupposed in candidates for the various divisions. 4. To certify 
that they have entered the eighteenth year of their age. 

§ 20. Every student has to belong to one of the three divisions of the school. 

§ 21. As a general rule only those are permitted to attend the lectures who 
in prujjria fo)-7ria have been admitted as students. 

§ 22. All subjects of instruction are obUgatory. 

§ 23. Students wlio desire to attend lectures not belonging to their division, 
.must have a special permit. 

§ 24. The teachers must, by frequent catechising, satisfy themselves that 
the students thoroughly understood all that has been taught. 

§ 25. The more advanced students shall have an opportunity of visiting 
important machine-shops and industrial establishments. 

§ 26. For the furtherance of scientific zeal, prizes will be given for the best 
solution of certain set problems. 

§ 27. Oppoftuuity shall be given to pass in each of the three divisions, 
theoretical and practical examinations. 

§ 28. Students must pay an annual lecture-fee not to exceed seven francs, 
for the weekly hour of the annual course. 

§ 29. The admi.ssion and examination fees will be settled by a future regula- 
tion. 

§ 30. Young Swiss, who from their own cantons, receive stipends for their 
education as civil engineers, industrial mechanics or industrial chemists, must 
be obliged, by their cantonal government, to attend the Federal Polytechnic 
School. 

§ 31. Talented young Swiss citizens, who wish to follow the courses at thet 
Federal Polytechnic School, but who neither have the means themselves nor 
can obtain them from their own cantons, shall as far as possible, be aided by 
stipends from the Federal government. 

§ 32. Poor but talented students of the Federal Polytechnic School may, 
whether .they draw stipends or not, be freed from paying the lecture-fees. 

HI. THE TEACHERS. 

§ 33. All teachers at the Federal Polytechnic School must be formally in- 
stalled and draw a regular salary. 

§ 34. They are either professors or assistants. 

§ 35. Professors have an independent sphere of activity, assistants only a 
subordinate one. 

§ 36. The professors are either ordinary or extraordinary. 

§ 31. Ordinary professors have a larger salary, and perform more duties. 

§ 38. Professors are appointed for life. 



FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL LAW. '^4'/ 

§ 39. The total annual expenses for salaries are not to exceed the sura of 
forty.-six thousand francs. 

§ 40. The scliool-fees are divided among the professors, according to the 
number of lectures held by each. 

§41. A fund is instituted, from which pensions are paid to superannuated 
professors, to professors" widows and orphans. Pensions or indemnihcations to 
professors who have been removed, are paid from the Federal treasury. 

§ 42. The pension fund is maintained by a certain per centage of the school- 
fees, and if necessary, by a per centage on the professors salaries, the latter not 
to exceed one per cent. 

IV. THE teachers' CONFERENCE. 

§ 43. All the professors of the Federal Polytechnic School form the teachers' 
conference. 

§ 44. The Rector of the Polytechnic School is president of the conference. 

^ 45 . The Rector is chosen from among the professors for the period of one year. 

§46. The teachers' conference must superintend the scientific life of the 
institution in general and in particulars, and watch the moral character and 
diligence of the pupils. 

§ 47. As regards the subjects mentioned in the preceding paragraph, the 
teachei's' conference must make an annual report to the Federal Government. 
Besides this the teachers' conference is intrusted with the immediate mainten- 
ance of discipline among the students. 

§ 48. The teachers' conference must decide in cases of pupils wishing to 
attend lectures not strictly belonging to their division, 

§ 49. Tlie teachers' conference must criticise the prize essays, &c. 

§ 50. The teachers' conference decides at the end of the annual course, which 
pupils ought to advance to higher courses. 

§ 51. The teachers' conference arranges and superintends the various exami- 
nations. 

§ 52. The essential duty of the Rector is to direct and superintend the busi- 
ness of the teachers' meeting. 

V. THE FEDERAL COUlSrCIL, AND SCHOOL COUNCIL. 

§ 53. The Swiss Federal Oouncil is the supreme authority of the Federal 
Polytechnic School. ' 

§ 54. Its resolutions regarding the Federal Polytechnic School are taken on 
motion of the Dep-irtment of the Interior. 

§ 55. Immediately after the Federal Council in the superintendence of the 
school comes the School Council. 

§ 56. The School Council consists of a president and two members. They 
are chosen by the Federal Council from among all Swiss citizens who are voters. 
In this Council there are never to be two or more citizens of one and the same 
canton at the same time. The president is not allowed to have Siiiy other oflBce, 
nor to have any business carried on on his account. 

§ 57. The official term of the School Council is three years. Immediately 
after every new election for the Federal Council, the School Council is also 
elected anew. 

§ 58. The School Council holds its sessions in the city, where the Polytechnic 
School is located. 

§ 59. Its meetings are called by the President as often as there is any 
bU':iuess on liand. The President must call a meeting of the School Council 
whenever the Federal Council, or two other members demand it. 

§ 60. The President must live in the city where the Federal Polytechnic 
School is located. 

§61. The President has a salary of five thousand francs: the members of 
the School Council receive a remuneration for each day they are in session, and 
mileage. 

§ 62. The secretariate of the School Council will be arranged by the Federal 
Council. 

§ 63. The Federal Council has likewise to regulate the management of the 
school treasury, the pension fund, &c. 



748 FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL LAW. 

§ 64. In important cases the Federal Council will decide after consulting 
the School Council, and if desirable, the teachers' conferences. 

^ 65. Important regulations are promulgated by the Federal Council, those 
less important by the School Council. 

§ 66. The professors and assistants are appointed by the School Council, and 
their salaries fixed by the same body, with the approval of the Federal Council. 

§ 67. The Federal Council alone accepts the resignation of professors and 
assistants. 

§ 68. The Federal Council may retire a professor or assistant on account of 
age or sickness, with at least half of his former salary as pension. 

§ 69. If a professor or assistant has been guilty of such dereliction of duty 
as makes his removal from office desirable, he is to be removed on motion of the 
School Council by the Federal Council without a pension. He may, however, 
sue for an indemnification in the Federal courts of justice. 

§ 70. Further regulations will be made defining the powers of the Federal 
Council and the School Council, as to the school funds. 

g 71. The Federal Council subrriits to the Federal Assembly, on motion of 
the School Council, the annual estimates for the Federal Polytechnic School, as 
part of the budget for the whole republic. 

§ 72. The Federal Council decides, on motion of the School Council, on all 
the annual bills of the Federal Polytechnic School. 

§ 73. The Federal Council, on motion of the School Council, decides on the 
acceptance of donations or legacies made to the Polytechnic School for special 
purposes. 

§ 74. The School Council decides on the distribution of the Federal stipends, 
the exemption from school and other fees. 

§ 75. Tiie School Council remits to the Federal Council an annual report on 
the condition of the Federal Polytechnic School and for this purpose receives 
the necessary information from the teachers' conference. 

§76. The President of the School Council has to present a motion for 
dispatching the business placed before the Council. 

§ 77. In the absence of both members, the President carries on all current 
business. 

THE LOCATION OF THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. 

§ 78. The canton and city where the Federal Polytechnic School is located, 
must, — 1. Place all scientific collections at the free disposal of the Federal 
Polytechnic School. 2. See that such collections as may be the property of 
corporations are fully made available to the Federal Pol^'technic School. 3. 
Provide the buildings required for the School Council, the teachers' conference, 
school festivals, lectures, laboratories, workshops, library, museum, servants of 
the school, and for gymnastic exercises 4. Pay an annual sum of sixteen 
thousand francs towards the 'expenses of the Federal Polytechnic School, in 
quarterl}^ installments. This annual contribution diminishes from the time when 
the interest of the Polytechnic School fund can be used for the benefit of the 
school, by one-fifth of the amount of interest of that fund. 

§ 79. the officers, teachers and servants of the Federal Polytechnic School, 
in their relation to the laws and authorities of the canton in which the school 
is located, are to be treated exactly as all other Federal officers and officials. 

§ 80. The students of the Federal Polytechnic School are subject to the 
general penal police and civil laws of the canton, in which the school is located. 
For transgression of all special regulations made by the authorities of the 
school, the students are punished by such authorities exclusively. 

TEMPORARY REGULATIONS. 

§ 81. In designating the canton and city within which the Federal Polytech- 
nic School is to be located, the same course is to be followed as in the location 
of the Federal capital. 

§ 82. Two months from the date when the offer is made, the authorities of 
the respective canton or city shall return their answer to the Federal Council. 

§ 83. This law goes into operation from the date of its passage. The Federal 
Council is to take the necessary measures for carrying it into effect. 



THE SWISS FEDERAL POLYTECHNICUM. 749 



(JOVERNMENT OF THE TECHNICAL UNIYERSITY. 

A. SWISS SCHOOL-COUNCIL. 

President, Mons, C. Kappeler. 

Vice-President, Dr. A. Escher. 

Professor Dr. Bern. Studer. 

Members, \ Couucilor Aug. Keller. 

Professor Pictet de la Rive. 

Director Aime Humbert. 

Deputies, \ Councilor A. Y. Planta. 

Choirmaster Jos. Ghiringlielli. 

Secretary,. Mons. J. G-. Baumann. 

B. COMMITTEE. 

Director, Mons. E. Landolt. 

Deputy, Dr. Gustavus Zenner. 

Secretary of Committee, Mons. J. Rudolf. 

The teaching of the Polytechnic School is the work of 51 teachers, of whom 
31 are regular professors, 10 assistant-professors, and 16 private teachers and 
lecturers. 

Each of these gives several courses of lectures or of private instruc- 
tion, and the whole number of subjects taught or courses of lectures this 
year (1868) is 145, exclusive of a large number. of additional or extra subjects, 
which do not form essential parts of the regular curriculum of instruction. 
These 145 subjects of instruction are comprehended in the following list: 

PROFESSORSHIPS AND COURSES OF INSTRUCTION. 

Prof. Arduini. 1. Storia comparatia della lingua e dei dialetti Italiani, 2. 
Scrittori d'arte e artisti, il Cellini et il Vasarl 3. II Machiavelli. 4. 
Esercizi varg. di lingua. 

Prof. Dr. Behn-Eschenburg. 5. The English historians. 6. Shakspeare'a 
" King Lear," translated and explained. 7. English exercises and grammar. 

Prof. Dr. Bohmert. 8. General economy. 9. Finance. 10. Lectures and 
discussions on political economy. 

Prof. Dr. Bolley. 11. Technical ebemical practice. 12. Bleaching, printing, 
and dyeing. 13. Manufacture of chemical products. 14. Glass and 
potter}'-. 

Prof. Dr. Cherbuliez. 15. Political economy. 16. International law. 17. 
Free trade, exchange, and protective duties. 

Prof. Dr. Christoffel. 18. Differential and integral calculus. 18 a. Exam- 
inations. 19. Theory of equations. 19 a. Examinations. 

Prof. Dr. Cramer. 20. Elements of botany. 21. Universal botany, 22. 
Microscopic observations. 

Prof. Culmann. 23. Earth- works, stone bridges, and tunnels. 23 a. Repe- 
tition. 24. Practical construction. 25. Roads and canals. 

!Prof. Dupratsse. 26. Droit civil. 27. Droit administratif. 28. Droit for- 
estier. 29. Droit commercial. 

Dr. Egli (private tutor.) 30. Physical geography, (inorganic.) 31. Examin- 
ations. 32. Drawing for historical, geographical, and economic studies. 
33. History of geology. 34. Geographical phenomena ; Abyssinia, Gulf- 
stream, Nile, Canal of Suez, &c. 35. Palestine — geographically and archse- 
ologically. 

Prof. Escher v. d. Linth. 36. General geology. 37. Technical geology. 

Dr. Fehr (private tutor.) 38. Exposition of sculpture in the archjeological 
museum. 

Prof. Dr. Fiedler. 39. Representative geometry, with examinations. 39 a. 
Exercises in two groups, each one hour. 40. Plane geometry. 41. Ele- 
ments of the theory of determinate and rectangular coordinates. 42. 
Geometry of curves of the third order. ^ 

Prof. Dr. Frey. 43. Zoology. 43 a. Examination. 



^50 THE SWISS FEDERAL POLYTECHNICDM. 

Mr. Fritz (private tutor.) 44 Technical drawing (preparatory course.) 45. 
Teclmical drawing (first and second course of the chemical technical di- 
vision.) 46. Elements of machinery. 47. Machine-drawing. 48. Lec- 
tures on machine-construction. 

Dr. Geiser (private tutor.) 49. Introduction to synthetic geometry. 50. 
Selections from the higher parts of geometry. 

Prop. Gladbach. 51. Construction of buildings. 52. Plan-drawing. 53. 
Engineering plan-drawing. 

Mr. Harlaciier (private tutor.) 54. Theory and construction of girders. 55. 
Manufacture of wrought-iron and cast-iron girders. 

Prof. Dr. Heer, 66. Pharmaceutical botany. 57. The plants of geology. 
58. On fossil insects. 

Mr. Hug (private tutor.) 59. Differential and integral calculus. 

Prof. Keiser. 60. Practice in modeling ornaments, and in stone-carving. 

Prof. Keller. 61. German language. 

Prof. Dr. Kenngott. 62. Mineralogy. 62 a. Examination. 63. Characters 
of minerals. 64. Museum of mineralogy. 

Dr. Kinkel. 65. History of ancient art, from Egypt to Pompeii. 66. History 
of renaissance art (architecture and sculpture.) 

Prof. Kopp. 67. Encyclopedia of forestry. 68. Theory of climates. 68 a. 
Examination. 69. Excursions and practical experiments. 

Prof. Kronauer. 70. Mechanical technology (spinning, wreaving, paper- 
making, &c.) 

Prof. Dr. KuNDT. 71. Technical physics. 71a. Examination. 72. Theory 
of light. 73. Experimental physics. 

Mr. Kunzler (private tutor.) 74. Mechanics. 75. Differential calculus. 76. 
Technical mechanics. 

Prof. Landolt. 77. Theory of forestry. 78. Foresters' duties. 79. For- 
estry (trade.) 79 a. Examinations. 80. Excursions and practical appli- 
cations. 

Prof. Lasius. 81. Construction of buildings (second course.) 82. Construc- 
tion of buildings (third course.) 83. Plan-drawing and perspective (second 
course.) 

Prof. Ludewig. 84. Construction of machinery. 84 a. Examination. 85. 
Chapters from the history of mechanical construction, with practical ex- 
amples, &c. 

Dr. Mayer (private tutor.) 86. Paleontology. 

Prof. Mequet. 87. Differential and integral calculus (pupils of the first year.) 
87 a. Examination. 88. Differential and integral calculus (pupils of the 
second year.) 

Dr. Merz (private tutor.) 89. Pharmaceutical chemistry. 90. Examination 
in inorganic chemistry. 91. On scents and perfumes. 92. On alcohols. 

M. MoscH (private tutor.) 93. Geology of Switzerland, with regard to its 
influence on trade, &c. (gratis.) 

Prop. Dr. Modsson. 94. Experimental physics ; first half. 94 a. Examina- 
tion in French. 94 &. Examination in German. 95. Chemical physics. 
95 a. Examination, 

Prof. Orelli. 96. Differential and integral calculus (school of architecture, 
first course.) 97. Mathematics (preliminary course,) algebra, geometry, 
&c. 97 a. Exercises. 97 h. Examination. 

Prof. Pestalozzi. 98. Construction of streets and canals. 99. Practical 
geometry (in German and French.) 

Dr. Piccard (private tutor.) 100. Inorganic and experimental chemistry. 
100 a. Examination in groups. 101. Toxicology. 102. Pharmaceutical 
chemistry. 

Prof. Dr. Frym. 103. Analytical geometry of the plane, with exercises. 104. 
Introduction to the theory of functions. 

Prof. Rambert. 105. Histoire litteraire, Corneille et Racine. 106. Exercises 
superieurs, pour les eleves fran^ais. 107. Exercises superieurs, pour les 
eleves allemands. 108. Exercises elementaires. 109. Langue fran9ais€ 
(preliminary course.) 

Prof. Dr. Reye. 110. Introduction to the theorj'^ of numbers. 111. Analyt- 
cal mechanics. 



THE SWISS FEDERAL POLYTECHNICUM. 751 

Prof. Dr. Rutttmann, 112. Swiss federal constitution and rights. 

Prof. Dr. Sciierr. 113. Twelve literary world-known cliaracters — Homer, 
..^sclijius, &c. &c. 114. Lessing, GiJethe, Schiller, their lives, 'Works, and 
companions. 115. History of the nineteenth century. 

Prof. Dr. Semper. 116. Comparison of styles. 117. Designing. 

Dr. v. Seckexdorfe (private tutor.) 118, Taxes and revenues of woods and 
forests. 

Mr. Stabler (teacher.) 119. Ornamental drawing, decoration, color, &c. 
120. Decoration of private and public buildings. 

Prof. Dr. Stabler. 121. Experimental chemistry. 121 a. Examination. 
122. Selections from chapters on chemistry. 123. Practical chemical 
experimonts. 

Prof. Stocker. 124. Geometry of space, algebra, trigonometry. 124 a. Ex- 
ercises. 125. Mathematics of forestry. 

Mr. Stutz (private tutor ) 126. History of the creation, with regard to the Bible. 

Prof. Ulrich. 127. Landscape-drawing, in pencil, sepia, and water-colors. 

Prof. Veith. 128. Pumps, turbines, and water-wheels. 129. Construction of 
macliinery. 

Prof. Vogeli. 130. History of Switzerland, 1474-1515. 

Dr. "Weith (private tutor.) 131. History of chemistry, a.32. Review of inor- 
ganic chemistry according to modern principles. 133. Groups of Cynans. 
134. Chemistry of animal bases and acids. 

Mr. Werdmuller. 135. Figure-drawing. 

Prof. Wild. 136. Topographj^ 137. Geodesy. 138. Plan-drawing. 139. 
Map-drawing. 

Prof. Dr. Wolf. 140. Astronomy. 140 a. Examination (for the engineering 
division.) 140 6. Examination (for pupils of the sixth division.) 141. 
Elements of astronomy. 

Mr. Wolfexsperger (musical director.) 142. Harmony. 

Prof. Dr. Zeuner. 143. Technical mechanics. 143 a. Examination in groups. 
144. Theoretical mechanics (heat and steam — steam-engines.) 145. The- 
ory of insurance (calculations of probability and mathematical statistics.) 
In addition to these, there are assistants. 

In running one's eye over this large list of teachers and subjects to be taught, 
the e^'-e of the English parent or guardian would find itself hopelessly over- 
whelmed with emharras de richesses^ But such a contingency has been foreseen, 
and admirably provided for, even without encroaching on that perfect liberty 
of the individual of which we English think and talk so much. The student of 
the Polytechnicum is at perfect liberty to attend what courses he pleases, and 
to neglect all he does not like. He may go to the Polytechnicum either for 
business or pleasure; either to qualify himself for some special duty in life, or to 
study things in general, and thus far our notions of liberty are here realized. 
But in this free manner of study comparatively few students enter themselves. 
Out of the whole number of 762, only 173 are free students — the remaining 
589 prefer to study, according to rule and method, for some specitic aim in life. 

There is an organized curriculum, prepared by the governors and tiie pro- 
fessors, wliich affords the parent or the pupil all the best advice of matured 
wisdom as to tlie course of study which the student should pursue during the 
three years of his university career. These studies are parceled out over a 
period of three years, and each year is divided into two courses — the summer 
and winter lialf-year. The student is further assisted by being told what are 
the subjects with which he should be acquainted before entering the university, 
so as best to avail himself of its advantages ; and there is this further kindly 
provision made for him, that if he is unfortunate enough to have been badly 
prepared in any of the essential points of preliminary study, a special series of 
preparatory studies are provided as an aid to make good his defects and bring 
him up to the level of better-prepared pupils. 

In addition to its vast living organization of professors, masters and tutors, 
the Zuricli Polytechnicum is rich in the apparatus of instruction, viz., in a large 
astronomical observatory, a chemical and meclianical laborator}'- for practical 
work, a chemical laboratory of professional teaching, a collection of models, 



752 THE SWISS FEDERAL TOLYTECHNICUM. 

drawings, &c., for architectural and mechanical illustrations, a botanical garden, 
cabinet of geology, zoology, &c. &c. 

EXPENSE OF TECHXICAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 

In conclusion we have only to say what this vast engine ibr the improve- 
ment of the Swiss people costs the Confederation. The Englishman who studies 
these figures should remember that it is the provision made for a population of 
only 2.500,000 ; for the most part only agricultural peasants, inhabiting a moun- 
tainous and comparatively sterile country. In measuring the expense we 
should also bear in mind that francs go as far in Zurich as crowns in London. 

To the foundation of the Polytechnical University the Federal Government 
contributed 20.000/., and the Canton of Zurich 136,000Z. The annual expenses 
and contributions of the students are : 

Income. 

1. Loan from the State treasury, £10,000 

2. Loan from the Canton of Zurich, 640 

3. Pupils' fees, 2,653 

4. Loan from the Canton and State of Zurich for collec- 

tions and museums, , 166 

Total income, £13,459 

Expenses. 

1. Government of the University, £1,680 

2. Salaries of professors and teachers, 9,500 

3. Collections and museums, 2,146 

4. Prizes,. ... 40 

5. Furniture, &c., 93 

Total expenses, £13,459 

Such is our model university ; and I ought not to leave it without testifying 
to its perfect success. My first acquaintance with this university arose out of 
the incident of a young relation of my own happening to desire to obtain an 
education in a branch of civil engineering, and finding it impossible to obtain 
that education in England. Fortunately for him, an Englishman of science, 
well acquainted with foreign education, recommended to him the technical uni- 
versity of Zurich. He went there; he passed through its courses; returned to 
England ; e^itered himself in the usual manner as a learner in the works of an 
eminent engineer. Here the advantages of Zurich soon showed themselves 
unmistakeably ; his superiority was so evident that he soon rose over the heads 
of much older men, and long before his, apprenticeship expired, he had already 
been intrusted with heavy responsibilities and important duties, which could 
not be intrusted to men much older and more experienced, but less skillfully 
trained, and less highly educated. This youth was a standing example of the 
practical excellence of Zurich. This was the incident which afterwards in- 
duced me to study carefully the organization of that institution, with the deter- 
mination to do my best towards obtaining for young Englishmen equal privi- 
leges in their own country; and I may say that the result of a practical- 
acquaintance with that institution, and of personal intimac}' with many of those 
who have been its pupils, is to satisfy me that this Swiss university is a noble 
proof of the wisdom of her patriots and statesmen — of the enlightened gener- 
osity of the countrymen and citizens of Zurich ; and that the institution they 
have founded is, in its aim, its organization, and its practical effect, well worthy 
of the study and the rivalry of any statesmen and any citizens who do not be- 
lieve their countrymen unworthy of high intellectual cultivation, and sound 
technical training for life. 

We append the latest Programme of Subjects of Instruction, arranged in 
eight schools or divisions, together with a brief description of the building 
erected by the Canton of Zurich for the accommodation of the Polytechnicum. 



SWISS FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL, ZURICH. 

PROGRAMME FOR 1856-7, ESPECIALLY THE FIRST HALF-YEAR. 



SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION, CLASSED BY DIVISIONS. 
FIRST DIVISION, OB SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE. 

First Tear. — 1. a. Art of building, 3 hours ; Thursday, Friday and Saturday, 
10 to 11. 

6. Architectural design and exercises on building, 3 afternoons, (6 hours per 
week in winter, 9 in summer ;) Wednesday, Friday and Saturday, 2 to 4. 

2. Mechanics, 6 hours ; Monday, Wednesday and Saturday, 2 to 4. 

3. a. Elements of differential and integral calculus, 4 hours; Tuesday and 
Thursday, 8 to 10. 

6. Exercises on differential and integral calculus, 2 hours ; Friday, 8 to 10. 

4. a. Stone-cutting: and as introductory, theory of contacts and intersections 
of curved surfaces, 3 hours; Tuesday and Friday, 5 to 6; Saturday 6 to "7. 

h. Drilling and exercises on stone-cutting, 1 hour ; not yet determined. 

5. Designing the figure, (5 hours in winter, 9 summer ;) Monday, Tuesday and 
Thursday, 2 to 4, or 5, 

6. Modehng in earth or plaster, 3 hours; Monday, 1 to 4. 
In all, 16 hours of lessons; 16 to 22 hours of exercises. 

Second Tear.— I. Art of building civil e'difices (continuation of course of con- 
struction,) 3 hours; Wednesday, Friday and Saturday, 11 to 12, 

2. Art of building in middle ages and in the Renaissance. (During the second 
half-year, modern art of building,) 4 hours; Tuesday and Friday, 5 to 7. 

3. Architectural design, sketches a«d detailed drawings of plans of buildmgs, 
(6 to 9 hours;) Tuesday, Friday and Saturday, 2 to 4. 

4. a. Perspective and theory of shadows, 2 hours ; Monday and Wednesday, 
6 to 7. 

h. Exercises on the same, 1 hour ; not yet fixed. 

5. Construction of roads and bridges, 3 hours ; Tuesday and Wednesday, 8 to 
9, and another hour not determined, 

6. Theory of machines, 4 hours ; Tuesday and Friday, 8 to 10. 

7. Designing the figure, 2 or 3 hours ; Monday, 2 to 4 or 5. 

8. Modeling in earth or plaster, 2 to 3 hours ; Saturday, 2 to 4 or 6„ 
In all, 15 hours of lessons; and 11 to 16 of exercises. 

Third Tear. — 1. Art of building in the middle ages and during the Renais- 
sance. (In the second half-year, modern art of building,) 4 hours ; Tuesday and 
Friday, 3 to 7. 

2. Drafting and detail drawings of architectural plans, 4 afternoons; Tuesday, 
Wednesday, Friday and Saturday, 2 to 4. 

3. History of the Renaissance, 4 hours ; Monday, Wednesday, Friday and 
Satuday, 5 to 6. 

4. Designing the figure, 1 afternoon, 2 or 3 hours ; Monday, 2 to 4 or 5. 

5. a. Geology, 4 hours; Tuesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday, 9 to 10. 
b. Drilling on geology, 1 hour; not yet fixed. 

In all, 12 hours of lessons, and at least 3 afternoons of exercies. 

SECOND DIVISION, OR SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENeiNEERING. 

First Tear. — 1. Topography, 3 hours; Monday, Tuesday and Thursday, 10 
toll. 43 



Y54 SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. 

2. Designing plans, 2 or 3 hours; Monday, 2 to 4 or 5. 

3. Elements of astronomy (for the first half-year,) 3 hours; Wednesday 
Thursday and Saturday, 5 to 6 ; (Obligatory only upon pupils devoting them- 
selves to the study of geodesy.) 

4. a. Art of building, 3 hours ; Wednesday, Friday and Saturday, 2 to 4. 

h. Designs for building, 2 afternoons, Tuesday and Thursday, 2 to 4 ; (4 hours 
in summer, 6 in winter.) 

(These two items are obligatory only upon pupils devoting themselves to civil 
engineering proper, as roads, railroads, &c.) 

5. Mechanics, 6 hours; Monday, Wednesday and Saturday, 8 to 10. 

6. Designing machines, 1 afternoon ; Friday, 2 to 4 ; (2 hours in winter 3 in 
summer.) 

7. a. Elements of differential and integral calculus, 4 hours; Tuesday and 
Monday, 8 to 10, 

b. Exercises on the same, 2 hours ; Friday, 8 to 10. 

8. a. Stone-cutting, and as introductory, theory of contact and intersection of 
curved surfaces, 3 hours ; Tuesday and Friday, 5 to 6 ; Saturday, 6 to 7. 

6. Drilling and exercises in the art of stone-cutting, 1 hour ; not yet fixed. 

9. Land-measuring, (in summer,) one day. 

19 hours of lessons; 7 to 13 hours of exercises; and in summer, one day of 
Land-measuring. 

Secondy Year. — 1. a. Construction of roads, railroads and hydraulic buildings, 
3 hours; Monday, Tuesday and Thursday, 11 to 12. 
6. Drilling in the same, 1 hour; Wednesday, 9 to 10. 

2. Exercises in construction of roads and hydraulic works, 3 afternoons, (6 
hours in winter, and 9 in summer ;) Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday, 2 to 4 
or 5. 

(Obligatory only on pupils devoting themselves to civil engineering.) 

3. G-eodesy, 2 hours ; Tuesday and Wednesday, 8 to 9. (Obligatory only («• 
pupils devoting themselves to geodesy.) 

4. Drawing maps. 3 hours ; Thursday, 2 to 4 or 5. 

5. Theory of machines, 4 hours; Tuesday and Wednesday, 8 to 10. 

6. Setting up of machines, 1 afternoon, (2 hours in winter, 3 in summer;) 
Friday, 2 to 4. 

7. a. Integral calculus, 2 hours; Monday and Friday, 10 to 11. 
&. Analytical geometry, 2 hours; Friday and Saturday, 10 to 11. 

€. Exercises in integral calculus and analytical geometrj^, 2 hours ; Tuesday 
and Thursday, 10 to 11. 

d. Integral calculus (a second course,) 3 hours; Monday and Friday, 10 to 11 ; 
and one hour not yet fixed. 

(&. and c, above, obhgatory upon all pupils, and either a or d, at their 
option.) 

8. a. Perspective, and theory of shadows, 2 hours; Monday and Friday, 
6 to 7. 

b. Exercises on the same, 1 hour; not yet fixed. 

9. Industrial physics, Industrial natural philosophy, 4 hours; Monday and 
Thursday, 8 to 10. ' 

10. Modeling in earth and in plaster, 1 afternoon, 3 hours; Saturday, 1 
to 5. 

11. Technology of building materials, 1 hour; Monday, 4 to 5 

(In winter,) 13 to 21 hours of lessons; 12 to 19 hours of exercises. 

Third Tear.—l. a. Construction of roads; hydraulic building, 3 hours; Mon- 
day, Tuesday and Friday, 10 to 11. 

b. Drilling on the same, 1 hour; Thursday, 10 to 11. 

2. Exercises on the same, 3 afternoons; Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, 
2 to 4 or 5. 

3. Geodesy, 2 hours ; Tuesday and Wednesday, 8 to 9. 

4. Drawing maps, 3 hours; Thursday, 2 to 4 or 5. 

5. a. Geology, 4 hours; Tuesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday, 9 to 10. 
b. Drilling on same, 1 hour ; not yet fixed. 

Lessons, 9 hours ; exercises, all remaining hours. 



SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. ^55 



THIRD DIVISION, OB SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS. 

First Year. — 1. Mechanics, 6 hours; Monday, Tuesday, "Wednesday, 8 to 
10. 

2. Designing machines, 2 afternoons; (4 hours in winter, 6 in summer;) 
Wednesday and Saturday, 2 to 4 or 5. 

3. a. Elements of differential and integral calculus, 4 hours ; Tuesday and 
Thursday, 8 to 10. 

6. Exercises on same, 2 hours ; Friday, 8 to 10. 

4. a. Stone-cutting; and as introductory, theory of contact and intersection 
of curved surfaces, 3 hours ; Tuesday and Friday, 5 to 6 ; Saturday, 6 tc 7. 

6. Drill and exercises on same, 1 hour: not yet fixed. 

5. Construction of models in metal, 1 afternoon, 3 hours; Friday, 1 to 4. 

6. Construction of models in wood, 1 afternoon, 3 hours; Tuesday,.! to 4. 
Lessons, 13 hours; exercises, 13 to 15 hours. 

Second Year. — 1. Theory of machines, 2 hours; Tuesday and Friday, 8 to 
10. 

2. a. Construction of machines, 4 hours; Wednesday and Saturday, 8 tu 10. 
6. Setting up of machines, 4 afternoons, (8 hours in winter, 12 in summer;) 

Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday and Saturday, 2 to 4 or 5. 

3. a. Integral calculus, 2 hours ; Monday and Wednesday, 10 to 11. 
&. Analytic geometry, 2 hours; Friday and Saturday, 10 to 11. 

c. Exercises on both the above, 2 hours; Tuesday and Thursday, 10 to 11. 

d. Integral calculus (a second course,) 3 hours; Monday and Wednesday 10 
to 11; 1 hour not yet fixed. 

(6 and c, above, obligatory on all pupils ; and either a or d, at their option.) 

4. Construction of models in metal, 1 afternoon, 3 hours; Monday, 1 to 4. 

5. Industrial physics, 4 hours; Monday and Thursday, 8 to 10. 

6. Mechanical technology, (in winter,) 4 hours ; Monday and Friday, 11 to 12 ; 
Saturday, 11 to 12 and 4 to 5, 

FOURTH DIVISION, OB SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY. 

First Year. — 1. Inorganic chemistry, 5 hours; Monday to Friday, 10 to 11, 

2. Exercises on classical analysis in the laboratory, 2 afternoons, 6 hours ; 
Monday and Tuesday, 1 to 4. » 

3. a. Zoology, first part. 5 hours; Monday to Friday, 5 to 6. 
6. Drill on same, 1 hour; not yet fixed. 

4. General botany, 3 hours; Monday to Friday, 4 to 5. 

6. Mineralogy, 2 to 3 hours ; Wednesday and Friday, 3 to 4. 

6. Technical designing, 4 hours; Monday, 8 to 10; Saturday, 10 to 12. 

Lessons, 13 hours; exercises, at least 11 hours. * 

Second Year. — a. Division of Industrial Chemistry. — 1. Industrial chemistry, 
4 hours; Monday to Thursday, 10 to 11. 

2. Manipulations in the laboratory of industrial and pharmaceutical chemistry, 
4 afternoons, 12 hours; Monday to Thursday, 1 to 4. 

3. Industrial physics. 4 hours; Monday and Thursday, 8 to 10. 

4. Technical designing, 4 hours; Tuesday and Saturday, 10 to 12. 

5. Chemical technology of building materials, 1 hour; Monday, 4 to 5. 

6. a. Geology, 4 liours; Tuesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday, 9 to 10. 
b. Drill on same, 1 hour ; not yet fixed. 

Lessons 13' hours ;_ exercises 17 hours. 

h. Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry. — 1. Industrial chemistry, 4 hours; 
Monday to Thursday, 10 to 11. 

2. Manipulations in laboratory of industrial and pharmaceutical chemistry, 4 
afternoons, 12 hours; Monday to Thursday, 1 to 4, 

3. Technical portion of pharmacy, 2 hours ; Tuesday and Thursday, 4 to 5. 

4. Raw materials, pharmaceutically considered, 3 hours. 

6. Pharmaceutical botany, 3 hours ; Thursday, Friday and Saturday, 3 to 4. 
6. Industrial physics, 4 hours; Monday and Thursday, 8 to 10. 
Lessons, 16 hours; exercises, 12 hours. 



756 SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. 



FIFTH DIVISION, OB SCHOOL OF FOBE8TBY. 

First Year. — 1. Encyclopedia of forestry, 3 lioursj Monday, Wednesday and 

Thursday, 8 to 9. 

2. Valuation and estimates of roads, 2 hours ; Monday and Wednesday, 9 to 
10. 

3. Excursions, exercises on taxation, drill and conversation, 1 day ; Saturday. 

4. a. Zoology, first part, 5 hours; Monday to Friday, 5 to 6. 
&. Drill and questions on above, 1 hour ; not yet fixed. 

5. General botany, 3 hours ; Monday to Friday, 4 to 5. 

6. Mineralogy, 2 hou;s; Wednesday and Friday, 3 to 4. 

•7. Topography, 3 hours; Monday, Tuesday and Thursday, 10 to 11. 

8. Design of plans, 2 to 3 hours ; Monday, 2 to 4 or 5. 

9. Geology, with drill on same, 5 hours ; Tuesday, Thursday, Friday and 
Saturday ; and 1 hour not yet fixed. 

Lessons, 24 hours ; exercises, 4 to 5 hours, and 1 day. 

Second Year. — 1. Forest administration and pohce, 3 hours; Monday, Wed- 
Desday, Friday, 11 to 12. 

2. Preservation of forests, 2 hours; Tuesday and Thursday, 11 to 12. 

3. Statistics and hterature of forestry, 1 hour; Friday, 10 to 11. 

4. Management of forests, 4 hours ; Tuesday and Friday, 8 to 10. 

5. Introduction to mangement of forestry business, 1 hour; Monday, 6 to 7. 

6. Excursions, drill, and conversation, 1 day ; Saturday. 

7. Construction of bridges and roads, 2 hours ; Wednesday, 8 to 9 ; and 1 
hour not yet fixed. 

8. Industrial physics, 4 hours; Monday and Thursday, 8 to 10. 
Lessons, 11 hours; exercises, 1 day and 1 hour. 

SIXTH division; of philosophical and political science. 

a. Natural Sciences. — 1. Inorganic chemistrv, 3 hours; Monday to Friday, 
10 to 11. 

2. Exercises on chemical analysis in laboratory, 3 hours ; Tuesday, 1 to 4. 

3. Exercises,' for the most advanced students, every day except Saturday. 

4. Chemical technology of building materials, 1 hour ; Monday, 4 to 5. 

5. Experimental physics, 6 hours; every day, 11 to 12. 

6. Drill on the preceding, 2 hours ; not yet fixed. 

7. Mathematical physics; introduction, and theory of elasticity, 4 hours; 
Tuesday, Wednesday, Friday and Saturday, 8 to 9. 

8. Zoology, first part, 3 hours ; Monday.to Friday, 5 to 6. 
9 Drill and questions on same, 1 hour; not yet fixed. 

10. General botany, 5 hours; Monday to Friday, 4 to 5, 

11. Use of microscope, daily; forenoon. 

12. Antediluvian plants, 3 hours; Monday, Tuesday and Friday, 2 to 3. 

13. Fossil insects, 2 hours; Tuesday and Wednesday 5 to 6. 

14. Natural history of mushrooms, with special reference to maladies of 
plants and animals, 2 hours. 

15. Drill on general botany, with microscopic demonstration, 2 hours. 

16. Drill on general botany, with herbal, 1 hour. 

17. Geology, 4 hours ; Tuesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday, 9 to 10. 

18. Drill on same ; 1 hour, not yet fixed. 

19. Swiss materials for building, 2 hours; Tuesday and Thursday, 4 to 5. 

20. History, construction and coloring of geological ch^-rts and sections. 

21. Mineralogy, 2 to 3 hours; Wednesday and Friday, 3 to 4. 
(Other lessons on mineralogy will be hereafter announced.) 

h. Mathematical Sciences. — 22. Integral calculus, continued from last term, for 
second year of second and third divisions, 2 hours; Monday and Wednesday, 
10 to 11. 

23. Analytical geometry, continued from last term, for second year of second 
and third divisions, 2 hours; Friday and Saturday, 10 to 11. 

24. Exercises for all the students of first and second year of second and third 
divisions, 2 hours; Tuesday and Thursday, 10 to 11. 



SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL, 7^7 

25. Algebraic analysis, 2 hours; Monday and Thursday, 11 to 12. 
26 P]leiuents of differential and integral calculus, 4 hours ; Tuesday and 
Thursday, 8 to 10. 

27. Exercises on differential and integral calculus, 2 hours; Friday, 8 to 10. 

28. Intersection and contact of curved surfaces, and stone-cutting, 4 hours ; 
Tuesday and Friday, 5 to 6 ; Saturday, 6 to 7 ; and 1 hour not yet fixed. 

29. Perspective and theory of shadows, 3 hours; Monday and Wednesday, 
6 to 7 ; and I hour not yet fixed. 

30. Elements of astronomy, as introduction to geodesy, 3 hours ; Wednesday, 
Thursday and Saturday, 5 to 6. 

31. Mathematics, pure and applied, after a manual to appear soon, 4 hours; 
and a drill of 1 hour. 

3 J. Practical course of diflferential and integral calculus, 3 hours. 

33. Descriptive geometry, first part, 2 to 3 hours. 

34. Method of teaching mathematics for candidates for employment as teach- 
ers, 2 hours. 

35. G-eometrical analysis of surfaces of the second degree, 2 hours. 

36. Synthetic geometry, after Steiner, 2 hours. 

37. Theoretical astronomy, 2 hours. 

38. Integral calculus, 3 hours; Monday and Wednesday, 10 to 11; and 1 
hour not yet fixed. 

39. Elementary mathematics, including the branches detailed in the pro- 
gramme for 1856-7, (in French,) 6 hours. 

40. Political arithmetic, (interest, rent, savings' banks, banks,) &c., 2 hours; 
(in German or French.) 

41. Mechanics, 6 hours ; Monday, Wednesday and Saturday, 8 to 10. 

c. Literary, Moral and Political Science. — i2. "Faust" of Goethe, 2 hours; 
Wednesday and Friday, 4 to 5, 

43. " Parcival '' of Wolfram von Escheuback and " Tristan " of Gottfried von 
Strassburg, 2 to 3 hours ; Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday, 4 to 5. 

(The same instructor, (Prof Vischer,) will give a course of instruction at the 
university, in aesthetics, part first, 4 to 5 hours.) 

44. French literature, 3 hours ; Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday, 4 to 5, 

45. Italian literature, 3 hours; Tuesday^ Thursday, FriSay, 6 to 7. 

46. Italian composition, 1 hour; Thursday, 5 to 6. 

47. History of English literature f];om end of last century to present time, 2 
hours; Tuesday and. Thursday, 6 to 7. 

48. Shakspeare's "Timon of Athens," and "Love's Labors Lost," translated 
and explained, 2 hours ; Monday and Wednesday, 6 to 7. 

49. Exercises in speaking and writing English, 2 hours ; Monday, 5 to 6 ; and 
Friday, 6 to 7. 

50. General modem history, with special reference to intellectual develop- 
ments, 3 hours ; Monday to Friday. 

51. Sources of Roman History, 2 hours; Saturday, 9 to 11. 

52. Art of building in the middle ages and the Renaissance; and as intro- 
ductory, a general view of the art of building among the ancients, 4 hours; 
Tuesday and Friday, 5 to 7, 

53. General views of the history of the Renaissance^ 4 hours; Monday, Wed- 
nesday, Thursday and Saturday, 5 to 6. 

54. History of painting and sculpture since the fifteenth century, 4 hours ; 
Monday, Tuesday and Thursday, 11 to 12 ; Saturday, 6 to 7. 

55. Archaeology of Christian Art, 2 hours. 

56. Classic and German mythology, 2 hours. 

57. Greek anthology, 2 hours. 

58. Political economy, 3 hours ; Monday, Wednesday and Friday, 6 to *l. 

59. International law, 2 hours; Tuesday and Thursday, 6 to 7. 

60. Commercial law, 3 hours; Monday, Wednesday and Friday, 4 to 5. 
" 61. Forestry laws, 1 hour; Tuesday, 3 to 4. 

d. Fine Arts. — 62. Landscape drawing, 4 hours; Thursday and Friday, 2 
to 4. 

63. Drawing the figure, after copies and models ; Monday, Tuesday and Thurs- 
day, 2 to 4. 



'768 SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. 

64. Modeling in earth and plaster, for students in architecture and engineer- 
ing, 2 afternoons ; Monday and Saturday, 1 to 4. 

65. Designing ornaments for buildings, furniture, and other productions of 
arts and trades, 4 hours; Monday and Tuesday, 10 to 12. 

Instruction in German will be given, if thought necessary. 

APPARATUS, ETC., FOR INSTRUCTION. 

a. Collections. — During the year 1855-6 collections have been commenced, 
and carried to a point nearly as follows : — 

For drawing the figure. — Parts of the body, and entire figures. Simple out- 
lines, and shaded designs after the different methods of Juhen and Yolpats. 
Models by Albin and Mart. Fischer, for instruction in plastic anatomy. A pre- 
pared human skeleton. Eusts and detached portions of the body in plaster, 
mostly after the antique. 

For landscape drawing, — Lithographs of Calame ; studies by the professor. 

For archiieciural drawing. — Including constructions in wood and stone and 
architectural decoration, by different masters. (See below, under Library.) 

Models of constricction. — Collection of pieces of wood ; models of roofs, mostly 
after Moller ; various arches for doorways ; all from the estabhshment of Schroe- 
der at Darmstadt. This collection will be completed as soon as possible, from 
the rooms for working in wood and for making models. 

Plaster models of archiiectural ornaments. — Capitals and bases of antique 
columns, and other portions of monuments of antiquity, mostly from the archae- 
ological collections of Paris. 

Mfisiruments for land surveying. — Large instruments for measuring angles ; in- 
cluding, a repeating theodolite and another smaller theodolite, by Brunner of 
Paris; five leveling instruments, from Ertel of Munich, Starke of Vienna, 
Kinzelbach of Stuttgart, and Goldschmidt of Ziirich; four surveyors tables; 
and other instruments, by Goldschmidt of Ziirich and other Swiss makers. 

For dravjing plans. — Designs, partly by Prof. Bardin, of the Polytechnic 
School at Paris, but principally by Prof Wild. 

Astronomy — Various small instruments which have been used during the 
summer for the practical exercises carried on in the small observatory at Ziirich, 
which has been temporarily put in order for the purpose. 

Machines. — Models for the transformation of motion, from Prof Walter of 
Augsburg. (Engrenages,) by Schroeder of Darmstadt. Models of turbine 
wheels on a large scale, and section models of steam-enguies, are being con- 
structed in the work-rooms of the school. 

There is a Weissbach's hydrauhc apparatus, with its accessories, for instruc- 
tion in mechanics. 

Library. — During the year which is all that has elapsed since the foundation 
of the library, there have been collected about 2,000 volumes, most of them 
upon the various mathematical and applied sciences taught in the school, and 
of which a small number appertain specially to the sixth division. One set of 
works with copperplates, on the art of building, is of great value. 

In the reading-room are to be found thirty journals, mostly technical and 
mathematical, but some upon other sciences. 

The library was opened January 27, 1856, since which time have been given 
610 discharges of receipts for books taken home. Besides most of the profes- 
sers, 62 pupils of the polytechnic school have made use of the library. 

There are at Zurich collections in natural history, an archaeological collection, 
a library for natural history, and another for the sciences; to all of which pupils 
can have access. 

h. Scientific and Technical Departments. — Chemicallaboratory for analysis. — 
This is arranged for practical men, and well provided with all the necessary ap- 
paratus. Two afternoons are employed in the obligatory practice of the regular 
pupils, to whom the laboratory is always open at other tinaes. During the first 
term, 11 regular scholars and 14 attendants on lectures made use of it, and dur- 
ing the last term, 11 of the former and 10 of the latter. 



SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. ^59 

■ Laboratory of chemistry for technical and pharmaceutical operations. — ^Thia, 
after some small changes shortly to be made, is calculated for sixteen practicing 
scholars. Some large apparatuses necessary in a technical laboratory have not 
yet been erected, on account of want of room ; but there is a sufficient supply 
of other apparatus. The collection of articles for use in chemical instruction is 
already begun. This laboratory has been attended during the tirst term by two 
regular pupils and three attendants on lectures, and during the second, by two 
of the former and five of the latter. The operations pertbrmed by the regular 
pupils are adapted to their future employment. 

Cabinet of natural philosophy. — The collection of instruments of natural phi- 
losophy has been hitherto provided with instruments chiefly coming from the 
manutacturers of Paris and Berhn. The Kegnault's steam apparatus is by 
Gralaz, the thermometrical apparatus, by Fostee, the optical apparatus by 
Duboscq, of Paris, and all the electrical apparatus from Berlm. Various instru- 
ments have been procured, also, from other German or Parisian manufacturers. 
During the lessons, use has also been made of tlie apparatus belonging to the 
canton of Zurich, which are deposited in the same place. 

Convenient accommodations are yet wanting for exact physical experiments 
and large operations. 

Workshop for making models in metals. — During the first term, fifteen regular 
pupils and 1 attendant on lectures have been employed here, and the same num- 
ber during the second. It contains ten vices, with the instruments belonging to 
them ; but those which are least used are fewest in number. One vice, with a 
more complete set of tools, is appropriated to the adjoint professor in charge, 
and each of the others is used during one term by a set of pupils who use it 
alternately. Each vice, and the tools belonging to it, are designated by a cer- 
tain number. The most important large- instruments in this workshop are, a 
lathe for turning metals, arranged also for cutting screws ; a hand machine for 
planing metals; a boring machine, shears, &c.; a forge with a small ventilating 
blast on the American plan, to work by hand, with anvils, tongs, and the whole 
apparatus of a complete small forge. 

Workshop fm' models in wood. — This was used during the first term by seven 
regular pupils and three attendants of lectures, and during the second by five 
of the former and two of the latter. It contains five carpenter's benches with 
their fittings, one of which is set apart for the adjunct professor, and the others 
are used by the pupils. There is also»a turning-lathe for wood with the tools. 
The vices and benches are numbered, and the tools belonging to each has the 
same. 

As almost all the pupUs who have been at work here during the current year 
has had no previous practice, the first months were occupied in teaching them 
how to handle the tools. In the workshop for metals they filed cubes, and in 
that for wood, learned to use the principal tools. Afterwards they were set to 
construct models of machinery ; and m the former of the shops the pupils have 
been made to do as much as was possible, the instructor only puttmg on the 
finishing touch. 

The models completed are as follows: — 

1. Section model of locomotive cut-off, with Stephenson's (coulisse.) 

2. Section model of locomotive cut-oflf, on Gooch's plan. 

3. Diagram showing the excellences of the different locomotive cut-offs. 
There is, not yet completed, a locomotive cut-ofl" on the plan of Heusinger of 

Waldegg. 

In the workroom for wood, except a model of a roof by a pupil who had 
practiced before, no large model has been made ; the pupils have been altogether 
employed in making presses for their tools. Both pupils and teacher have had 
to employ much time in finishing off their workroom, and preparing it for use, 
and to construct (especially the teacher) a large supply of simple tools: and the 
same is the case in the workroom for metals. 

During the coming year, in which the number of pupils will constantly in- 
crease, the directors will endeavor to have constructed various small machines 
for the collections, and especially models which may be used in the course of in- 
struction ; and will endeavor to make all the scholars assist in this design, each 
according to his capacity. 



760 SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. 

The instructors in charge of the work will use all their time, outside of the 
hours of instruction, in the workshop and in finishing difficult models. 

Workshop for modeling in earth and plaster. — There have been prepared plas- 
ter models of stonework, to a given scale, according to the theoretical course in 
stone-cutting, and also architectural ornaments and parts of the body modeled 
in earth and afterwards molded in plaster. The workshop,, besides the pupils 
regularly employed in it, has been used during the first term by nine others, and 
during the second by three. Most of these others were obHged during the lat- 
ter term to return to their own practical vocations. The professor (the sculptor, 
M. Reiser,) does all his own work, whether in earth, plaster or marble, in the 
shop before the pupils, so that they are enabled to learn the technical execution 
of such work, and at the same time form their taste. 

All these workshops have been open to the pupils during the whole day, ex- 
cepting hours of instruction, and the masters have been constantly present. 

METHOD PURSUED IN INSTRUCTION. 

The instruction in the studies obligatory upon each division has consisted 
partly of drills (repetitions,) exercises and practical demonstrations in the course 
of technical and scientific excursions. 

Regular drilling exercises have been arranged, especially in the departments 
relative to mathematical and natural science. During most of these, as those in 
pure mathematics, descriptive geometry, mechanics, &c., numerous problems 
have been proposed in the course of the year, whose solution has in part been 
required of the pupils within a given time, in part left to their option, or ex- 
amined by the professor and discussed with the pupils. 

Among practical exercises, intended almost exclusively to stimulate the in- 
dividual faculties of the pupils, are ; those in design and construction, of the 
pupils of the schools of architecture, civil engineering and industrial mechanism ; 
those in land-measuring, of the first year of the school of engineers, in which a 
whole day per week is employed ; the manipulations in the analytical and tech- 
nical laboratories ; and the work in the shops. Pains have been taken to induce 
the pupils to spend most of their time not occupied in lessons, in the drawing- 
rooms, laboratories and workshops, and to consider them their own habitual 
places of labor. ^ 

But great hindrances to this plan have arisen from the great distance apart of 
the various departments of the school, which causes the loss of much time in 
the fi'equent comings and goings of the pupils, and from the fact that the time- 
table for study has not been arranged in a manner entirely satisfactory. 

Excursions have from the first been regularly made with the pupils in the 
school of forestry, in the forests near Zurich. Prof. Marchand also took his 
pupils to the meeting of the Society of Swiss Foresters, which was held this 
year at St. G-all, that they might hear the discussions. Prof. Heer, has also 
regularly made short excursions, besides one long one, for the sake of instruc- 
tion in botany. The pupils of the second year in the school of engineering 
have visited, under the direction of Prof. CaLmann, besides the bridges near 
Ziirich, the iron bridge over the Sitter near St. Gall, of which last they took 
drawings and measures in sufficient detail to enable them to execute, in the 
drawing-rooms, complete designs of that interesting work. The thanks of the 
institution are here offered to the engineers employed there, for their kind 
attentions to the professor and to his pupils. 

A long excursion with a view to chemical and mechanical studies was under- 
taken by Profs. BoUey and Reuleaux, with the pupils of their, divisions. They 
visited various places near the Rhine and above Basle, and returned by way of 
Basle and Aaran. In the course of this trip the pupils were enabled to examine 
a furnace and set of trip-hammers, a tin-work, a rolling-mill, a salt-work, a 
wood-gas work, which was especially interesting to the pupils, as one had also 
been recently constructed at Zurich, They also examined a cement-kiln, a 
manufactory of chemicals, one of printed goods, silk spinneries, &c. The pro- 
prietors of these establishments, with a politeness which deserves our acknowl^ 
edgements, allowed us to take many drawings in them. 

A measure similar to that adopted by several other industrial institutions, is 
the establishment of monthly competitions at prescribed tasks. The regulations 
for these are contained in the annual programme. 



SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. ^61 

PROaRAMME FOR 1867-68— SIXTY-TWO PROFESSORS. 
SUBJECTS OP INSTRUCTION, CLASSED BY DIVISIONS. 

FIRST DIVISION", OR SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE. {Couvse three years.) 

First Year, — Differential and integral calculus ; Descriptive geometry ; Con- 
struction of buildings, (2 courses;) Architectural design; detailed drawings of 
plans of buildings ; Designing the figure ; Ornamental drawing ; Landscape 
drawing ; Theory of contacts and intersections of curved surfaces, stone cut- 
ting ; History of ancient art ; Modeling in clay and plaster ; Experimental 
chemistry. 

Second Tear. — Art of building (2 courses,) embracing art of building civil edi- 
fices in middle ages and in modern times; Practical exercises in building ; Theory 
of shadows and perspective ; Mechanics, theory of machines; Construction of 
bridges and roads; Drawing of figures ; Construction of arches and vaults. 

Third Year. — Practical exercises in building ; Ornamental drawing ; Tech- 
nical geology; Law concerning buildings; Chemical technology; Lithology, 
with practical exercises. 

SECOND DIVISION, OR SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING. 

First Year. — Differential and integral calculus (2 courses;) Descriptive geom- 
etry; Art of building and drawing ; Drawing of plans ; Experimental physics; 
Experimental chemistry. 

Second Year. — Theory of differential equations ; Differential and integral cal- 
culus; Industrial mechanics; Geometry, of position; Theory of shadows and 
perspective ; Technical geology ; Topography, drawing of charts ; Description 
of machines and drawing of plans. 

Third Year. — Theory of machines ; Astronomy ; Geodesy ; Construction of 
bridges and rail-roads, with designs; Administrative law; Drawing of maps; 
Construction of iron frame-works ; Technology of building material ; Astron- 
omy, with exercises in the observatory ; Practical and theoretical surveying ; 
Lithology. ' 

THIRD DIVISION, OR SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL MECHANICS. 

Mrst Year. — Differential and integral calculus (2 courses ;) Descriptive geom- 
etry, with exercises ; Analytical geometry of surfaces, with exercises ; Drawing 
and designing of machines ; Experimental physics applied to mechanics ; Ex- 
perimental chemistry. 

Second Year. — Theory of differential equations ; Differential and integral cal- 
culus ; Industrial mechanics ; Art of constructing machines (2 courses ;) Selected 
portions of the same art ; Technology of mechanics ; Science of motion. 

Third Year. — Theory of machines ; Construction of models in wood ; Con- 
struction of models in metal ; Regulators ; Metallurgy ; Technology of building 
material. 

FOURTH DIVISION, OR SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY. 

First Year. — Inorganic chemistry ; Organic chemistry ; Selected portions of 
organic chemistry ; Experimental physics ; Manufacture of chemicals ; Glass 
and pottery; Description of machines ; Mineralogy; Elements of general bot- 
any; Geology; Industrial drawing; Chemical analysis in the laboratory; 
Zoology ; Chemical experimentation applied to industrial arts. 

Second Year. — Bleaching, dyeing and printing of tissues ; Practical manipu- 
lations in the laboratory ; Technology of machines ; Crystallography applied ; 
Practical geology ; Industrial chemistry ; Industrial drawing ; Analysis in the 
laboratory. 



762 SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. 

Third Yea/r. — Organic experimental chemistry ; Analytical chemistry ; Metal- 
lurgy ; Cliemical technology of building material ; Special botany ; Classification 
of minerals, with. exercises; Heating and lighting of buildings; Food and nu- 
trition; 1 Pharmaceutical chemistry for druggists and apothecaries; Pharmaceu- 
tical botany ; Pharmaceutical chemistry ; Technical portion of pharmacy ; Raw 
materials pbarmaceutically considered; Manipulation in the laboratory of phar- 
maceutical chemistry ; Toxicology. 

FIFTH DIVISION, OR SCHOOL OF FORESTRY. (2 years' course.) 

First Year. — Mathematics in reference to practical uses in forest culture; 
Botany ; Topography ; Drawing of plans ; Science of managing forests ; Excur- 
sions and exercises in valuation; Experimental chemistry; Law concerning 
forests; Mineralogy; Geology; Zoology. 

Second Year. — Exploration of forests; Preservation and utilization of forests; 
Management of forests by the state ; Statistics and literature of forestry ; Cli- 
mates and soils applied to forestry; Technical geology; Construction of bridges 
and roads; Administrative law and police; Botany and entomology applied to 
forestry; Agricultural chemistry; Lithology; Practical surveymg; Industrial 
physics. 

SIXTH DIVISION, OR NORMAL SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCE. 

Section a. Mathematics. 
First Year. — Differential and integral calculus ; Analytical and plain geom- 
etry, with practical exercises ; Introduction to analytical geometry ; Analytical 
geometry, with practical exercises; Experimental physics applied to arts. 

Second and Third Year. — Theory of differential equations ; Theory of func- 
tions ; Geometry of position, with practical exercises ; Astronomy ; Selected 
portions of higher astronomy, with exercises ; Technical mechanics ; Theory of 
life insurances; Analytical mechanics; Mathematical theory of gravitation, of 
electricity and magnetism ; Physical geography ; Mensuration of bodies. 

Section b, Natural Sciences. 
First Year. — Practical and analytical chemistry ; Selected portions of inor- 
ganic experimental chemistry ; Mineralogy; General botany ; Zoology. 

Second Year. — Praxis in industrial chemistry ; - Crystallography applied ; Mi- 
croscopical exercises ; Mensuration of bodies ; General geology ; Antediluvian 
plants and fossil insects. 

SEVENTH DIVISION, OS SCHOOL OF LITERAftTRE, MORAL SCIENCES AND POLITICAL 

ECONOMY 

tt. Natural Sciences, -^'^xpetimental physics ; Microscopical exercises ; Gen- 
eral botany ; Physical geography ; Geology ; Zoology ; Pharmaceutical botany ; 
f^dssil plants; Fossil insects; Mineralogy; Compounds of cyanogen ; Poly- 
atomic alcohols; Essential oils and aromatic compounds in general ; Paleon- 
tology; Geology of sedimentary formations ; Pharmaceutical chemistry; Toxi- 
cology; Selected portions of experimental chemistry; Fossils characteristic of 
the geological formations of Switzerland; Physical chemistry ; Stoecheometry; 
Analytical chemistry, qualitative and quantitative ; History of chemistry ; Rep- 
etitions of organic chemistry. 

b. Mathematical Sciences. — Elementary avStronomy; Theory of life-insur- 
ances ; Theory of surfaces of the second degree ; Elements of differential and 
integral calculus; Exercises in differential calculus; Exercises in industrial 
mechanics; Analytical mechanics; Mathematical theory of gravitation ; Light, 
electricity and galvanism; Determinants; Higher mechanics; Political arith- 
metic, (interest, rent, savings banks.) 

c. Languages and Literature. — History of ancient German literature to the 
end of the 17 th century; Exercises in oratory; History of literature ; Moliere 
and his time; Lecture on and explanation of the Cid of Corneille; Lecture on 
and explanation of chosen pieces from the Lettres Fersanes de Montesquieu; 



SWISS POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. 763 

Exercises in the French language; History of English literature; English 
novels; Shakspeare's Julius Caesar; Exercises in the English language; La 
commedia dell' arte in Itala e fuori d' Italia ; La poesia ispiratrice di Rafifaelo e 
del Correggio ; Exercises in the Italian language. 

d. History, Moral Sciences and Political Economy. — History of the time of 
Frederick the Great and the French revolution ; Sixteen characters of universal 
history — Pericles, Demosthenes, Alexander the Great, Hannibal, Cato junior, 
Tiberius, Attila, Mahommed, Charlemagne, Gregory the Seventh, Johanna of 
Arc, Richelieu, Cromwell, Peter the Great, Washington, Cavour; General 
theory of political economy; Commerce of the world from the foundation of 
the United States of America up to the present time ; Exposition and dis- 
cussions on questions of political economy; History of ancient art; History of 
modern painting since the introduction of oil-colors ; Commercial law ; Pohtical 
economy ; Critical studies of the doctrines of socialists and of reformists ; Ele- 
mentary course of international law ; Laws of the Swiss confederation ; History 
of Switzerland under the Helvetic republic; The British empire in the five 
divisions of the globe ; History of geography (2 courses ;) Introduction to geog- 
raphy, industry and commerce ; Explanation of the sculptures in the museum 
of archasology. 

e. Fine Arts. — Drawing of ornaments and decorations in the interior of build- 
ings ; Landscape drawing ; Drawing of heads and figures from models ; 
Modeling ; Theory of harmony. 

EIGHTH DIVISION — PBEPABATOBY COUESE OF MATHEMATICS TAUGHT BOTH IN FKENCH 
AND GEBMAN ; MODEBN LANGUAGES. 

Algebra ; Geometry of space and plane trigonometry ; Elements of descrip- 
tive geometry; Practical geometry; Experimental physics; Experimental 
chemistry ; Instruction in German ; Instruction m French. 

BUILDINGS OF THE POLYTECHNICUM AT ZURICH. 

At the founding of the school, the canton and the city of Zurich pledged 
themselves to erect a suitable building, and this subject was, in 1855, taken 
into consideration by the school committee, the authorities of the cantons and 
the council of the Swiss confederacy, but nothing resulted fi'om it until 1858, 
when the grand council of Zurich appropriated 1,700,000 francs ($340,000) for 
the erection of a building planned Ijy Prof Semper and Superintendent Wolf. 
In this building there was to be all necessary room for the Polytechnic School 
and also for the University of Zurich. 

The locality chosen is a little distance from the centre of the city, but has the 
advantage of an open prospect, perfectly quiet surroundings, and excellent light 
on all sides. It is a natural terrace of the woody mountain of Zurich, and is 
160 feet above the lake; the imposing front of the building is turned toward 
the city, and is an attractive feature in its surroundings. 

The school accommodation consists of the main structure and the chemical 
department. The main structure forms a rectangle whose longest side is 426 
Swiss feet and the shortest side 256 in extent. A pavilion separates the inte- 
rior quadrangle into two courts, furnished with fountains. The front is renais- 
sance, and the pavilion is adorned with Corinthian columns. The whole is con- 
structed of light green sandstone. 

There are four entrances, the main entr£fnce being in the pavilion, consisting 
of a vestibule with adjoining staircase, ornamented with Tuscan pillars ; contig- 
uous to this is the noble hall for antiques, 72 feet long and 56 wide, which con- 
tains the beautiful plaster molds of the archaeological museum. The halls for 
lectures and for design are all light and spacious, room being left for new col- 
lections. The whole building is excellently arranged ; it is heated by steam- 
pipes. 

Behind the main building is the well-arranged chemical school, and a little 
farther towards the mountain side is the new observatory, built after Prof 
Semper's plan. 

The cost of the main building, together with the chemical department, 
amounted to two miUion francs, ($400,000;) that of the observatory, 130,000 
francs, ($26,000,) without estimating the outlay for the interior. 



PESTALOZZI. DE PELLENBERG AND WEHRLI, 

AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. 



BY WILLIAM DE FELLENBERO. 



Early in the year 1798, Switzerland, whilst at peace with the French 
republic, was invaded by a numerous French army on the most frivolous 
pretexts. Amongst the Swiss Cantons which offered the most energetic 
resistance to the encroachments of the French Directory, Unterwalden 
stood in the first rank. Fearful was the vengeance of the enraged 
French soldiery, who devastated that unhappy country with fire and 
sword. The inhabitants who did not fall in battle (women as well as men 
having shared in the fight) fled, some into the mountains, some into the 
churches ; but the churches did not protect them fi-om the flames or 
bayonets, to which all the native sufferers became a prey ; the children 
w^ere however spared ; and crowds of these homeless orphans were to be 
seen, after the departure of the French, wandering about amidst the 
ruins of the villages. A wail resounded through Switzerland when this 
was known. 

The first philanthropist who devoted himself to the succor of these 
helpless objects, was Henry Pestaloz^, then Theological candidate. He 
had just before broken down utterly in preaching his probationary ser- 
mon — ra circumstance which was a bar to his prospects in the church, 
especially at such a seat of learning as Zurich. He did not know where 
to direct his steps ; the career of professional theology was closed to him, 
but not that of Christianity. He converted his little property into 
money, tied up his bundle, and set off to the Canton of Unterwalden, 
there to become the guardian of the poor deserted children. The season 
was inclement, but he succeeded, with the help of some kind-hearted 
friends, in forming a shelter for his new family, amongst the ruins of the 
little village of Hanz. Here Pestalozzi fed, clothed, and housed the gath- 
ering flock, increasing in numbers till he was obliged to consider how he 
could bring them under some kind of discipline ; but for this purpose he 
had no help except from the children themselves. He therefore chose 
from amongst them the most intelligent, taking care to select those who 
had most influence with their companions. These he appointed his assist- 
ants ("lieutenants") in the lessons, as well as in the necessaiy household 
work, such as keeping the place in order, mending clothes, collecting 
w^ood, &c. He soon added to these occupations the cultivation of a small 

• Communicaled to the " National Association for the Promotion of Social Science," bj 
Lady Noel Byron, and published in the " Transactions " for 1858. 



7c 6 PESTALOZZI, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. 

piece of land ; and the little colony assumed the aspect of an orderly 
community. 

In the meantime patriots from various parts of Switzerland had arrived 
in Hanz, bringing provisions and stores of all kinds. The fugitive in- 
habitants gradually returned from the mountains, and all fell into theii 
former way of life. Pestalozzi's school was welcome to all as long as the 
children were fed and provided for in it ; but his funds being exhausted, 
and the aid of the benevolent being required for the returning fugitives 
on their own account, there were no means of maintaining the establish- 
ment. Thus, to the great sorrow of every one, Pestalozzi felt the neces- 
sity of separating from his beloved children. Still the recollection of his 
Unterwalden family, and of the kind of training which he had been 
driven to employ from the failure of other resources, remained a living 
picture in his mind. It gave a distinct and tangible aim to his deep in- 
ward longing to serve his fellow creatures ; it became the vision of his 
dreams, the object of all his plans ; and he caught at whatever promised 
to bring him nearer to the desired end. In consequence, all his inter- 
course with friends — for he found many after the events of Unterwal- 
den — was directed to the same end. To most of them, however, he 
spoke in riddles, since they could not have understood him unless they 
had like him learned, by experience, how powerful an instrument for 
training the young is to be found in labor for bread, when under skillful 
management. By all true philanthropists, indeed, the full value of Pes- 
talozzi's work in Unterwalden was recognized ; and in its merits his un- 
successful sermon was forgotten. Great hopes were formed of the results 
of such rare self-devotion, and many anticipated that a new light on edu- 
cation would be kindled by it When he made knowm his project of an 
educational institute, the government of the canton of Berne offered him 
the use of the Chateau of Burgdorf for that purpose. He accepted the 
offer, and opened a school in that place. 

Pestalozzi's reputation, founded upon some striking works for the 
people, '-'■Leonard and Gertrude,^'' with others, brought him immediately 
a great number of pupils ; some of them out of the most influential 
families, with whom he had an opportunity of putting in practice one part 
of his educational sj'-stem, called by himself the " Anschauungs Lehre,'* 
teaching by sight and other senses. But his industrial training could not 
be carried into effect, because his pupils were chiefly of aristocratic fam- 
ilies, and not obliged to support themselves by manual labor. He con- 
soled himself, however, with the hope of saving enough out of the income 
derived from the school payments of the rich, to establish a small agri- 
cultural school for the poor, on his own plan, in connection with the 
institute. 

His new system already began to excite public attention. Young men 
of the teachers' class thronged around him, and endeavored, with more 
or less success, to acquire his method, hoping thereby to make their for- 
tunes in the novelty -loving world ; but amongst all those who were thus 
brought into contact with him, there was not one who could comprehend 



PESTALOZZl, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. >jqIj 

his great idea, that of making Labor, more especially Agricultural La- 
hor^ a principal means of training the young ; indeed, had he found 
such a one it could not have helped him ; for in his fortress there «ras 
not a foot of ground in which any thing could be planted. 

An opportunity was soon afforded of carrying out the aim of his heart 
by these circumstances. Amongst the acquaintances Pestalozzi had 
made in earlier times, during a journey before he went to Unterwalden, 
was the family of Tcharner, of Wilden Stein. Tcharner, who was the 
Bernese Landvogt, appeared to Pestalozzi to realize his idea of what a 
governor ought to be, such as he had drawn in his most celebrated work, 
'* Leonard and Gertrude^'' in the character of Arner. Through this fam- 
ily he became acquainted with that of De Fellenberg, who succeeded 
Tcharner in the government of Wilden Stein ; and a young De Fellen- 
berg became one of Pestalozzi's most attentive listeners. This young 
man accompanied him on several journeys, and was one of the few who 
afterwards entered into, and adopted, his idea of industrial education. 
But it was a circuitous route by which De Fellenberg came to the reso- 
lution of acting out Pestalozzi's idea. He was educated for a political 
career, but his mother's character had implanted in him the germ which 
enabled him to receive and comprehend the ideas of Pestalozzi. His 
mother used to say to him: " The Rich have always helpers enough^ help 
thou the PoorP 

It was during the early days of the French Revolution that he studied 
law at the University of Tubingen, in Germany. Returning just as the 
difficulties of Switzerland with the French were beginning, he then 
heard of Pestalozzi's school in Unterwalden, and was vividly reminded 
of his former acquaintance with bim. Other circumstances also con- 
curred to give the bent to his mind, which changed his path in life from 
that of a politician to that of a philanthropist. 

The tremendous war taxes which the French Directory exacted from 
the Swiss, and the pressure of the military occupation on the country, 
brought Switzerland to the brink of despair, and it was resolved to send 
an embassy consisting of the leading men to Paris, in order to entreat 
the directory to lighten these burthens. De Fellenberg accompanied one 
of these ambassadors as secretary ; and what he then saw of French 
freedom, and the political tendencies of that time, convinced him that he 
must seek another path. He returned to Switzerland, more than ever 
determined to serve his country in the spirit which had been awakened 
in his early youth by that saying of his mother. He soon afterwards 
married the grand-daughter of Tcharner, the before-mentioned friend of 
Pestalozzi, and was henceforward brought more into contact with him. 
About this time De Fellenberg's father, who was professor of law in 
Bern, purchased the estate of Hofwyl, near to that city, in order to givo 
his son a field of action. Hofwyl is only nine English miles distant from 
Burgdorf. Thus De Fellenberg and Pestalozzi became neighbors, and 
this led to frequent interchange of thought between them, in which Pes- 
talozzi endeavored to induce De Fellenberg to employ his estate in real- 



768 PESTALOZZI, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. 

izing his favorite idea of industrial education. Pestalozzi had at that 
time competent teachers for the promulgation of his method of teaching. 
Each of these teachers imagined himself at least a 3''ounger Pestalozzi, 
who owed the father Pestalozzi just as much subordination as seemed 
good to themselves, and no more. Thus, in a few years after its founda- 
tion, the institute presented a picture of anarchy ; and Pestalozzi felt 
himself incapable, through diminished practical powers, of reorganizing 
it as was required, and placing it on a firm basis, which he thought De 
Fellenberg could best accomplish. 

The Bernese government possessed a building, once a convent, near 
Hofwyl, called Miinchen Buchsee, and Pestalozzi proposed to the author- 
ities to give it him instead of^Burgdorf He offered the entire manage- 
ment of his institute to De Fellenberg, and the government consented. 
De Fellenberg made a stipulation that he should have the power of dis- 
missing any of the teachers who should not conform to his regulations. 
Pestalozzi agreed to this, and transplanted his establishment to Miinchen 
Buchsee, which is only ten minutes' walk from Hofwyl. Here De Fel- 
lenberg had an opportunity of judging of Pestalozzi's method, and of 
seeing both its strong and weak points. He was also able to enter into 
Pestalozzi's farther schemes. It is scarcely to be doubted that the dom- 
inant idea of Pestalozzi would have been then carried out at Hofwyl un- 
der his own eyes, if the characters of the two men had been such that 
they could labor together in the same work with success. But in their 
daily intercourse it soon appeared, that Pestalozzi's excessive kindness of 
heart led him to regard as tyranny a consistent prosecution of that plan ; 
while De Fellenberg, from his characteristic energy, bore Pestalozzi's 
want of decision impatiently, and treated it as loss of time. It was, 
therefore, not difficult for Pestalozzi's assistants to persuade him that he 
had fallen into the hands of a t3^rant, from who he should release himself 
at any cost. He therefore accepted at once the offer from the govern- 
ment of the Canton Waadt (Pays de Vaud) to give up to him the Schloss 
Yverdun, on the lake of Neuchatel, for the reception of his institute ; 
and thus ended the connection between Pestalozzi and De Fellenberg, 
without, however, any personal disagreement. Pestalozzi rejoiced ex- 
tremely when, in 1806, De Fellenberg sent one of his sons to him to be 
educated, accompanied by a young man, as tutor, who should acquire a 
knowledge of Pestalozzi's system. 

De Fellenberg meanwhile, at Hofwyl, had come to the determination 
to begin the work of industrial education, and the only question with 
him now was, to find an able assistant who could fill the position of 
^'Father'''' to his pupils, and as such embody his idea. After having 
sought among a considerable number of young men of the educating 
class in Switzerland, he found the right one in the following manner. 
Pestalozzi's method of teaching had excited great attention among all 
engaged in education throughout Switzerland. It seemed so simple to 
lead the pupil by enlisting his own will, and rousing his own reason to 
assist in his own instruction, that every reflecting teacher could only 



PESTALOZZI, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI, fjQg 

wonder why the idea had not occurred to him long before, as the num- 
ber of children in a school rendered some such method almost necessary. 
Many, therefore, endeavored to apply what they had heard of his sys- 
tem, apparently so simple, to the subjects then taught in their schools, 
reading, writing, the catechism, &c. ; but they soon found the task to be 
much more difficult than they had imagined. Manj^, therefore, were 
anxious to study the Pestalozzian method from Pestalozzi himself; but 
this was too expensive for most of them. The pecuniary affairs of the 
institute were so involved from mismanagement, that Pestalozzi could not 
admit any such supernumeraries except for a considerable sum. This 
led De Fellenberg to think of opening a course of instruction in the Pes- 
talozzian method ; on the one hand, to offer to earnest teachers this oppor- 
tunity of improvement ; on the other, with the hope, among the numbers 
who might assemble at Hofwyl, to find an assistant for his own particular 
object. He communicated his scheme to Pestalozzi, who was delighted with 
it, and sent him a young man from Prussia named Zeller, no less thor- 
oughly imbued with his method than enthusiastic in promoting it. De 
Fellenberg was thus able to open his course of instruction, 1st May, 
1806. For this purpose he had a cottage built in a little wood, beneath 
great linden trees, on twelve posts, and with a single roof. The upper 
part served as a sleeping-room, the ground-floor as a school-room. In 
the morning, the hours from five to seven, and from eight till twelve, 
were devoted to lessons. In the afternoon the teachers worked in the 
fields and in the garden of Hofwyl. In the evening they prepared the 
vegetables for the next day's meals. During the harvest they assisted in 
the fields during the whole day. De Fellenberg, in this way, showed 
them how an industrial school ought to be organized. He gave them also 
every morning, a lesson in agricultuj-e, in which he explained the various 
field operations and their connection. He conversed with them on the 
subject of making agricultural labor a valuable aid in education, and a 
subject of instruction for boys. Each evening he talked over with them 
the labors of the following day. Thus he led the teachers to do their 
M'ork with intelligence ; to take pleasure in it, and to see how advanta- 
geous would be to themselves the knowledge thus obtained of agricul- 
ture, as the means of making the soil more productive during the rest 
of their life ; for most teachers in Switzerland depend for the principal 
part of their subsistence on a few acres of public ground. 

All this instruction was in accordance with Pestalozzi's ideas — De Fel- 
lenberg even carried them further than their originator — for Pestalozzi 
based his system on the perception of the senses (Anschauung,) making 
this the ground work of memory. Former systems had only concealed 
themselves with the memory, and with matters which could be made ob- 
jects of perception ; De Fellenberg then went beyond Pestalozzi, inas- 
much as he added the action to the perception; "for," said he, "what 
has been done, and done with thought, will be retained more firmly by 
the memory, and will bring a surer experience than that which has been 
only seen or heard." Earlier schools made the ear and words the subject- 



770 PESTALOZZI, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. 

matter of memory — Pestalozzi, the eye and picture — De Fellenberg, the 
action. Zeller, though versed in Pestalozzi's method, followed De Fel- 
lenberg's step in advance of it, with the readiness of one desirous of im- 
provement; and brought his objective teaching, as far as possible, into 
relation with the daily lessons of the teachers — the effect of which was 
to render them more interesting and animated. 

The teachers who took part in these courses of instruction have been 
heard, even years after, to describe the scene so vividly that it seemed as if 
they had just come from it ; and it has been often proved that whilst other 
teachers, from want of knowledge of farming, have been ruined in times 
of distress, such as 1816, 1817, the Hofwyllers, as they were called, 
struggled out of their diflBculties by their own exertions. 

About thirty joined in the first season's lessons. These, on their re- 
turn home, mentioned them to their acquaintances. The follovring 
spring, no less than eighty teachers made their appearance at Hofwyl. 
This influx created difficulties for De Fellenberg, as an individual, and 
caused him some pecuniary embarrassment. 

In order to carry out his plans he was obliged to find difl^ereiit kinds 
of labor, which he would not, perhaps, otherwise have thought of. 
Among these was drainage, then effected only by means of stones, or 
with wooden pipes ; and as the Hofwyl land was extremely stony, this 
answered two purposes at once. The drainage water also was turned to 
account, in watering the low-lying meadows. All these occupations 
again gave Zeller the opportunity of extending his object-lessons. In- 
struction in drawing was joined with them ; this art being regarded by 
De Fellenberg and Zeller as a connecting link between perception and 
action. 

The second course was attended by a little schoolmaster, named 
Wehrli, from the canton of Thurgovie. Although an elderly man, he 
had set off, on hearing of the new method of teaching, and traveled on 
foot about one hundred and fifty miles, in order to improve himself in 
his profession. He was one of the most zealous and attentive students, 
and endeavored to inform himself as thoroughly as possibly on all points 
that were new to him. When De Fellenberg, at times, explained to the 
teachers how agricultural labor might be made a means of education, de- 
claring his own wish to establish an example of such industrial training, 
if he could only find a capable assistant, it was always old Wehrli who, 
after the lesson, had most questions to ask ; and at the end of the course 
he said that he had a son whom he could recommend to carry the plan 
into effect. Induced by his description of his son, De Fellenberg invited 
him to Hofwyl : and shortly afterwards there appeared before him a 
youth of eighteen, with a pleasing expression of countenance, modest 
bearing, but fearless glance, commissioned by his father to enter the ser- 
vice cf De Fellenberg. Young Jacob Wehrli was not long in compre- 
hending what De Fellenberg required of him. He only wished, as soon 
as possible, to be put in command of boys with whom he could set to 
work. De Fellenberg was so convinced of the certainty of success in 



PESTALOZZI, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. fjfjl 

his undertaking, that he did not hesitate to give the first beggar-boy 
whom he found, as a pupil to young Wchrli. Wehrli was no less confi- 
dent in its being an easy task to change the most unmanageable of vag- 
abonds into an industrious member of society ; and, in fact, the first few 
weeks of kind treatment, not omitting better food, seemed to make the 
desired impression which De Fellenberg and Wehrli ascribed to their 
system. This result was, however, not a little attributable to Wehrli's 
having shared all the occupations of his pupil, so that when the boy felt 
weary or idle, he was ashamed to let his master, as he called Wehrli, 
work alone. When, however, after a few weeks, the better food and 
kindly treatment were no longer new, the beggar-boy began to long after 
his former "free life," and tried, instead of working, to go after birds' 
nests, the eggs of which had formed the luxuries of his former diet ; or 
else he sought out a snug corner to sleep in. When Wehrli said to him, 
"Those who will not work shall not eat," he took up his tools again, it 
is true, but as his thoughts were not in his work, his labor was worth 
nothing, and Wehrli saw that he should not attain his purpose in that 
way. So it was necessary that the boy should experience the conse- 
quence of his idleness, and go to bed one evening without his food. 
"What," thought he, "I am deprived of my liberty, and must hunger 
into the bargain?" and the next morning, very early, he took his depart- 
ure. Thus Wehrli had now no pupil. De Fellenberg himself was as- 
tonished that the beggar-boy had not known better how to appreciate his 
kindness, and he then made a fresh experiment with the son of an in- 
dustrious laborer, who, burthened Avith a large family, was glad of the 
oppoj'tunity of providing for one of his children. He was a weakly boy, 
but willing and anxious to learn, and gave Wehrli more satisfaction. It 
was not so wonderful that a child "out of a laborer's family, should be 
trained to industry. Still it was attended with much trouble to accus- 
tom the boy, somewhat enfeebled by his mother's care, to field-labor. 
De Fellenberg had said that they would not take a second boy till the 
first was in good order, that the example of the one might influence the 
other. The prospect of such a result with this weakly boy was unfavor- 
able, and Wehrli found that he should have to go through the whole 
winter with but one pupil. At the beginning of the cold days, however, 
our young friend, the beggar-boy, made his appearance, and promised, if 
he were received back, to work hard for his bread. It really seemed as 
if the young vagabond had instituted some comparisons between his 
"fi'ee life" and Hofwyl training, to the advantage of the latter. The 
two new comrades soon strove which should do his work best — a contest 
in which the beggar-boy soon gained the upper hand, and took the posi- 
tion of teacher, as he displayed much more skill and aptitude than the 
other. This satisfied his ambition, and Wehrli took care not to weaken 
this first germ of civilization in him, but rather endeavored to convince 
De Fellenberg that they might now receive, a third boy; as he had a 
strong and intelligent assistant in the beggar-boy, and could, at least, de- 
pend on the good will of the other lad. Soon there followed a third and 



772 PESTALozzr, de fellenberg and wehrli. 

a fourth ; but care was taken not to increase the vagrant element, till the 
inner strength of the httle family might make it safe to do so. 

This was the commencement of the agricultural school for the poor at 
Hofwj^l, in which the Objective Teaching of Pestalozzi was brought into 
action in concurrence with labor. When the pupils reached ten in num- 
ber Wehrli was able to promote some of them to be his assistants ; not 
so much in school-teaching, as in the direction of work, arranging that 
each older pupil should take charge of a younger one, as an apprentice. 
Such was the type of the ultimate development of the school ; just as in 
a well-ordered family the elder children lead on the younger ones by 
their example. 

Agricultural labors offer a richer field for this purpose than any other 
employment. Every sort of capacity is brought into action. Each 
member of the family performs his part of the common labor, and en- 
joys the elevating consciousness of being useful to the community. In 
striving to fill his position well, he learns to act from a sense of duty, and 
strengthens this virtue by practice. De Fellenberg's pupils, however, 
were not confined to agricultural labor ; the requirements of his farm, and 
afterwards of his educational establishment for the upper classes, gave 
employment to various artizans, as cart makers, carpenters, joiners, black- 
smiths, locksmiths, workers in wood, iron, leather, mechanics, shoe- 
makers, tailors. Therefore, the pupils of the lower school, if they 
wished to learn a handicraft, had a wide choice open to them, without 
being obliged, during their apprenticeship, to neglect the instruction from 
books in which they had become interested. 

Wehrli's school, gradually increasing from a small family circle to a 
youthful community, reached the number of 150 pupils, without dimin- 
ishing in moral strength or intellectual energy. Amongst these a con- 
siderable number were trained to become teachers in national schools, 
and superintendents of similar establishments ; such as are now to be 
found in most of the cantons of Switzerland, in many German states, in 
France, in the Netherlands, in Italy, and elsewhere. The greatest ser- 
vice rendered by the system of industrial training, in schools modeled 
after Wehrli's, has been in those devoted to rescuing juvenile offenders 
from the path of ruin, and restoring them to society. Up to the prtsent 
time, the Rettungs Haus, at Bachtele, near Berne, in Switzerland is one 
of the best institutions of this nature, and Dr. Wichern, the founder 
of the Rauhen Haus, near Hamburg, and De Metz, founder of the Colo- 
nic Penitentiare, at Mettrai, in France, have employed this system, 
as the only effectual mode of reclaiming the most abandoned juvenile 
delinquents. 

We must not omit to mention here an observation, confirmed by facts, 
that wherever such schools have been established with success, they have 
always, as in the case of Wehrli's, at Hofwyl, arisen out of the small 
family principle gradually extended. There have not been wanting at- 
tempts to organize such schools on a gigantic scale, but few of these 
have proved themselves strong enough to live. It has always been- de- 



PESTALOZZI, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. 'j'jg 

monstrated that it is not the system that can give life, but the spirit ; the 
strength, love, and faith of the founder; and all these will naturally in- 
crease from the smallest germ, and become strong by exercise. This was 
proved, too, in Hofwyl itself, for when after forty years' exertions, Wehrli 
was recalled to his native canton of Thurgovie, to conduct there an in- 
stitution for the education of teachers, after the model of Hofwyl, De 
Fellenberg sought his successor from amongst the numerous teachers of 
the lower school; but not one of the chosen "step-fathers" could take 
Wehrli's place. The school lost with him its peculiar vitality, and it 
would have been better to have begun it afresh. De Fellenberg had felt 
from the first the true position of the wealthy in relation to the poorer 
classes, and that it would be only half doing his work in the world, if he 
merely showed w^hat treasures existed in the working classes to be 
drawn forth. The rich must be taught, at the same time, by what means 
they could succeed in extracting those treasures. Witnesses were 
wanted out of the upper classes to the educational elevation of the labor- 
ing classes — witnesses who might afterwards carry forward his work. 
About the time at which he made his first experiment in industrial train- 
ing, he began an agricultural course, for landow^ners. The success of 
his plan of deep-soil ploughing, draining, and irrigation, upon the for- 
merly somewhat neglected ground of his estate, w^as much approved, and 
brought him a large number of pupils, many of whom also took an inter- 
est in his education of the poor. But these young men remained so 
short a time under his direction, that he could not anticipate the exten- 
sion of his views in a wider circle through them. He therefore opened, 
in 1809, his educational institute for the upper classes, of the same kind 
as that which Pestalozzi conducted at Iverdun — afterwards extensively 
known — and he here made use o£ the experience which Pestalozzi had 
gained during manj'' years with his objective lessons. 

In working out his method, Pestalozzi had arrived at a somewhat one- 
sided system of instruction, founding all on his pupil's own perceptions. 
He excluded traditions far too much, so that it was said of him that the 
whole past of human cultivation w'as lost to his pupils — as, for instance, 
history, De Fellenberg endeavored to avoid this one-sidedness in his 
school, by giving the study of history its place, adapting it with care to 
the young. On the other hand, he strove by every means to afford to 
the pupils of his higher school a field for the development of their pow- 
ers of action. He introduced extensive gymnastics, including military 
exercises, swimming, riding, pedestrian exercises, turning, and similar 
mechanical occupations, gardening, and skating. At the same time, 
under the guidance of a special master, the boys formed a kind of inde- 
pendent community amongst themselves, for the management of their 
own affairs out of school-hours ; arranging their various occupations, as 
well as games of all kinds, their walking tours, gardening, &c. They 
chose their own officers, punished casual offenders, and thus practiced 
obedience to self-imposed law. In this manner De Fellenberg strove, 
with these pupils also, to promote action and the discipline of life, as the 



VY4 PESTALOZZI, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. 

actual means of education ; and to lay the foundation of self-reliance in 
the man by the cultivation of self-government, and various capabilities 
in the boy and youth, so that in the upper school also, the prominent 
feature was education hy action^ which coincided with the industrial 
training of the lower or poor school. 

The two institutions were brought into contact in many ways. Pupils 
of the upper school who required physical strengthening, or muscular 
exhaustion, so to speak, as was the case with many, were sent for a time 
to field-labor in the lower school. In both cases, labor acted as a whole- 
some medicine, whilst the boys themselves regarded getting up at three 
in the morning to earn a breakfast with a thrashing flail as one of their 
greatest pleasures. Many amusements were shared by both schools — ^for 
instance, skating and sledging in winter, and gymnastic games in sum- 
mer. The sons of the wealthy learnt from pupils of the lower school to 
respect labor, whilst the poor viewed their richer companions not as ene- 
mies but as sympathizing friends. The pupils of the upper school kept 
a poor-box, into which were paid all the small fines, and the voluntary 
contributions of the boys also, on Sundays, after the religious services. 
These funds afforded them the means of helping the sick and infirm peo- 
ple whom they met with in their visits to the poor families round Hofwyl. 
Such visits were usually made on Sunday afternoons. Thus also was 
Sunday sanctified, not by words only, but by deeds. 

In order to awaken yet more sympathy in the sons of the rich for the 
education of the poor, a little colony from the lower school was at one 
time established in a wood, about six miles from Hofwyl, on an inclosure 
of about twelve acres. The walls of the dwellings were of clay, and 
were the work of the pupils of the upper school. The doors, windows, 
floor, ceilings, partitions, beds, tables, chairs, and cupboards, w'ere made 
by the young carpenters of both schools ; and it was a common festival 
for all when the first four pupils, with their teacher, were established in the 
new colony, on which occasion the chief enjoyment consisted in this, that 
both schools joined in digging and in preparing for planting the piece of 
ground destined for a garden. For several years, one of the most favor- 
ite Sunday walks was to visit the new colony and observe its progress. 

Thus it was that the practical working, as well as the theory, of agri- 
cultural poor schools was carried by Hofwyl pupils into distant countries ; 
and thus, too, the boys of the upper school took away with them more 
correct notions of active beneficence, as well as of the duties which prop- 
erty imposes upon its possessor. 

This education earned much approbation from the public, and the 
number of pupils increased in a short time. Their payments enabled 
Be Fellenberg to extend the Poor School, which we before mentioned. 
It also made it possible for him to give several "courses" for the benefit 
of earnest teachers ; and amongst them he discovered young men who 
attached themselves, willingly and efficiently, to his work of training the 
poor, assisting him to spread it abroad. 

Among the many strangers who visited Hofwyl, some, who were not 



PESTALOZZl, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLI. ^75 

satisfied with seeing what was done there, inquired into the possibility 
of founding similar institutions in their own homes. Then it always ap* 
peered necessary, as a first condition, to have a AVehrli ; and De Fellen- 
berg perceived that, if all these good intentions should be carried into 
efiect, he must consider how he could procure more than Wehrli. 
He was now able to make use of those young men whom he had 
found quahfied, in the course of his classes, for teachers, and without 
whom it would have been impossible for him to extend his system thus 
widely in so short a time. For however simple at first sight the idea 
might appear, that the same means which renders the individual capable 
of self-support — namely, his development as a worker, should be made 
the chief agent in his education — nevertheless, such simple ideas are only 
suggested by that common sense which Diogenes sought with a lantern 
in broad daylight. To carry them out into practice requires a self-denial 
and devotion, which is the fruit of a long exercise of Christian virtues. 

Pestalozzi's original ideal was thus realized in Hofvvjd. He had 
practiced his method of instruction at Iverdun, at first with great suc- 
cess ; but here, again, his want of capacity for management stood in 
his way. 

We are far, however, from wishing to depreciate, in the smallest de- 
gree, the great service which he rendered in the furtherance of true 
popular education. If his objective system did not^entirely develop in- 
dustrial training, it may at least be considered as having given the first 
impulse in that direction. What must above all be regarded in all he did 
is his inexhaustible love for the young, to express which, he could 
scarcely find words. It inspired every one with whom he came in con- 
tact, and became the distinguishing characteristic of his true disciples. If 
his S3^stem embraced but few subjects of teaching, its deficiencies were 
compensated for by the intensity with which it acted upon such as could 
be brought within its sphere. 

Pestalozzi's simple motto was, "Nothing can be learned except through 
comparison of the unknown with the known;" and, again, "Every thing 
is contained in the child; the teacher must know how to draw it out by 
love and patience : love can always find means." To teachers he often 
said, " Go, and learn of the mother." 

The young, according to his view, could only know by the physical 
perception which requires repeated exercise to advance to mental percep- 
tion. What the eye sees must be thoroughl)'^ comprehended by means 
of feeling, hearing, smelling, tasting, in order that the verbal description 
of the object and its properties may be perfectly understood. Then the 
teacher proceeded to numbers and measures, and lastly drawing came in 
to complete the external image. 

From this short sketch of the course pursued by Pestalozzi's method 
of objective teaching, it will be seen that it was especially calculated to 
qualify and prepare its scholars for the study of natural science ; and it 
is evident that in agriculture lay the richest mine for the practice of 
objective teaching. As a farther development of his system, Pestalozzi 



Y76 PESTALOZZr, DE FELLENBERG AND WEHRLL 

could not fail to look with satisfaction on De Fellenberg's agricultural 
school at Hofwyl. If we cast a glance at the studies of the naturalist — 
as widely comprehensive as they are deep and searching — and upon their 
manifold uses in common life, we can scarcely fail to acknowledge, with 
gratitude, in Pestalozzi's system one of the influences which have helped 
to promote and facilitate scientific pursuits. 

De Fellenberg pursued his work at Hofwyl, in the manner before 
described, till the year 1844. We have mentioned how offshoots of his 
work for educating the poor were formed with success in most of the 
cantons of Switzerland, and the adjoining countries ; and he could look 
upon his life with the consciousness of having begun a work that would 
advance and develop itself through the inherent truth of the principle 
which it represented. 

It is very significant of the effect produced by the efforts of Pestalozzi 
and De Fellenberg, that when, in 1844, the erection of a national monu- 
ment to Pestalozzi was talked of, and men of all ranks met to consider 
the subject, it was agreed, without opposition from any quarter, to 
abandon the idea of a stone or bronze statue, and raise instead of it, a 
living memorial to the father of Swiss education, consisting of an insti- 
tution for the training of poor children of both sexes, in accordance 
with his ideas, and after the model of Wehrli's school at Hofwyl. 
This monument is still flourishing, and will be a blessing to coming 
generations. 

De Fellenberg's institutions at Hofwyl did not escape the fate of all 
human affairs. He died in 1844. The political events of 1845—48 caused 
a dissolution of his schools at the moment; but his system was .too 
firmly established in Sw/tzerland, by means of numerous training and 
other schools, to be effected by the continuance or discontinuance of Hof- 
wyl. That which he sought to accomplish by means of his schools was 
achieved : — 1. Switzerland had obtained a system of popular education, 
having its foundation in the wants of the nation, and which it could 
henceforth develop independently, as there was scarcely a place of any 
importance in the country where there was not a pupil, either of Pesta- 
lozzi or De Fellenberg, to take an active interest in the schools. 2. The 
idea of training by action, by productive and civilizing labor, had ad- 
vanced from theory into practice. The same means which are pointed 
out to man for his material support were now brought to serve as an 
effective instrument in his education ; and, as the great mass of man- 
kind are destined to maintain themselves by labor, the most effective 
means of civilizing and educating this large majority was thus discov- 
ered in labor. The chief point which remained to be considered was, 
how the leading classes of society, the employers, could be trained to 
recognize their duty, to educate and elevate morally the working classes, 
with the same interest with which they make use of hired labor to in- 
crease their own property. De Fellenberg indicated the way to this end 
also, and made the first step by the establishment of his educational 
institution, described above, for the higher classes. 



SPECIAL mSTRUCTION m THE KINGDOM OF ITALY. 



Square Miles. 


Inhabitants. 


28,229 


5,090,245 


17,511 


5,007,427 


2,073 


480,458 


2,706 


507,881 


8,586 


1,778,021 


17,210 


3,006,771 


43,127 


8,704,472 


26 


7,000 


43 


6,800 


119,581 


24,695,720 



INTRODUCTION. 

Italy, in the year 1848, comprised an area of 119,581 square miles, with 
a population of 24,695,720, distributed and organized as follows : 
States. 

1. Kingdom of Sardinia, 

2. Lombardo- Venetian Kingdom, 

3. Duchy of Modena, 

4. Duchy of Parma, 

5. Grand Duchy of Tuscany, 

6. Papal States, 

7. Kingdom of Naples, - 

8. Republic of San Marino, - 

9. Principality of Monaco, 

Total, - 

After the war of 1859, in which the Austrians were defeated, Lombardy, 
having on 8,313 square miles, 3,104,838 inhabitants, was ceded to Sardinia, 
wliilst the latter power (Sardinia) ceded Nice, having 1,633 square miles, 
and 543,535 inhabitants to France. 

In the years 1860 and 18G1, the kingdom of Italy was established, and 
Parma, Modena, Tuscany, Naples, and the greater part of the Papal 
States, with an aggregate of 12, #08 square miles, and 2,446,683 inhab- 
itants, as also the republic of San INIarino, which, however, retained its 
peculiar constitution, were united with it. 

In the year 1866, Venice, with 9,198 square miles, and 2,485,816 inhab- 
itants, became part of the kingdom of Italy. Tlie principality of Monaco 
was incorporated in the French empire in the year 1864. 

Italy, in 1869, was composed of the following states : 

States. Square Miles. Inhabitants. 

1. The Kingdom of Italy, - - 107,776 24,437,295 

2. The Papal Dominion," - - 4,502 692,106 



Total, ... - 112,278 25,066,401 

More than one-third of the entire population (8,292,248) are engaged 
in agricultural pursuits; 3,923,631 in manufactures and commerce; 58,551 
in mining; 542,293 in professions; 174,008 in the services of the Church; 
147,448 in government and public employment; 242,386 in the army and 
navy. Tlie population is disti'ibuted through 8,856 communes, of which 
2,663 have less than 1,000, and 9 more than 100,000 inhabitants. 

The general system is administered by a special Ministry of Public 
Instruction, and the technical institutions by the Ministry of Agriculture 
and Commerce. The latest statistics are as follows : 



Y^8 STATISTICS OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN KINGDOM OF ITALY. 

1. Pi'imari/ Tnstrnction. In 1806 there were 24,682 public primary schools, 
viz: 14,240 for boys, and 9,737 for girls; whilst the number of jirivate primary 
schools was 5,435, viz: 2,726 for boys, and 2,341 for girls; making a total 
of 31,117 primary schools, viz: 16,966 for boys, and 12,078 for girls. Besides 
these, there were (in 1863) 2,803 evening and Sunday schools. 

The total number of scholars in the public schools was 1,102^721, viz : 630,230 
boys, and .472,491 girls ; and in the private schools, 115,149, viz: 56,068 bovs, 
and 59,OSl girls. Total, 1,217,870 scholars : 686,348 boys, and .5.51,522 girls.' 

The number of teachers in the public schools Avas 26,019, viz : 15,478 male 
teachers, and 10,541 female teachers; whilst in the private schools there were 
6,371 teachers, viz: 3,047 male teachers, and 3,324 female teachers ; making a 
total of 32,391 teachers, viz : 18,526 male teachers, and 13,865 female teachers. 

Thus the total numbers are as follows (of all the primary schools with the 
exception of evening and Sunday schools) : 31,117 schools, 32,391 teachers, and 
1,21 7,870 pupils. For the education of primary teachers there are 91 seminaries 
and model schoo's, and 44 conferences or institutes. 

2. Secondary Instruction. There exist the following kinds : lyceums {lycei), and 
gymnasia (fjimnasi), for the ditfero:nt grades of classical instruction ; and the 
technical schools, technical institutes, and superior technical institutes, for scien- 
tific and practical instruction. 

In 1868-1869 there Avere 78 royal lyceums, with 3,172 scholars; 14 assimi- 
lated lyceums, with 326 scholars; and 54 private lyceums, with 1,380 scholars; 
making a total of 146 lyceums, with 4,878 scholars. In the same year there 
Avere 103 royal gymnasia, Avith 8,223 scholars ; 40 assimilated gymnasia, Avith 
2,524 scholars ; and 323 free gymnasia, Avith 9,783 scholars ; making a total of 
466 gymnasia, with 20,550 scholars. Total, 612 secondary classical schools, 
with 25,408 pupils. 

There Averc 55 ro3'^al technical schools, with 5,868 scholars ; 72 assimilated 
technical schools, Avith 4,594 scholars ; and 138 free technical schools, Avith 6,495 
scholars; making a total of 265 technical schools, with 16,955 scholars. There 
are 84 technical institutes, with 880 pupils ; and 3 superior special institutes 
(at Milan, Turin, Naples), Avith 555 pupils. Total, 352 institutions, Avith 17,392 
pupils. Total number of secondary technical schools Avas, in 1868, 964, with 
42,800 scholars. 

3. Superior Instruction: — 20 universities, with 2,096 students of laAV, 1,320 of 
medicine, 937 of science, 71 of philosophy and literature, 9 of theology. With 
most of these uniA^ersities there are special courses, some Avith one, others with 
two, three, or more, in all 47 courses, Avith 82 students in the notary course, 530 in 
the pharmaceutical, 16 in the surgical, 19 in the course of midAvifery, 84 in the vet- 
erinary course. The total number of students in 1867-68 Avas 5,124 approrati, 
and 1,308 licentiates (only in the courses). 

4. Special and Professional Schools. Of these there are : 

Royal Institute of superior practical studies, at Floi-ence, 138 students. 

Academy of science and literature, at Milan, 27 students. 

Royal superior technical institute, at Milan, 254 students. 

School of medicine and veterinary surgery, at Milan, 58 students. 

School of applied engineering, at Turin, 190 students. 

School of medicine and veterinary surgery, at Turin, 98 students. 

Royal superior normal school, at Pisa, 28 students. 

Royal school of applied engineering, at Naples, 111 students. 

Royal college of medicine and surgery, at Naples, 75 students. 

School of medicine and veterinary surgery, at Naples, 71 students. 

20 Nautical schools. 

2 Mining schools, at Aosta and Agerdo, each with cour.se of three years. 

1 School of artillery and military engineering, at Genoa. 

1 Military academy, at Turin. 

1 School of infantry, at Parma. 

1 School of cavalry, at Modena. 

2 Marine academies, at Genoa and Naples. 

6 Academies of music of the highest grade. * 

29 Schools of art. 



TBCHNICAL INSTRUCTION IN ITALY, 779. 

SUPERIOR TECHNICAL INSTITUTE AT MILAN.* 

The fame aod excellent arrangements of the Technical Institute are in 
a great measure due to Professor Brioschi, the director, a celebrated 
mathematician. 

It is divided into three schools, one for civil engineers, one for mechanical 
engineers, and one for architects, being authorized to confer certificates to 
those qualified for these careers and to teach in establishments of inferior 
degree. It is governed by a directive council consisting of the president 
of the Institute, the president of the Academy of Fine Arts, the presi- 
dent of the Technical Institute at Milan, of a delegate from the provincial 
board, one from the town corporation, and one from the Society for the 
encouragement of Arts £«id Trades (Societd d'encoraggiamento d'Arti e 
Mestieri). 

Applicants for admission must have finished the first two years of the 
faculty of mathematical sciences in one of the universities of the kingdom, 
and pass a successful examination in the two years' studies. Those wish- 
ing to enter at the seeand year must pass an examination according to the 
annual programme published by the directive council of the institute. Ex- 
aminations also take place at the end of each year, and the pupils must 
pass these satisfactorily in order to be advanced. The examinations are 
both written and oral, and consist in the execution of some practical work, 
or in drawing of plans, as the subjects of the examination require. Certi- 
ficates are granted after the examination at the close of the last year. 

The annual matriculation fee is 100 liras, 40 liras additional being paid 
by students of chemistry engaged in practical exercises. Extraordinary 
expenses for geodetical investigations, or for visiting great manufacturing 
establishments, buildings, etc., are defrayed by the pupils. Auditors wish- 
ing certificates at the end of the year, pay 20 liras for each course to which 
they are matriculated. 

By virtue of arrangements witli the municipal corporation and the So- 
ciety for the Encouragement of Arts and Trades, the Superior Technical 
Institute at Milan is entitled to the use of: 

a. The collections of natural history in the city museum. 

h. The collection illustrating chemistry and industrial mechanics of the 
society above mentioned. 

c. The chemical laboratory of the society. 

It also possesses : 

a. The collection of machines and apparatus formerly constituting the 
technological cabinet of the Lombard Institute of Sciences, Belles-lettres 
and Arts, and a number of machines formerly belonging to the cabinets of 
the University of Pavia. 

b. A botanical garden in the Brera palace. 

c. A technical Ubrary. 

^Fronx Account of Technical Schools in Italy, formshed by Prof. Bon^. 



780 TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. 

d. A collection or cabinet of technological physics. 

e. A collection of geodetical instruments. 

f. A collection of drawings and models for constructions. 

g. A collection of ornamental and architectural drawings and models. 
h. A laboratory of industrial chemistry. 

We subjoin the programmes for the special schools, the figures denoting 
the number of hours per week. 

Special School for Civil Engineers, 

Year I. Theoretical mechanics, 4 ; geodesy, 2 ; topography, 2 during the 
first half-year ; geognosy and applied mineralogy, 3 ; graphic statics, 3 ; 
chemical manipulations. 10 the first half-year; drawing, with application 
of descriptive geometry, 10 the first half-year, 20 the second ; exercises 
in mineralogy, 1 ; exercises in statical drawing, representation of objects 
in rest, 3. 

Year II. Technological physics, 3 ; construction : — civil constructions, 
3 ; agronomy, 3 ; graphic statics appUed to the science of construc- 
tions, 4 ; theorems of machinery, 2 the first half-year, 1 the second ; 
theoretical and practical exercises in mathematics, 2 the first half-year ; 
drawing for building, 20 the first half-year, 1 2 the second ; topography and 
topographical drawing, 10 the second half-year. 

Year III. Science of constructions: civil constructions, 2 the first 
half-year ; earth constructions and roads, 3 the first half-year, 2 the sec- 
ond ; fluvial and agricultural hydraulics, with hydraulic constructions, 3 ; 
agronomy and rural economy, 3; the elements of administrative law and 
agricultural jurisprudence, 3 the first half-year, 2 the second ; railroads, 2 ; 
drawing for civil constructions, 8 ; drawing for road building, 4 ; practical 
architecture, 1 2 the first half-year, 9 the second ; topography and geodesy, 
10 the second half-year. 

In order to pass fi-om each class to the next higher, the student must 
pass an examination, and applicants for the diploma of civil engineer 
must, besides the examination on the subjects taught the third year, pass 
two general examinations, one consisting of some field operation; the 
other of a written solution of some practical question. 

Special School for Mechanical Engineers. 

Year I. Theoretical mechanics, 4 ; geognosy and appHed mineralogy, 3 ; 
statical drawing, 3 ; topography, 2 the first half-year ; chemical manipula- 
tions, 10 the first half-year, 9 the second; drawing and descriptive geom- 
etry, 1 the first half-year, 8 the second ; exercises in mineralogy, 1 ; 
exercises in statical drawing, 3. 

Year II. Technological physics, 3 ; science of constructions, 3 ; indus- 
trial mechanics and the conduction of waters, 4 the first half-year, 3 the 
second ; theorems of machinery and machine building, 2 ; theoretical and 
practical exercises in mathematics, 2 the first half-year, 1 the second ; 
technological chemistry, 9 ; drawing for constructions, 6 ; machine draw- 



TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. 73]^ 

ing, 12; practical exercises in topography and topographical drawing, -10 
the second half-year. 

Year III. Fluvial hydraulics, 3 ; industrial mechanics and machine 
building, 4; railroads, 2 ; metallurgy, 2; machine drawing, 24. 

At the end of each year is an examination on the subjects of the year, 
with the exception of the mathematics and theorems of machinery in the 
second year. Candidates for the diploma of mechanical engineer must 
draw a j)lan on some subject connected with industrial mechanics. 

Special School for Civil Architects. 

Year I. Rational mechanics, 4 the first half-year ; topography, 2 the 
first half year ; geognosy and applied mineralogy, 3 ; graphic statics, 3 ; 
mineralogical exercises, 1 ; exercises in statical drawing, 3 ; drawing with 
applications of descriptive geometry, 5 ; classical styles, distribution of 
edifices, reliefs, 10; elements of figure drawing, 6; copying of ornaments 
and water coloring, 8 the first half-year, 9 the second. 

Year II. Technological physics, 3 ; science of constructions, civil con- 
structions, 3 ; drawing for construction, 4 ; application of statical drawing to 
the science of construction, 4 ; styles of the middle ages, composition of 
plans, reliefs, 10; ornament copying and composition, 8; practical and 
topographical drawing, landscape drawing and water coloring, 6. 

Year III. Elements of administrative law, and the jurisprudence of 
land, 3 the first half-year, 2 the second ; drawing constructions, 5 ; draw- 
ing up plans, estimating, description of works, contracts, etc., 12 ; orna- 
ment copying and composition, interior ornament, furniture and utensils, 
10 the first half-year, 8 the second ; modeling architectural ornaments in 
clay, 6 the second half-year ; landscape drawing and water coloring, 8 the 
first half-year, 6 the second. 

Applicants for the diploma of civil architect must, besides passing the 
special annual examination of the third year, present a composition in 
architecture. 

Normal Course, designed for Professors of Natural History. 

Year I. Zoology ; geology ; mineralogy ; chemical manipulations ; ex- 
ercises in mineralogy ; scientific excursions. 

Year II. Comparative zoology and anatomy ; geology and paleontol- 
ogy ; botany ; exercises and scientific excursions. 

Year III. Botany ; geology and paleontology ; agronomy ; exercises 
in comparative zoology and anatomy, and scientific excursions. 

Besides the above obligatory studies, supplementary instruction in math- 
ematics is given at the institute, and in the current year 1869-70, the 
director of the astronomical observatory lectures on the " Theory of the 
errors of observation, with practical applications of the theory to scien- 
tific researches ;" the professor of technological chemistry gives a course 
on " Chemistry as applied to agriculture ;" the professor of industrial 
mineralogy, on " Chemical technology as applied to the art of building ;'» 
the director of the museum, a course on the <' Zoology of the inferior ani- 
mals, with the principal applications." 



782 TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION IN ITALY, 



NORMAL TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. 

There is no special normal technical school, and no special title confer- 
ring the right to teach or to enter those competitive examinations by which 
professors in technical schools are chosen. The Superior" Technical Insti- 
tute at Milan can grant diplomas testifying that the holder is qualified to 
teach in any of its three special schools, which is also the case with those 
v/lio hold diplomas of a university faculty of mathematics and the two 
schools of application at Turin and Naples. As regards the other branches 
taught at the technical institutes, candidates become qualified at two other 
institutions dependent upon the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, 
viz : the Industrial Museum at Turin, and the Superior School of Com- 
merce at Venice. The former combines a permanent industrial exhibition 
v/ith a school for the application of sciences to the industries, more espe- 
cially to chemical industry, and professors of physics, chemistry, and tech- 
nology, must obtain their diplomas there. The latter, which is maintained 
at the expense of the province with a State subsidy, is the institution at 
vv^hich aspirants to professorships of political economy, accounts and 
commercial law, and geography, must obtain diplomas. 

In regard to professors in Naval Institutes, there is a project under con- 
sideration to raise the normal instruction intended for them into a school 
of shipbuilding, to be located at Genoa. 

A remodeling of the Agricultural Institute at Milan is also debated, so 
as to include in it a normal institute for professors of agronomy. Profes- 
sors of literature are sought among the graduates of the university facul- 
ties of belles-lettres and the normal schools, whence also are sought teach- 
ers for technical institutes. 

It will appear from this detail, that normal technical instruction in Italy 
has not yet received an efficient organization and a thorough scientific and 
practical course of study. The great number of institutions tends to hinder 
progress in this particular. Their development has been so raiiid, and 
the demand for professors consequently so great, that the nominations 
have been made without due care, which is one of the reasons why tech- 
nical instruction, especially as regards literary and general culture, is in 
a very unsatisfactory condition, and the country does not realize the ad- 
vantages which the large disbursements, and the general favor with which 
these schools have been regarded, would lead us to .anticipate. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTION IN ITALY. . 733 



SCHOOL OF NAUTICAL INSTRTCTION AT GENOA. 

The course of instruction in tlie Nautical Institute at Genoa embraces : — 1. Nau- 
tical Astronomy and Navigation ; II. Mechanics and Steam Engine ; III. Mar- 
itime and Commercial Law ; IV. Geography and Meteorology. 

/. Nautical Astronomy and Navigation. 

Introduction : 1 . Nautical art in general ; different sciences attached ; need of 
varied knowledge for captains ; special applications of mathematics to naviga- 
tion. 2. Method to be pursued in carrying on nautical studies. 

Plane Navigation: 3. Figure and dimensions of the earth; equations in equal 
sphsrcs of a circle traced on the same. 4. Methods for determining the course 
o ■ the ship; the compass. 5. Demonstrations of the principles on which the so- 
lution of problems of navigation rest, reduction tables. 6. Given two of the 
four quantities, how to find'the other two in determining the position of a ship. 

7. Reduction of a straight course; degree of confidence to be placed in results. 

8. Maritime charts ; how constructed ; resolution of problems. 

Nautical Astronomg. 9. Elementary notions of astronomy; special objects in 
teaching this science to seamen. 10. Astronomical tables in use among diffei'ent 
nations^ and how to use them. 11. Instruments for reflexion, and principles of 
construction ; verification, rectification, and use of the sextant, octant, and arti- 
ficial horizon; corrections to be made on the heights and angular distances ob- 
served; depression; refi'action; parallax, semi-diameter. 12. Examination of 
the principal problems relative to the measure and transformation of time. 13. 
The chronometer ; absolute state of the chronometer; diurnal variations; com- 
parison ; use of chronometers. 14. Compass; its construction and verification ; 
determination of the declivity ; tables of deviation ; correction bars. 15. Differ- 
ent methods for determining the latitude and longitiide at sea. 16. The tides, 
their fundamental theory; calculations regarding'tliem. 17. Hydrographic 
charts ; topographical instruments, and different projections. 

II. Mechanics and Steam Engiiie. 

Introduction : 1 . Necessity for the use of mechanics and phj^sics for the ship- 
master, naval constructor and machinist. 2. Method of giving such instruction 
to seamen. 

Mechanics: — Motion considered geometrically; composition; decomposition. 
3. Transformation of motion. 4. Force; composition and decomposition of 
force; equilibrium. .5. Center of gravity, and. how to find it; application of the 
sa;ne, on the theory of the ship. 6. Theory of simple machines; principal ma- 
chines. 7. Principle of force. 8. Blows. 9. Resistance of materials; experi- 
mental elements of resistance, and elasticity of the principal substances in use 
in naval construction. 10. Mechanic of fluids ; demonstrations of its principal 
theorems ; application of the same to the stability of the ship. 

Steam Engines: — 11. General notions on steam; mechanical element of heat; 
thermometers; tension; expansion; condensation of steam. 12. Steam engines 
generally ; examination and description of its organs, and its different forms and 
applications. 13. Marine steam engines, and different systems'on Avhich they are 
constructed. 14. The boilers and their different types. 15. Combustibles and 
their different kinds. 16. Different systems of propulsion. 17. Mixed Nav- 
igation. 18. Historical summary of the origin and progress of machine and 
steam power. 

///. Maritime and Commercial Laio. 

Introduction: 1. Necessity of general ctiltnre to shipmasters; study of the 
native tongue ; foreign languages ; history ; methods of gaining such instruction. 
2. Necessity of the study of pubhc maritime and special lavv^, and commercial 
law ; method of giving such instruction. 

International Public Maritime Laio: 3. The sea, and the lav.^s by which it is 
governed ; freedom of the sea ; restrictions to this principle. 4. International 
maritime jurisdiction ; treaties; reciprocity; consular -agents. 5. War, embar- 
goes and reprisals; letters of marque ; capture; neutrality; blockade; contra- 
band of war. 6. The latest modifications. 



784 . SPECIAL INSTRUCTIOX IN ITALY. 

Internal Public Maritime Laiv : Territorial sea ; harbors and shores ; adminis- 
trative division of the boundaries of states, and docks. 9. Laws applicable to 
wooden and iron ships, sailing and steamships. 10. Nationality of the ship. 
11. Law applicable to iho, personel of seamen. 12. Customs, laws, sanitary and 
police, as regards navigation. 13. Wrecks and recovery. 14. Maritime crimes 
and penal mercantile jurisdiction. 

Private Commercial Maritime Law: 1.5. Ownership of ships; privileges of 
ships. 16. Con tract of freight ; insurance and bottomry bonds; averages ; jet- 
tison and abandonment. 17. Duties and responsibilities of the master toward 
the freighterer, the shipper, the crew, and the passengers. 18. Legal relations 
arising from commercial operations ; bills of exchange ; partnership and agency. 

IV. Geography and Meteorology. 

Introduction: 1. Necessity of this knowledge to seamen. 2. Eelations be- 
tween geography and meteorology. 3. Historical development. 4. FiuidanKn- 
tal principles of geography, astronomy, and mathematics, and methods of instruc- 
tion. 

Physical Geography and Meteorology : 5. Fundamental principles of geology ; 
physical configuration of the earth ; forces which determine the formation of 
continents and islands ; extension of lines, &c. 6. Description of different parts 
of the globe, 7. Physical geography of the sea ; its extensions, divisions, depths, 
soundings, temperature, phosphorescence, colors, tides, currents, storms. 8. De- 
scriptive hydrography — oceans, their divisions and dependencies ; the rivers and 
lakes in different parts of the globe. 9. The atmosphere — its extension, temper- 
ature, and the thermometer ; different thermometric scales; atmospheric density 
and pressure ; the barometer — different barometric scales ; the winds — general, 
periodical, variable ; hurricanes ; stoi-ms ; law of storms ; watery luminaries and 
electric meteors ; signs and forecasts of the weather. 10 Magnetism — magnetic 
action ; declension of the magnetic needle ; the compass. 1 1 . Geographical dis- 
tribution of minerals, plants, and animals, utilized by man. 12. Man as a geo- 
graphical modifying agent. 

Political Description: Statistical and commercial geography. 13. Divisions, 
population, wealth, finances, commerce, and other statistical data of differeit 
states, in different divisions of the globe. 



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